Spray-dried casein-based micelles as a vehicle for solubilization and controlled delivery of flutamide: Formulation, characterization, and in vivo pharmacokinetics

Application of Casein Micelles for Targeting Huntington's Disease in Experimental Zebrafish Model

Huntington's disease (HD) is an incorrigible neuropsychiatric disorder with reduced cognition and motor abnormalities. Piperine (PIP) is an alkaloid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities; however, poor therapeutic efficacy limits its further use. The current study focuses on the enhanced therapeutic potential of PIP@CM against an experimental zebrafish model of HD. PIP@CM was fabricated using spray drying technology, followed by solid-state investigations. We performed in vitro release and in vitro antioxidant activity (DPPH assay) of PIP and PIP@CMs. In addition, in vivo studies were conducted on zebrafish using 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA) (60 mg/kg) as a neurotoxin and treated with PIP (5 mg/kg) and PIP@CM (25 mg/kg equivalent to 5 mg/kg PIP). After dosing, various in vivo studies (behavioral, biochemical, and histological) were conducted. The solid-state characterization techniques revealed the loss of crystallinity after micelles formation. In vitro release and antioxidant assays showed higher release and enhanced activity of PIP@CM. In vivo studies revealed that 3-NPA administration causes HD, as evidenced by the results of open field test (OFT) and novel tank diving test (NTD) tests. Moreover, 3-NPA causes an increase in oxidative stress, as confirmed by biochemical and histopathological studies. PIP@CM treatment significantly improved behavioral performance in OFT and NTD tests and reduced oxidative stress markers as compared to pure PIP and untreated HD model.

Preparation, Optimization, and Anti-Pulmonary Infection Activity of Casein-Based Chrysin Nanoparticles

Introduction

Chrysin has a wide range of biological activities, but its poor bioavailability greatly limits its use. Here, we attempted to prepare casein (cas)-based nanoparticles to promote the biotransfer of chrysin, which demonstrated better bioavailability and anti-infection activity compared to free chrysin.

Methods

Cas-based chrysin nanoparticles were prepared and characterized, and most of the preparation process was optimized. Then, the in vitro and in vivo release characteristics were studied, and anti-pulmonary infection activity was evaluated.

Results

The constructed chrysin-cas nanoparticles exhibited nearly spherical morphology with particle size and ζ potential of 225.3 nm and -33 mV, respectively. These nanoparticles showed high encapsulation efficiency and drug-loading capacity of 79.84% ± 1.81% and 11.56% ± 0.28%, respectively. In vitro release studies highlighted a significant improvement in the release profile of the chrysin-cas nanoparticles (CCPs). In vivo experiments revealed that the relative oral bioavailability of CCPs was approximately 2.01 times higher than that of the free chrysin suspension. Further investigations indicated that CCPs effectively attenuated pulmonary infections caused by Acinetobacter baumannii by mitigating oxidative stress and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines levels, and the efficacy was better than that of the free chrysin suspension.

Conclusion

The findings underscore the advantageous bioavailability of CCPs and their protective effects against pulmonary infections. Such advancements position CCPs as a promising pharmaceutical agent and candidate for future therapeutic drug innovations.

High hydrostatic pressure induced gastrointestinal digestion behaviors of quercetin-loaded casein delivery systems under different calcium concentration

Casein micelle has a structure of outer hydrophilicity and inner hydrophobicity, its typical digestion characteristic is gastric coagulation. Based on calcium content as the key factor to control this process, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) was firstly used to modify the micelle structure by mediating the tight connection between casein molecules themselves and with colloidal calcium, then the quercetin-loaded delivery systems were prepared. And in order to investigate the effect of exogenous calcium, calcium chloride was added for digestion. The results indicated that HHP broke the limitation of casein micelles as delivery carriers for hydrophobic components and increased the EE from 51.18 ± 3.07 % to 76.17 ± 3.41 %. During gastric digestion, higher pressure and exogenous calcium synergistically increased the clotting ability and inhibited the release of quercetin. In the small intestine, curds decomposed more slowly under higher pressure and calcium concentration, so the degradation of quercetin was effectively inhibited.

An Up-to-date Review on Protein-based Nanocarriers in the Management of Cancer

BACKGROUND

A big health issue facing the world's population is cancer. An alarming increase in cancer patients was anticipated by worldwide demographic statistics, which showed that the number of patients with different malignancies was rapidly increasing. By 2025, probably 420 million cases were projected to be achieved. The most common cancers diagnosed are breast, colorectal, prostate, and lung. Conventional treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, have been practiced.

OBJECTIVE

In recent years, the area of cancer therapy has changed dramatically with expanded studies on the molecular-level detection and treatment of cancer. Recent advances in cancer research have seen significant advances in therapies such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy, although both have limitations in effectiveness and toxicity.

METHODS

The development of nanotechnology for anticancer drug delivery has developed several potentials as nanocarriers, which may boost the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of the drug product and substantially reduce the side effects.

RESULTS

The advancement in non-viral to viral-based protein-based nanocarriers for treating cancer has earned further recognition in this respect. Many scientific breakthroughs have relied on protein-based nanocarriers, and proteins are essential organic macromolecules for life. It allows targeted delivery of passive or active tumors using non-viral-based protein-based nanocarriers to viral-based protein nanocarriers. When targeting cancer cells, both animal and plant proteins may be used in a formulation process to create self-assembled viruses and platforms that can successfully eradicate metastatic cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

This review, therefore, explores in depth the applications of non-viral to viral proteinbased noncarriers with a specific focus on intracellular drug delivery and anti-cancer drug targeting ability.

Recent progressions in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of chitosan nanoparticles: A comprehensive review

Nowadays, the most common approaches in the prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases are along with undeniable limitations. Thus, the ever-increasing need for using biocompatible natural materials and novel practical modalities is required. Applying biomaterials, such as chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs: FDA-approved long-chain polymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine and D-glucosamine for some pharmaceutical applications), can serve as an appropriate alternative to overcome these limitations. Recently, the biomedical applications of CS NPs have extensively been investigated. These NPs and their derivatives can not only prepare through different physical and chemical approaches but also modify with various molecules and bioactive materials. The potential properties of CS NPs, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, serum stability, solubility, non-immunogenicity, anti-inflammatory properties, appropriate pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and so forth, have made them excellent candidates for biomedical applications. Therefore, CS NPs have efficiently applied for various biomedical applications, like regenerative medicine and tissue engineering, biosensors for the detection of microorganisms, and drug delivery systems (DDS) for the suppression of diseases. These NPs possess a high level of biosafety. In summary, CS NPs have the potential ability for biomedical and clinical applications, and it would be remarkably beneficial to develop new generations of CS-based material for the future of medicine.

Casein-Based Nanoparticles: A Potential Tool for the Delivery of Daunorubicin in Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia

The aim of this study was to develop casein-based nanoscale carriers as a potential delivery system for daunorubicin, as a pH-responsive targeting tool for acute lymphocytic leukemia. A coacervation technique followed by nano spray-drying was used for the preparation of drug-loaded casein nanoparticles. Four batches of drug-loaded formulations were developed at varied drug-polymer ratios using a simple coacervation technique followed by spray-drying. They were further characterized using scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, FTIR spectroscopy, XRD diffractometry, and differential scanning calorimetry. Drug release was investigated in different media (pH 5 and 7.4). The cytotoxicity of the daunorubicin-loaded nanoparticles was compared to that of the pure drug. The influence of the polymer-to-drug ratio on the nanoparticles' properties such as their particle size, surface morphology, production yield, drug loading, entrapment efficiency, and drug release behavior was studied. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of the drug-loaded nanoparticles was investigated confirming their potential as carriers for daunorubicin delivery.

Effect of carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan coating on the stability and colon-targeted delivery performance of fucoxanthin-loaded gliadin nanoparticles

Fucoxanthin (FUC) is a hydrophobic carotenoid that has a protective effect on the colon. To exert the beneficial effects of FUC in the colon and expand its application in functional food, FUC was encapsulated in carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan (CMKGM)-coated gliadin nanoparticles (Gli-CMKGM NPs) in this paper. Gli-CMKGM NPs were prepared at pH 5.0 with Gli/CMKGM mass ratio of 1:1. The formation of Gli-CMKGM NPs was associated with hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic attractions. Additionally, Gli-CMKGM NPs exhibited good stability to pH, salt, heating and storage. The results showed that FUC had been successfully encapsulated in Gli-CMKGM NPs, and the encapsulation efficiency of FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs was significantly higher than that of uncoated FUC-Gli NPs. FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had a nano-spherical structure, and embedded FUC in Gli-CMKGM NPs improved their stabilities to photodegradation and thermal degradation. Furthermore, in vitro release and in vivo organ distribution studies showed that FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had an excellent colon targeting function. Overall, our findings illustrated the promise of CMKGM-coated Gli NPs for constructing targeted delivery systems for FUC.

Ultrasound-Assisted Encapsulation of Anthraquinones Extracted from Aloe-Vera Plant into Casein Micelles

Aloe-vera extracted anthraquinones (aloin, aloe-emodin, rhein) possess a wide range of biological activities, have poor solubility and are sensitive to processing conditions. This work investigated the ultrasound-assisted encapsulation of these extracted anthraquinones (AQ) into casein micelles (CM). The particle size and zeta potential of casein micelles loaded with aloin (CMA), aloe-emodin (CMAE), rhein (CMR) and anthraquinone powder (CMAQ) ranged between 171–179 nm and −23 to −17 mV. The AQ powder had the maximum encapsulation efficiency (EE%) (aloin 99%, aloe-emodin 98% and rhein 100%) and encapsulation yield, while the whole leaf Aloe vera gel (WLAG) had the least encapsulation efficiency. Spray-dried powder (SDP) and freeze-dried powder (FDP) of Aloe vera showed a significant increase in size and zeta potential related to superficial coating instead of encapsulation. The significant variability in size, zeta potential and EE% were related to anthraquinone type, its binding affinity, and its ratio to CM. FTIR spectra confirmed that the structure of the casein micelle remained unchanged with the binding of anthraquinones except in casein micelles loaded with whole-leaf aloe vera gel (CMWLAG), where the structure was deformed. Based on our findings, Aloe vera extracted anthraquinones powder (AQ) possessed the best encapsulation efficiency within casein micelles without affecting its structure. Overall, this study provides new insights into developing new product formulations through better utilization of exceptional properties of casein micelles.

QbD Approach towards Robust Design Space for Flutamide/PiperineSelf-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System with Reduced Liver Injury

Flutamide which is used to treat prostate cancer and other diseases induces liver damage during and after the therapy. The aim of this study was to develop a flutamide/piperineco-loaded self-emulsifying drug delivery system (FPSEDDS) to inhibit flutamide-induced liver injury by utilizing piperine as a metabolic inhibitor. The development of SEDDS was carried out following a quality by design (QbD) approach. The risk assessment study was performed to identify critical quality attributes (CQAs) and critical material attributes (CMAs)/critical process parameters (CPPs). I-optimal mixture design was executed with three CMAs as the independent variables and CQAs as the dependable variables. The effectiveness of optimized SEDDS to circumvent flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity was assessed in mice. The numerical optimization suggested an optimal formulation with a desirability value of 0.621, using CQAs targets as optimization goals with 95% prediction intervals (α = 0.05). The optimal formulation exhibited the grade A SEDDS characteristics with the guarantee of high payloads in self-formed oily droplets. The design space was also obtained from the same optimization goals. All CQA responses of verification points were found within the 95% prediction intervals of the polynomial models, indicating a good agreement between actual versus predicted responses within the design space. These obtained responses also passed CQAs acceptance criteria. Finally, hematoxylin-eosin staining revealed the minimal flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity from the optimal SEDDS formulation as compared to the control and flutamide/piperine normal suspension. We demonstrate that the piperine containing optimized SEDDS formulation developed by QbD significantly reduces the flutamide-induced liver injury in mice.

Casein Micelles as Nanocarriers for Benzydamine Delivery

The aim of the present work was to optimize the process parameters of the nano spray drying technique for the formulation of benzydamine-loaded casein nanoparticles and to investigate the effect of some process variables on the structural and morphological characteristics and release behavior. The obtained particles were characterized in terms of particle size and size distribution, surface morphology, production yield and encapsulation efficiency, drug-polymer compatibility, etc., using dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy. Production yields of the blank nanoparticles were significantly influenced by the concentration of both casein and the crosslinking agent. The formulated drug-loaded nanoparticles had an average particle size of 135.9 nm to 994.2 nm. Drug loading varied from 16.02% to 57.41% and the encapsulation efficiency was in the range 34.61% to 78.82%. Our study has demonstrated that all the investigated parameters depended greatly on the polymer/drug ratio and the drug release study confirmed the feasibility of the developed nanocarriers for prolonged delivery of benzydamine.

Mixed micelles formulation for carvedilol delivery: In-vitro characterization and in-vivo evaluation

Carvedilol (CAR) is a widely studied, beta and alpha-1 blocker, antihypertensive drug due to its poor water solubility and low oral bioavailability (25-35%). The aim of this work is to improve poor water solubility and the pharmacokinetic parameters of carvedilol by using an optimized and self-assembly prepared micelle formulation. Optimized micelle formulation composed of Pluronic® F127, D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate, L-cysteine HCl in a ratio of 4:3:3. Micellar size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, critical micelle concentration, thermal behaviors, in-vitro dissolution of micelles and pharmacokinetic parameters in rats were characterized in this study. Carvedilol aqueous solubility increased (up to 271-fold) as a result of its encapsulation within a mixed micelle formulation. The measured micellar sizes of blank and carvedilol loaded mixed micelles are lower than 30 nm with size distributions of 26.69 ± 2.93 nm and 24.16 ± 4.89 nm, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the micelles were spherically shaped. There is a significant enhancement of carvedilol dissolution compared to commercially available tablet formulation (f2 < 50). The in-vivo test demonstrated that the t_1/2 and AUC_0-∞ values of micelles were approximately 10.89- and 2.65-fold greater than that of the commercial tablets, respectively. Based on our study, bring such applications into being may provide effective new drugs for treatment armamentarium of cardiovascular diseases and hypertension in near future.

Recent Advances in Gelatin-Based Nanomedicine for Targeted Delivery of Anti-Cancer Drugs

Nanoparticles based on natural polymers are utilized for the development of a wide range of drug delivery systems (DDS) in the current era. Gelatin-based nanoparticles, for example, are a remarkable cancer therapy with high efficacy and specificity. This paper reviews the recent advancements in gelatin-based nanomedicine for use in cancer therapeutics. Due to the characteristics features of gelatin, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, stability, and good surface properties, these nanoparticles provide high therapeutic potency in cancer nanomedicine. The surface of gelatin can be modified in a number of ways using various ligands to explore the platform for the development of a more novel DDS. Various methods are available for the preparation of gelatin nanomedicine discussed in this review. In addition, various cross-linkers to stabilized nanocarriers and stimuli base gelatin nanoparticles are reviewed. Furthermore, recent advances and research in gelatin-based nanomedicine are discussed. Also, some drawbacks and challenges are evaluated. In general, this paper paves the pathway to identify the details about the gelatin-based DDS for cancer therapy.

Cholesterol-Based Nanovesicles Enhance the In Vitro Cytotoxicity, Ex Vivo Intestinal Absorption, and In Vivo Bioavailability of Flutamide

Critical adverse effects and frequent administration, three times per day, limit the use of flutamide (FLT) as a chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of prostate cancer. Therefore, our research aimed to develop new cholesterol-based nanovesicles for delivering FLT to malignant cells in an endeavor to maximize its therapeutic efficacy and minimize undesired adverse effects. Draper–Lin small composite design was used to optimize the critical quality attributes of FLT-loaded niosomes and ensure the desired product quality. The influence of the selected four independent variables on mean particle size (Y₁), zeta potential (Y₂), drug entrapment efficiency (Y₃), and the cumulative drug release after 24 h (Y₄) was examined. The optimized nanovesicles were assessed for their in vitro cytotoxicity, ex-vivo absorption via freshly excised rabbit intestine as well as in vivo pharmacokinetics on male rats. TEM confirmed nanovescicles’ spherical shape with bilayer structure. Values of dependent variables were 748.6 nm, −48.60 mV, 72.8% and 72.2% for Y₁, Y₂, Y₃ and Y₄, respectively. The optimized FLT-loaded niosomes exerted high cytotoxic efficacy against human prostate cancer cell line (PC-3) with an IC₅₀ value of 0.64 ± 0.04 µg/mL whilst, it was 1.88 ± 0.16 µg/mL for free FLT. Moreover, the IC₅₀ values on breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) were 0.27 ± 0.07 µg/mL and 4.07 ± 0.74 µg/mL for FLT-loaded niosomes and free FLT, respectively. The permeation of the optimized FLT-loaded niosomes through the rabbit intestine showed an enhancement ratio of about 1.5 times that of the free FLT suspension. In vivo pharmacokinetic study displayed an improvement in oral bioavailability of the optimized niosomal formulation with AUC and C_max values of 741.583 ± 33.557 μg/mL × min and 6.950 ± 0.45 μg/mL compared to 364.536 ± 45.215 μg/mL × min and 2.650 ± 0.55 μg/mL for the oral FLT suspension. With these promising findings, we conclude that encapsulation of FLT in cholesterol-loaded nanovesicles enhanced its anticancer activity and oral bioavailability which endorse its use in the management of prostate cancer.

Casein Micelles as an Emerging Delivery System for Bioactive Food Components

Bioactive food components have potential health benefits but are highly susceptible for degradation under adverse conditions such as light, pH, temperature and oxygen. Furthermore, they are known to have poor solubilities, low stabilities and low bioavailabilities in the gastrointestinal tract. Hence, technologies that can retain, protect and enable their targeted delivery are significant to the food industry. Amongst these, microencapsulation of bioactives has emerged as a promising technology. The present review evaluates the potential use of casein micelles (CMs) as a bioactive delivery system. The review discusses in depth how physicochemical and techno-functional properties of CMs can be modified by secondary processing parameters in making them a choice for the delivery of food bioactives in functional foods. CMs are an assembly of four types of caseins, (α_s1, α_s2, β and κ casein) with calcium phosphate. They possess hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties that make them ideal for encapsulation of food bioactives. In addition, CMs have a self-assembling nature to incorporate bioactives, remarkable surface activity to stabilise emulsions and the ability to bind hydrophobic components when heated. Moreover, CMs can act as natural hydrogels to encapsulate minerals, bind with polymers to form nano capsules and possess pH swelling behaviour for targeted and controlled release of bioactives in the GI tract. Although numerous novel advancements of employing CMs as an effective delivery have been reported in recent years, more comprehensive studies are required to increase the understanding of how variation in structural properties of CMs be utilised to deliver bioactives with different physical, chemical and structural properties.

Casein nanoparticles as oral delivery carriers of mequindox for the improved bioavailability

Mequindox (Meq) is a promising broad-spectrum antibacterial agent, but the clinical application of Meq has been hampered by its low oral bioavailability. Casein (Cas) can bind to a variety of poorly water-soluble drugs to improve their water solubility through a micellar solubilization mechanism. Here, a low-cost and convenient method was introduced to prepare mequindox-loaded casein nanoparticles (Meq-Cas). Meq-Cas was characterized by several methods including differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and fourier transform infrared (FTIR) to illuminate the mutual effect between the drug and carriers. Meq-Cas presented nearly spherical nanoparticles with smooth surfaces and its mean particle size was lower than untreated Cas. Meq-Cas showed a nearly complete release of Meq, which displayed a biphasic drug release pattern in both phosphate-buffered solution (PBS) and simulated gastric fluid (SGF). The relative oral bioavailability of Meq-Cas was found to be about 1.20 times higher than that of the animals treated with Meq suspension (control). These results suggest that Cas is a good candidate to load in Meq for pharmaceutical purposes.

Emergence in protein derived nanomedicine as anticancer therapeutics: More than a tour de force

Cancer has thwarted as a major health problem affecting the global population. With an alarming increase in the patient population suffering from diverse varieties of cancers, the global demographic data predicts sharp escalation in the number of cancer patients. This can be expected to reach 420 million cases by 2025. Among the diverse types of cancers, the most frequently diagnosed cancers are the breast, colorectal, prostate and lung cancer. From years, conventional treatment approaches like surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy have been practiced. In the past few years, increasing research on molecular level diagnosis and treatment of cancers have significantly changed the realm of cancer treatment. Lately, uses of advanced chemotherapy and immunotherapy like treatments have gained significant progress in the cancer therapy, but these approaches have several limitations on their safety and toxicity. This has generated lot of momentum for the evolution of new drug delivery approaches for the effective delivery of anticancer therapeutics, which may improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effect of the drugs along with significant reduction in the side effects. In this regard, the protein-based nano-medicines have gained wider attention in the management of cancer. Proteins are organic macromolecules essential, for life and have quite well explored in developing the nano-carriers. Furthermore, it provides passive or active tumour cell targeted delivery, by using protein based nanovesicles or virus like structures, antibody drug conjugates, viral particles, etc. Moreover, by utilizing various formulation strategies, both the animal and plant derived proteins can be converted to produce self-assembled virus like nano-metric structures with high efficiency in targeting the metastatic cancer cells. Therefore, the present review extensively discusses the applications of protein-based nano-medicine with special emphasis on intracellular delivery/drug targeting ability for anticancer drugs.

Casein-based hydrogels: A mini-review

Casein-based hydrogels are biocompatible, biodegradable, renewable, easy to obtain, inexpensive, and non-toxic. They exist in different physicochemical states, e.g. particle hydrogels, which can be dived in suspensions or emulsions and macro hydrogels that are gel colloid type. These biomaterials have drawn increasing attention in recent years due to their abilities to form networks of different tensile strengths and to encapsulate, protect and release biomolecules. This mini-review outlines the recent advances in casein-based hydrogel research and the uses of casein-based hydrogels as drug delivery system for both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules. The food and biomedical potential along with possible future uses of the casein-based hydrogels are discussed throughout the document.

Chitosan-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems: a review on two decades of research

Chitosan (CS) is one of the most functional natural biopolymer widely used in the pharmaceutical field due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability. These privileges lead to its application in the synthesis of nanoparticles for the drug during the last two decades. This article gives rise to a general review of the different chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) preparation techniques: Ionic gelation, emulsion cross-linking, spray-drying, emulsion-droplet coalescence method, nanoprecipitation, reverse micellar method, desolvation method, modified ionic gelation with radial polymerisation and emulsion solvent diffusion, from the point of view of the methodological and mechanistic aspects involved. The physicochemical behaviour of CSNPs including drug loading, drug release, particles size, zeta potential and stability are briefly discussed. This review also directs to bring an outline of the major applications of CSNPs in drug delivery according to drug and route of administration. Finally, derivatives of CSNPs and CS nano-complexes are also discussed.

Dual-targeted casein micelles as green nanomedicine for synergistic phytotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

In recent years, green nanomedicines have made transformative difference in cancer therapy researches. Herein, we propose dual-functionalized spray-dried casein micelles (CAS-MCs) for combined delivery of two phytochemicals; berberine (BRB) and diosmin (DSN) as targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The nanomicelles enabled parenteral delivery of the poorly soluble DSN via its encapsulation within their hydrophobic core. Moreover, sustained release of the water soluble BRB was attained by hydrophobic ion pairing with sodium deoxycholate followed by genipin crosslinking of CAS-MCs. Dual-active targeting of MCs, via conjugating both lactobionic acid (LA) and folic acid (FA), resulted in superior cytotoxicity and higher cellular uptake against HepG2 cells compared to single-targeted and non-targeted CAS-MCs. The dual-targeted DSN/BRB-loaded CAS-MCs demonstrated superior in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in HCC bearing mice as revealed by down regulation of cell necrosis markers (NF-κB and TNF-α), inflammatory marker COX2, inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis. Histopathological analysis and immunohistochemical Ki67 staining confirmed the superiority of the dual-targeted micelles. Ex-vivo imaging showed preferential liver-specific accumulation of dual-targeted CAS-MCs. Overall, this approach combined the benefits of traditional herbal medicine with nanotechnology via LA/FA-CAS-MCs loaded with BRB and DSN as a promising nanoplatform for targeted HCC therapy.

Study of the Interactions Occurring During the Encapsulation of Sesamol within Casein Micelles Reformed from Sodium Caseinate Solutions

A casein micelle is a natural structure found in milk, based on the association between individual caseins and colloidal calcium phosphate, which can be used as vehicle for the encapsulation of hydrophobic compounds. In this project the capacity of micelles to encapsulate sesamol, a powerful antioxidant present in roasted sesame seeds, was evaluated. The micelles were reformed from sodium caseinate solutions at 2% or 5% (w/v) concentration, and then 1 or 2 mg/mL sesamol were added. A significant increase on the encapsulation efficiency was observed as caseinate concentration increased, going from 28% to 35% of sesamol encapsulated, while the encapsulation yield was greater in all cases for micelles from solutions with lower caseinate concentration. The average size of micelles ranged from 150 to 165 nm with an average zeta potential of -27.3 ± 1.86 mV. FTIR and fluorescence analysis confirm interactions within the casein chains and sesamol molecules with a bathochromic shift which suggests a predominant hydrophilic nature of such interactions. Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms showed that denaturation enthalpy tended to decrease as sesamol concentration increased, suggesting that sesamol molecules may be displacing the water molecules associated with the casein chains, reinforcing the idea of predominant hydrophilic interactions. Based on the results from encapsulation efficiency, it is estimated that about 7 g of casein micelles reformed from 2% (w/v) caseinate solutions with 2 mg/mL of added sesamol may provide the recommended daily dose and may be useful for the development of new functional food products.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The development of a nanodelivery system for different bioactives will allow the enrichment of foods and drinks to develop new functional products that will satisfy consumers' demands. Additionally, the study of interactions between these molecules will allow us to understand how sesamol is being incorporated within the reformed micelles and how this process can even be improved.

Alginate-caseinate composites: Molecular interactions and characterization of cross-linked beads for the delivery of anticandidals

Polysaccharide-protein composites offer potential utility for the delivery of drugs. The objectives of this work were to investigate the molecular interactions between sodium alginate (SA) and sodium caseinate (SC) in dispersions and films and to characterize calcium alginate (CA) beads mixed with SC for the delivery of fluconazole (FZ) and clotrimazole (CZ). The results demonstrated that SA could interact with SC, which caused a viscosity synergism in the dispersions. Hydrogen bonding between the carboxyl or hydroxyl groups of SA and the amide groups of SC led to the formation of soluble complexes that could reinforce the CA beads prepared by calcium cross-linking. The SC-CA beads provided higher drug entrapment efficiency, lower water uptake and erosion, and slower drug release than for the CA beads. The loaded FZ was an amorphous form, but CZ crystals were embedded in the bead matrix due to the low water solubility of this drug. However, SC micellization could enhance the water solubility and efficacy of CZ against Candida albicans. This finding indicates that SA can interact with SC via hydrogen bonding to form complexes and that the anticandidal-loaded SC-CA beads can be used as drug delivery systems and drug reservoirs in tablets for oral candidiasis.

Human serum albumin nanoparticles for ocular delivery of bevacizumab

Bevacizumab-loaded nanoparticles (B-NP) were prepared by a desolvation process followed by freeze-drying, without any chemical, physical or enzymatic cross-linkage. Compared with typical HSA nanoparticles cross-linked with glutaraldehyde (B-NP-GLU), B-NP displayed a significantly higher mean size (310 nm vs. 180 nm) and a lower negative zeta potential (-15 mV vs. -36 mV). On the contrary, B-NP displayed a high payload of approximately 13% when measured by a specific ELISA, whereas B-NP-GLU presented a very low bevacizumab loading (0.1 μg/mg). These results could be related to the inactivation of bevacizumab after reacting with glutaraldehyde. From B-NP, bevacizumab was released following an initial burst effect, proceeded by a continuous release of bevacizumab at a rate of 6 μg/h. Cytotoxicity studies in ARPE cells were carried out at a single dose up to 72 h and with repeated doses over a 5-day period. Neither bevacizumab nor B-NP altered cell viability even when repeated doses were used. Finally, B-NP were labeled with ^99mTc and administered as eye drops in rats. ^99mTc-B-NP remained in the eye for at least 4 h while ^99mTc-HSA was rapidly drained from the administration point. In summary, HSA nanoparticles may be an appropriate candidate for ocular delivery of bevacizumab.

Optimization of vitamins A and D3 loading in re-assembled casein micelles and effect of loading on stability of vitamin D3 during storage

The objectives of this study were to apply response surface methodology to optimize fat-soluble vitamin loading in re-assembled casein micelles, and to evaluate vitamin D stability of dry formulations during ambient or accelerated storage and in fortified fluid skim milk stored under refrigeration. Optimal loading of vitamin A (1.46-1.48mg/100mgcasein) was found at 9.7mM phosphate, 5.5mM citrate and 30.0mM calcium, while optimal loading of vitamin D (1.38-1.46mg/100mg casein) was found at 4.9mM phosphate, 4.0mM citrate and 26.1mM calcium. In general, more vitamin D was retained in vitamin D-re-assembled casein micelles than control powders during storage, while vitamin D loss was not different for vitamin D-re-assembled casein micelles and control fortified milks after 21days of refrigerated storage with light exposure. In conclusion, re-assembled casein micelles with high loading efficiency show promise for improving vitamin D stability during dry storage.

Potential of Casein as a Carrier for Biologically Active Agents

Casein is the collective name for a family of milk proteins. In bovine milk, casein comprises four peptides: α_S1, α_S2, β, and κ, differing in their amino acid, phosphorus and carbohydrate content but similar in their amphiphilic character. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of casein show block distribution in the protein chain. Casein peptides carry negative charge on their surface as a result of phosphorylation and tend to bind nanoclusters of amorphous calcium phosphate. Due to these properties, in suitable conditions, casein molecules agglomerate into spherical micelles. The high content of casein in milk (2.75 %) has made it one of the most popular proteins. Novel research techniques have improved understanding of its properties, opening up new applications. However, casein is not just a dietary protein. Its properties promise new and unexpected applications in science and the pharmaceutical and functional food industries. One example is an encapsulation of health-related substances in casein matrices. This review discusses gelation, coacervation, self-assembly and reassembly of casein peptides as means of encapsulation. We highlight information on encapsulation of health-related substances such as drugs and dietary supplements inside casein micro- and nanoparticles.

Pharmacokinetics of the anti-androgenic drug flutamide in healthy stallions

Alternatives to surgical castration are necessary for controlling the sexual behaviour of stallions with breeding potential in training and competition. Flutamide is a potent selective non-steroidal androgen receptor competitive antagonist that has been used in human beings as an anti-androgenic drug. In this study, the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of flutamide and its main active metabolite, 2-hydroflutamide, were determined in seven healthy mature stallions. Single doses of flutamide (1mg/kg intravenously, 1mg/kg orally in fasted horses, 5mg/kg orally in fasted horses and 5mg/kg orally in fed horses) were administered randomly at intervals of 2 weeks. All horses had full physical examinations and blood samples were collected for pharmacokinetics, complete blood counts and biochemistry before and after drug administration. Administration of flutamide did not result in any abnormalities on physical examination or in blood parameters. After intravenous administration of flutamide, the volume of distribution was 0.83L/kg and clearance was 1.20L/h/kg. Flutamide and its metabolite had high protein binding values (93-97%). After oral administration, flutamide was rapidly transformed to 2-hydroxyflutamide, with areas under the concentration-time curve ratios of metabolite:drug ∼7. Oral bioavailability was 6.63% after 1mg/kg flutamide in fasted horses, 6.50% after 5mg/kg flutamide in fasted horses and 6.95% after 5mg/kg in fed horses. Half lives of flutamide were close to 1h after intravenous administration and 2h after oral administration. Half lives of 2-hydroxyflutamide were 4.79-6.84h for all routes and doses. After oral administration, oral flutamide reached plasma concentrations that could be effective as an anti-androgenic agent in horses, but further studies are needed to determine whether flutamide has clinical value as an alternative to castration for controlling sexual behaviour in stallions.

Protein-lipid nanohybrids as emerging platforms for drug and gene delivery: Challenges and outcomes

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have been long used to deliver a vast range of drugs and bioactives owing to their ability to demonstrate novel physical, chemical, and/or biological properties. An exponential growth has spurred in research and development of these nanocarriers which led to the evolution of a great number of diverse nanosystems including liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), metallic NPs, and carbon nanotubes. Among them, lipid-based nanocarriers have made the largest progress whether commercially or under development. Despite this progress, these lipid-based nanocarriers suffer from several limitations that led to the development of many protein-coated lipid nanocarriers. To less extent, protein-based nanocarriers suffer from limitations that led to the fabrication of some lipid bilayer enveloping protein nanocarriers. This review discusses in-depth some limitations associated with the lipid-based or protein-based nanocarriers and the fruitful outcomes brought by protein-lipid hybridization. Also discussed are the various hybridization techniques utilized to formulate these protein-lipid nanohybrids and the mechanisms involved in the drug loading process.

Preparation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded Nanoparticles Composed of Casein and Chitosan with Improved Fucoxanthin Bioavailability

To facilitate the utilization of fucoxanthin (FX), a valuable marine carotenoid, in the food industry, FX-loaded casein nanoparticles (FX-CN) and chitosan-coated FX-CN (FX-CS-CN) were developed using the FX-enriched fraction from Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Two nanoscale particles (237 ± 13 nm for FX-CN and 277 ± 26 nm for FX-CN-CN) with spherical and smooth surfaces showed over 71% encapsulation efficiency and polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.31-0.39 in water. Owing to the chitosan coating, FX-CS-CN showed a positive zeta potential (24.00 mV), whereas that of FX-CN was negative (-12.87 mV). In vitro simulated digestion demonstrated better FX bioaccessibility from the nanoparticles versus P. tricornutum powder (Pt-powder) and from FX-CN versus FX-CS-CN. However, in C57BL/6 mice, fucoxanthinol absorption to the blood circulation was two times higher for FX-CS-CN versus FX-CN, possibly due to increased retention or adsorption to mucin by the cationic biopolymer in the chitosan-coated particles. These results demonstrate that FX-CS-CN can enable the application of FX, with improved bioavailability and water dispersibility, in the food industry.

HPLC Methods for Quantitation of Exemestane-Luteolin and Exemestane-Resveratrol Mixtures in Nanoformulations

Two HPLC-DAD assays for the simultaneous quantitation of exemestane (EXE) and resveratrol (RES)-Mix 1-and EXE and luteolin (LUT)-Mix 2-in novel breast cancer therapy nanoformulations were developed. Calibration curves 15-30 µg/mL and samples were injected through an Inertsil ODS-3 (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) column. The gradient elution for Mix 1 was methanol : 0.05% (v/v) acetic acid in water (60 : 40 to 80 : 20, linear over 2 min), and for Mix 2, it was methanol : water (60 : 40 for 4 min, then ramped linearly to 90 : 10, over 12 min) pumped at 1.5 mL/min for 4 min, then 1 mL/min till the end of run. EXE, RES, LUT and flutamide (internal standard (IS)) were measured at 246, 307, 350 and 300 nm, respectively. For Mix 1, RES, EXE and IS eluted at 3.5, 6.8 and 7.4 min, respectively, while for Mix 2, LUT, EXE and IS eluted at 7.5, 11.4 and 12.7 min, respectively. The mean r(2) for the standard curves was ≥0.99, and percentage coefficient of variation and % error of the mean were <2. Both assays successfully quantitated Mix 1 and Mix 2 in their nanoformulations. The two developed assays were sensitive and selective for the analysis of EXE-LUT and EXE-RES mixtures in nanoformulations according to International Conference on Harmonization guidelines.