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Martinière A, Zelazny E. Membrane nanodomains and transport functions in plant. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 187:1839-1855. [PMID: 35235669 PMCID: PMC8644385 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Far from a homogeneous environment, biological membranes are highly structured with lipids and proteins segregating in domains of different sizes and dwell times. In addition, membranes are highly dynamics especially in response to environmental stimuli. Understanding the impact of the nanoscale organization of membranes on cellular functions is an outstanding question. Plant channels and transporters are tightly regulated to ensure proper cell nutrition and signaling. Increasing evidence indicates that channel and transporter nano-organization within membranes plays an important role in these regulation mechanisms. Here, we review recent advances in the field of ion, water, but also hormone transport in plants, focusing on protein organization within plasma membrane nanodomains and its cellular and physiological impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enric Zelazny
- BPMP, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
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2
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Konrad SSA, Ott T. Molecular principles of membrane microdomain targeting in plants. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 20:351-61. [PMID: 25936559 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Plasma membranes (PMs) are heterogeneous lipid bilayers comprising diverse subdomains. These sites can be labeled by various proteins in vivo and may serve as hotspots for signal transduction. They are found at apical, basal, and lateral membranes of polarized cells, at cell equatorial planes, or almost isotropically distributed throughout the PM. Recent advances in imaging technologies and understanding of mechanisms that allow proteins to target specific sites in PMs have provided insights into the dynamics and complexity of their specific segregation. Here we present a comprehensive overview of the different types of membrane microdomain and describe the molecular modes that determine site-directed targeting of membrane-resident proteins at the PM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian S A Konrad
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Genetics, Großhaderner Str. 2-4, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Thomas Ott
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Genetics, Großhaderner Str. 2-4, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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3
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Luczak M, Krzeszowiec-Jeleń W, Konopka-Postupolska D, Wojtaszek P. Collagenase as a useful tool for the analysis of plant cellular peripheries. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2015; 112:195-209. [PMID: 25435175 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A technique for the selective loosening of the cell wall structure and the isolation of proteins permanently knotted in the cell walls was elaborated. Following treatment with collagenase, some proteins, such as calreticulin (CRT) and auxin binding protein 1 (ABP1) were released from purified cell walls, most probably through destruction of respective interacting proteins. The results were confirmed by the immunolocalization of the ABP1 and CRT with confocal and electron microscopy. On the other hand, potential substrates of collagenase, among them annexin 1 have been recognized. Mass spectra of annexin 1 obtained after collagenase digestion and results from analysis of potential cleavage sites suggested that the mechanism of enzyme cleavage might not depend on the amino acid sequence. Summarizing, collagenase was found to be a very useful tool for exploring molecules involved in the functioning of cellular peripheries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Luczak
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznań, Poland.
| | | | | | - Przemysław Wojtaszek
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland.
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4
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Khanna R, Li J, Tseng TS, Schroeder JI, Ehrhardt DW, Briggs WR. COP1 jointly modulates cytoskeletal processes and electrophysiological responses required for stomatal closure. MOLECULAR PLANT 2014; 7:1441-1454. [PMID: 25151660 PMCID: PMC4153439 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssu065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Reorganization of the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton is critical for guard cell function. Here, we investigate how environmental and hormonal signals cause these rearrangements and find that COP1, a RING-finger-type ubiquitin E3 ligase, is required for degradation of tubulin, likely by the 26S proteasome. This degradation is required for stomatal closing. In addition to regulating the cytoskeleton, we show that cop1 mutation impaired the activity of S-type anion channels, which are critical for stomatal closure. Thus, COP1 is revealed as a potential coordinator of cytoskeletal and electrophysiological activities required for guard cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajnish Khanna
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Junlin Li
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, USA; Present address: College of Forest Resources and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Tong-Seung Tseng
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Julian I Schroeder
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, USA
| | - David W Ehrhardt
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Winslow R Briggs
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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5
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Eisenach C, Papanatsiou M, Hillert EK, Blatt MR. Clustering of the K+ channel GORK of Arabidopsis parallels its gating by extracellular K+. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 78:203-14. [PMID: 24517091 PMCID: PMC4309415 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2013] [Revised: 01/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
GORK is the only outward-rectifying Kv-like K(+) channel expressed in guard cells. Its activity is tightly regulated to facilitate K(+) efflux for stomatal closure and is elevated in ABA in parallel with suppression of the activity of the inward-rectifying K(+) channel KAT1. Whereas the population of KAT1 is subject to regulated traffic to and from the plasma membrane, nothing is known about GORK, its distribution and traffic in vivo. We have used transformations with fluorescently-tagged GORK to explore its characteristics in tobacco epidermis and Arabidopsis guard cells. These studies showed that GORK assembles in puncta that reversibly dissociated as a function of the external K(+) concentration. Puncta dissociation parallelled the gating dependence of GORK, the speed of response consistent with the rapidity of channel gating response to changes in the external ionic conditions. Dissociation was also suppressed by the K(+) channel blocker Ba(2+) . By contrast, confocal and protein biochemical analysis failed to uncover substantial exo- and endocytotic traffic of the channel. Gating of GORK is displaced to more positive voltages with external K(+) , a characteristic that ensures the channel facilitates only K(+) efflux regardless of the external cation concentration. GORK conductance is also enhanced by external K(+) above 1 mm. We suggest that GORK clustering in puncta is related to its gating and conductance, and reflects associated conformational changes and (de)stabilisation of the channel protein, possibly as a platform for transmission and coordination of channel gating in response to external K(+) .
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Papanatsiou
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of GlasgowBower Building, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Ellin-Kristina Hillert
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of GlasgowBower Building, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Michael R Blatt
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of GlasgowBower Building, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
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Li X, Luu DT, Maurel C, Lin J. Probing plasma membrane dynamics at the single-molecule level. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 18:617-24. [PMID: 23911558 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 06/22/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The plant plasma membrane is highly dynamic and changes multiple aspects of its organization in response to environmental and internal factors. A detailed understanding of membrane dynamics in living plant cells has remained obscure because of the limited spatial resolution of conventional optical microscopy. Recently, several single-molecule imaging approaches have been developed and used to provide valuable insights into the fundamental biochemical and biophysical properties of the plant plasma membrane, including the organization of membrane microdomains and the dynamics of single-molecule diffusion. Here we review single-molecule imaging methods, including total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), and super-resolution microscopy, and examine their contributions to recent progress in understanding protein dynamics and membrane organization in living plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan Li
- College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
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Malinsky J, Opekarová M, Grossmann G, Tanner W. Membrane microdomains, rafts, and detergent-resistant membranes in plants and fungi. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 64:501-29. [PMID: 23638827 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The existence of specialized microdomains in plasma membranes, postulated for almost 25 years, has been popularized by the concept of lipid or membrane rafts. The idea that detergent-resistant membranes are equivalent to lipid rafts, which was generally abandoned after a decade of vigorous data accumulation, contributed to intense discussions about the validity of the raft concept. The existence of membrane microdomains, meanwhile, has been verified by unequivocal independent evidence. This review summarizes the current state of research in plants and fungi with respect to common aspects of both kingdoms. In these organisms, principally immobile microdomains large enough for microscopic detection have been visualized. These microdomains are found in the context of cell-cell interactions (plant symbionts and pathogens), membrane transport, stress, and polarized growth, and the data corroborate at least three mechanisms of formation. As documented in this review, modern methods of visualization of lateral membrane compartments are also able to uncover the functional relevance of membrane microdomains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Malinsky
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic.
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Martinière A, Lavagi I, Nageswaran G, Rolfe DJ, Maneta-Peyret L, Luu DT, Botchway SW, Webb SED, Mongrand S, Maurel C, Martin-Fernandez ML, Kleine-Vehn J, Friml J, Moreau P, Runions J. Cell wall constrains lateral diffusion of plant plasma-membrane proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012. [PMID: 22689944 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1202040109 [epub ahead of print]] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A cell membrane can be considered a liquid-phase plane in which lipids and proteins theoretically are free to diffuse. Numerous reports, however, describe retarded diffusion of membrane proteins in animal cells. This anomalous diffusion results from a combination of structuring factors including protein-protein interactions, cytoskeleton corralling, and lipid organization into microdomains. In plant cells, plasma-membrane (PM) proteins have been described as relatively immobile, but the control mechanisms that structure the PM have not been studied. Here, we use fluorescence recovery after photobleaching to estimate mobility of a set of minimal PM proteins. These proteins consist only of a PM-anchoring domain fused to a fluorescent protein, but their mobilities remained limited, as is the case for many full-length proteins. Neither the cytoskeleton nor membrane microdomain structure was involved in constraining the diffusion of these proteins. The cell wall, however, was shown to have a crucial role in immobilizing PM proteins. In addition, by single-molecule fluorescence imaging we confirmed that the pattern of cellulose deposition in the cell wall affects the trajectory and speed of PM protein diffusion. Regulation of PM protein dynamics by the plant cell wall can be interpreted as a mechanism for regulating protein interactions in processes such as trafficking and signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Martinière
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
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9
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Martinière A, Lavagi I, Nageswaran G, Rolfe DJ, Maneta-Peyret L, Luu DT, Botchway SW, Webb SED, Mongrand S, Maurel C, Martin-Fernandez ML, Kleine-Vehn J, Friml J, Moreau P, Runions J. Cell wall constrains lateral diffusion of plant plasma-membrane proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:12805-10. [PMID: 22689944 PMCID: PMC3411962 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1202040109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A cell membrane can be considered a liquid-phase plane in which lipids and proteins theoretically are free to diffuse. Numerous reports, however, describe retarded diffusion of membrane proteins in animal cells. This anomalous diffusion results from a combination of structuring factors including protein-protein interactions, cytoskeleton corralling, and lipid organization into microdomains. In plant cells, plasma-membrane (PM) proteins have been described as relatively immobile, but the control mechanisms that structure the PM have not been studied. Here, we use fluorescence recovery after photobleaching to estimate mobility of a set of minimal PM proteins. These proteins consist only of a PM-anchoring domain fused to a fluorescent protein, but their mobilities remained limited, as is the case for many full-length proteins. Neither the cytoskeleton nor membrane microdomain structure was involved in constraining the diffusion of these proteins. The cell wall, however, was shown to have a crucial role in immobilizing PM proteins. In addition, by single-molecule fluorescence imaging we confirmed that the pattern of cellulose deposition in the cell wall affects the trajectory and speed of PM protein diffusion. Regulation of PM protein dynamics by the plant cell wall can be interpreted as a mechanism for regulating protein interactions in processes such as trafficking and signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Martinière
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Lavagi
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Gayathri Nageswaran
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J. Rolfe
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Lilly Maneta-Peyret
- Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5200 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Bordeaux Segalen, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Doan-Trung Luu
- Laboratoire de Biochimie et Physiologie Moléculaire des Plantes, Institut de Biologie Intégrative des Plantes, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5004, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Unité Mixte de Recherche 0386 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 34060 Montpellier, France
| | - Stanley W. Botchway
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen E. D. Webb
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Sebastien Mongrand
- Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5200 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Bordeaux Segalen, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Christophe Maurel
- Laboratoire de Biochimie et Physiologie Moléculaire des Plantes, Institut de Biologie Intégrative des Plantes, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5004, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Unité Mixte de Recherche 0386 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 34060 Montpellier, France
| | - Marisa L. Martin-Fernandez
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Jürgen Kleine-Vehn
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria; and
| | - Jirí Friml
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Genetics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Moreau
- Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5200 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Bordeaux Segalen, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - John Runions
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
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10
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Wallace IS, Anderson CT. Small molecule probes for plant cell wall polysaccharide imaging. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:89. [PMID: 22639673 PMCID: PMC3355672 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are composed of interlinked polymer networks consisting of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, proteins, and lignin. The ordered deposition of these components is a dynamic process that critically affects the development and differentiation of plant cells. However, our understanding of cell wall synthesis and remodeling, as well as the diverse cell wall architectures that result from these processes, has been limited by a lack of suitable chemical probes that are compatible with live-cell imaging. In this review, we summarize the currently available molecular toolbox of probes for cell wall polysaccharide imaging in plants, with particular emphasis on recent advances in small molecule-based fluorescent probes. We also discuss the potential for further development of small molecule probes for the analysis of cell wall architecture and dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian S. Wallace
- Energy Biosciences Institute, University of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA, USA
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, USA
- *Correspondence: Charles T. Anderson, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, 201 Life Sciences Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA. e-mail:
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11
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Bose J, Pottosin II, Shabala SS, Palmgren MG, Shabala S. Calcium efflux systems in stress signaling and adaptation in plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2011; 2:85. [PMID: 22639615 PMCID: PMC3355617 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2011.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Transient cytosolic calcium ([Ca(2+)](cyt)) elevation is an ubiquitous denominator of the signaling network when plants are exposed to literally every known abiotic and biotic stress. These stress-induced [Ca(2+)](cyt) elevations vary in magnitude, frequency, and shape, depending on the severity of the stress as well the type of stress experienced. This creates a unique stress-specific calcium "signature" that is then decoded by signal transduction networks. While most published papers have been focused predominantly on the role of Ca(2+) influx mechanisms to shaping [Ca(2+)](cyt) signatures, restoration of the basal [Ca(2+)](cyt) levels is impossible without both cytosolic Ca(2+) buffering and efficient Ca(2+) efflux mechanisms removing excess Ca(2+) from cytosol, to reload Ca(2+) stores and to terminate Ca(2+) signaling. This is the topic of the current review. The molecular identity of two major types of Ca(2+) efflux systems, Ca(2+)-ATPase pumps and Ca(2+)/H(+) exchangers, is described, and their regulatory modes are analyzed in detail. The spatial and temporal organization of calcium signaling networks is described, and the importance of existence of intracellular calcium microdomains is discussed. Experimental evidence for the role of Ca(2+) efflux systems in plant responses to a range of abiotic and biotic factors is summarized. Contribution of Ca(2+)-ATPase pumps and Ca(2+)/H(+) exchangers in shaping [Ca(2+)](cyt) signatures is then modeled by using a four-component model (plasma- and endo-membrane-based Ca(2+)-permeable channels and efflux systems) taking into account the cytosolic Ca(2+) buffering. It is concluded that physiologically relevant variations in the activity of Ca(2+)-ATPase pumps and Ca(2+)/H(+) exchangers are sufficient to fully describe all the reported experimental evidence and determine the shape of [Ca(2+)](cyt) signatures in response to environmental stimuli, emphasizing the crucial role these active efflux systems play in plant adaptive responses to environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayakumar Bose
- School of Agricultural Science, University of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Igor I. Pottosin
- Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad de ColimaColima, México
| | | | | | - Sergey Shabala
- School of Agricultural Science, University of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia
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12
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Galway ME, Eng RC, Schiefelbein JW, Wasteneys GO. Root hair-specific disruption of cellulose and xyloglucan in AtCSLD3 mutants, and factors affecting the post-rupture resumption of mutant root hair growth. PLANTA 2011; 233:985-99. [PMID: 21279381 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-011-1355-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/09/2011] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The glycosyl transferase encoded by the cellulose synthase-like gene CSLD3/KJK/RHD7 (At3g03050) is required for cell wall integrity during root hair formation in Arabidopsis thaliana but it remains unclear whether it contributes to the synthesis of cellulose or hemicellulose. We identified two new alleles, root hair-defective (rhd) 7-1 and rhd7-4, which affect the C-terminal end of the encoded protein. Like root hairs in the previously characterized kjk-2 putative null mutant, rhd7-1 and rhd7-4 hairs rupture before tip growth but, depending on the growth medium and temperature, hairs are able to survive rupture and initiate tip growth, indicating that these alleles retain some function. At 21°C, the rhd7 tip-growing root hairs continued to rupture but at 5ºC, rupture was inhibited, resulting in long, wild type-like root hairs. At both temperatures, the expression of another root hair-specific CSLD gene, CSLD2, was increased in the rhd7-4 mutant but reduced in the kjk-2 mutant, suggesting that CSLD2 expression is CSLD3-dependent, and that CSLD2 could partially compensate for CSLD3 defects to prevent rupture at 5°C. Using a fluorescent brightener (FB 28) to detect cell wall (1 → 4)-β-glucans (primarily cellulose) and CCRC-M1 antibody to detect fucosylated xyloglucans revealed a patchy distribution of both in the mutant root hair cell walls. Cell wall thickness varied, and immunogold electron microscopy indicated that xyloglucan distribution was altered throughout the root hair cell walls. These cell wall defects indicate that CSLD3 is required for the normal organization of both cellulose and xyloglucan in root hair cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moira E Galway
- Department of Biology, St. Francis Xavier University, PO Box 5000, Antigonish, NS B2G 2W5, Canada.
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13
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Gutierrez R, Grossmann G, Frommer WB, Ehrhardt DW. Opportunities to explore plant membrane organization with super-resolution microscopy. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 154:463-6. [PMID: 20921164 PMCID: PMC2949006 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.161703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 07/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
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14
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Opekarová M, Malinsky J, Tanner W. Plants and fungi in the era of heterogeneous plasma membranes. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2010; 12 Suppl 1:94-98. [PMID: 20712624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2010.00356.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Examples from yeast and plant cells are described that show that their plasma membrane is laterally compartmented. Distinct lateral domains encompassing both specific lipids and integral proteins coexist within the plane of the plasma membrane. The compartments are either spatially stable and include distinct sets of proteins, or they are transiently formed to accomplish diverse functions. They are not related to lipid rafts or their clusters, as defined for mammalian cells. This review summarises only well-documented compartments of plasma membranes from plants and fungi, which have been recognised using microscopic approaches. In several cases, physiological functions of the membrane compartmentation are revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Opekarová
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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15
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Reuff M, Mikosch M, Homann U. Trafficking, lateral mobility and segregation of the plant K channel KAT1. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2010; 12 Suppl 1:99-104. [PMID: 20712625 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2010.00355.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Functioning of ion channels depends not only on the control of their activity but also on their density and lateral organisation in the membrane. The two latter aspects have recently attracted increasing attention. Here, we summarize studies on trafficking and plasma membrane distribution of the plant K(+) channel KAT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. In guard cells, KAT1 was found to be subject to constitutive and pressure-driven turnover and ABA-stimulated endocytosis. These results point to a role of exo- and endocytosis in regulating KAT1 density and thus ion transport during guard cell functioning. Recent studies indicate that KAT1 density can also be adjusted at the site of ER export. Efficient ER export of KAT1 was shown to depend on an acidic motif that interacts with Sec24, a component of ER-derived vesicles. Surface expression of ER export mutants of KAT1 can be rescued through heterotetrameric assembly with wild-type KAT1, implying that not all subunits of the channel tetramer need to carry an ER export motif. Analysis of the distribution of KAT1 in the plasma membrane revealed segregation of the channel into microdomains, and low lateral mobility in both plant and mammalian cells. In plant cells, SNAREs have been shown to be involved in anchoring KAT1 in the plasma membrane. Studies on guard cells imply a role for the cell wall in organisation of KAT1 microdomains. Together, these findings underline the importance of investigating mechanisms of KAT1 trafficking and lateral organisation in order to fully understand channel functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Reuff
- Institut für Botanik, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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16
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Szymanski DB, Cosgrove DJ. Dynamic coordination of cytoskeletal and cell wall systems during plant cell morphogenesis. Curr Biol 2010; 19:R800-11. [PMID: 19906582 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2009.07.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Underlying the architectural complexity of plants are diverse cell types that, under the microscope, easily reveal relationships between cell structure and specialized functions. Much less obvious are the mechanisms by which the cellular growth machinery and mechanical properties of the cell interact to dictate cell shape. The recent combined use of mutants, genomic analyses, sophisticated spectroscopies, and live cell imaging is providing new insight into how cytoskeletal systems and cell wall biosynthetic activities are integrated during morphogenesis. The purpose of this review is to discuss the unique geometric properties and physical processes that regulate plant cell expansion, then to overlay on this mechanical system some of the recent discoveries about the protein machines and cellular polymers that regulate cell shape. In the end, we hope to make clear that there are many interesting opportunities to develop testable mathematical models that improve our understanding of how subcellular structures, protein motors, and extracellular polymers can exert effects at spatial scales that span cells, tissues, and organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Szymanski
- Department of Agronomy, Lily Hall of Life Sciences, 915 West State Street, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Sirichandra C, Wasilewska A, Vlad F, Valon C, Leung J. The guard cell as a single-cell model towards understanding drought tolerance and abscisic acid action. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2009; 60:1439-63. [PMID: 19181866 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Stomatal guard cells are functionally specialized epidermal cells usually arranged in pairs surrounding a pore. Changes in ion fluxes, and more specifically osmolytes, within the guard cells drive opening/closing of the pore, allowing gas exchange while limiting water loss through evapo-transpiration. Adjustments of the pore aperture to optimize these conflicting needs are thus centrally important for land plants to survive, especially with the rise in CO(2) associated with global warming and increasing water scarcity this century. The basic biophysical events in modulating membrane transport have been gradually delineated over two decades. Genetics and molecular approaches in recent years have complemented and extended these earlier studies to identify major regulatory nodes. In Arabidopsis, the reference for guard cell genetics, stomatal opening driven by K(+) entry is mainly through KAT1 and KAT2, two voltage-gated K(+) inward-rectifying channels that are activated on hyperpolarization of the plasma membrane principally by the OST2 H(+)-ATPase (proton pump coupled to ATP hydrolysis). By contrast, stomatal closing is caused by K(+) efflux mainly through GORK, the outward-rectifying channel activated by membrane depolarization. The depolarization is most likely initiated by SLAC1, an anion channel distantly related to the dicarboxylate/malic acid transport protein found in fungi and bacteria. Beyond this established framework, there is also burgeoning evidence for the involvement of additional transporters, such as homologues to the multi-drug resistance proteins (or ABC transporters) as intimated by several pharmacological and reverse genetics studies. General inhibitors of protein kinases and protein phosphatases have been shown to profoundly affect guard cell membrane transport properties. Indeed, the first regulatory enzymes underpinning these transport processes revealed genetically were several protein phosphatases of the 2C class and the OST1 kinase, a member of the SnRK2 family. Taken together, these results are providing the first glimpses of an emerging signalling complex critical for modulating the stomatal aperture in response to environmental stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Sirichandra
- Institut des Sciences du Végetal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Žárský V, Cvrčková F, Potocký M, Hála M. Exocytosis and cell polarity in plants - exocyst and recycling domains. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 183:255-272. [PMID: 19496948 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02880.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
In plants, exocytosis is a central mechanism of cell morphogenesis. We still know surprisingly little about some aspects of this process, starting with exocytotic vesicle formation, which may take place at the trans-Golgi network even without coat assistance, facilitated by the local regulation of membrane lipid organization. The RabA4b guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase), recruiting phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase to the trans-Golgi network, is a candidate vesicle formation organizer. However, in plant cells, there are obviously additional endosomal source compartments for secretory vesicles. The Rho/Rop GTPase regulatory module is central for the initiation of exocytotically active domains in plant cell cortex (activated cortical domains). Most plant cells exhibit several distinct plasma membrane domains, established and maintained by endocytosis-driven membrane recycling. We propose the concept of a 'recycling domain', uniting the activated cortical domain and the connected endosomal compartments, as a dynamic spatiotemporal entity. We have recently described the exocyst tethering complex in plant cells. As a result of the multiplicity of its putative Exo70 subunits, this complex may belong to core regulators of recycling domain organization, including the generation of multiple recycling domains within a single cell. The conventional textbook concept that the plant secretory pathway is largely constitutive is misleading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Žárský
- Department of Plant Physiology, Charles University, Viničná 5, 128 44 Praha 2, Czech Republic
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Fatima Cvrčková
- Department of Plant Physiology, Charles University, Viničná 5, 128 44 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Potocký
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Hála
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
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Grossmann G, Malinsky J, Stahlschmidt W, Loibl M, Weig-Meckl I, Frommer WB, Opekarová M, Tanner W. Plasma membrane microdomains regulate turnover of transport proteins in yeast. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 183:1075-88. [PMID: 19064668 PMCID: PMC2600745 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200806035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigate whether the stable segregation of proteins and lipids within the yeast plasma membrane serves a particular biological function. We show that 21 proteins cluster within or associate with the ergosterol-rich membrane compartment of Can1 (MCC). However, proteins of the endocytic machinery are excluded from MCC. In a screen, we identified 28 genes affecting MCC appearance and found that genes involved in lipid biosynthesis and vesicle transport are significantly overrepresented. Deletion of Pil1, a component of eisosomes, or of Nce102, an integral membrane protein of MCC, results in the dissipation of all MCC markers. These deletion mutants also show accelerated endocytosis of MCC-resident permeases Can1 and Fur4. Our data suggest that release from MCC makes these proteins accessible to the endocytic machinery. Addition of arginine to wild-type cells leads to a similar redistribution and increased turnover of Can1. Thus, MCC represents a protective area within the plasma membrane to control turnover of transport proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Grossmann
- Institute of Cell Biology and Plant Physiology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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Zappel NF, Panstruga R. Heterogeneity and lateral compartmentalization of plant plasma membranes. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:632-40. [PMID: 18774330 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2008.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Revised: 07/25/2008] [Accepted: 07/29/2008] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Membrane specialization through lateral compartmentalization is pivotal to the development of organisms and their response to environmental signals. The membrane raft hypothesis is lively discussed as a concept for domain formation. In recent years plant scientists have begun to critically assess the membrane raft hypothesis, and this provided the first insights into the mechanisms underlying microdomain formation in plant plasma membranes. Several groups have now shown that phytosterols can induce phase separation, a prerequisite for the formation of membrane rafts. Furthermore, the protein repertoire of detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) has been extensively characterized and the degree of fatty acid desaturation has been identified as an important factor in DRM formation. Recent studies comprising sterol-deficient mutants demonstrated the importance of correct sterol composition and endocytosis for proper membrane compartmentalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Friderike Zappel
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
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