Suppressive effects of sunitinib on a TLR activation-induced cytokine storm

Novel therapeutic effects of rifaximin in combination with methylprednisolone for LPS-induced ‎oxidative stress and inflammation in mice‎: ‎An in vivo study

Cytokine-releasing syndrome (CRS) is a special form of ‎‎systemic inflammatory response syndrome provoked by ‎factors ‎like viral infections and certain immunomodulatory drugs.‎ To elucidate the potential ‎role of rifaximin (RIF) and its combination with methylprednisolone (MP) against the development and ‎progression of CRS in ‎mice.‎ This experiment consists of two parts: protective and therapeutic interventions. The protective experiment: in the induction group, mice received an intraperitoneal injection (IP) of 5 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS) without intervention. The other group received various drugs before the induction by three days, then observed for an additional two days (50 mg/kg MP, 50 mg/kg RIF, and a combination of 25 mg/kg RIF with 25 mg/kg MP. The second part of the study involves the therapeutic potential; all groups received similar doses of drugs to that received in the prevention groups, except LPS induction was given first, and after one hour, the mice received daily doses of the drugs for five days. At the end of the experiment, blood and tissue samples were obtained. Mice treated with RIF and its combination with MP showed improved serum TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, INF-γ, MDA, and GSH in both prevention and therapeutic groups. Histopathologically, mice treated with rifaximin and its combination with MP ameliorates the tissue damage in both lung and liver tissues following LPS induction. In conclusion, rifaximin showed protective and therapeutic effects in LPS-induced cytokine storms in mice through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms, and its combination with methylprednisolone showed additive/ synergistic action.

A case of TAFRO syndrome after vaccination, successfully treated with cyclosporine

BACKGROUND

TAFRO syndrome is a rare disorder that causes thrombocytopenia, generalized oedema, fever, organ enlargement, and renal impairment. Few reports have suggested an association with vaccines, and few cases have undergone renal biopsy. TAFRO syndrome is often severe and fatal, and its cause is unknown. We report a case of TAFRO syndrome that occurred after vaccination with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine.

CASE PRESENTATION

An 82-year-old woman received two doses of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine 3 weeks apart. Two weeks later, she was admitted to the hospital with oedema, accompanied with renal failure and thrombocytopenia. After close examination, she was diagnosed with TAFRO syndrome. She was treated with steroids, cyclosporine, and thrombopoietin receptor agonists. The patient was discharged after several months in remission.

CONCLUSIONS

Although an incident of TAFRO syndrome after COVID-19 vaccination has been previously reported, this is a rare case in which the patient went into remission and was discharged. A renal biopsy was also performed in this case, which was consistent with previous reports. The favorable treatment course for TAFRO syndrome provides valuable insights.

Drug repurposing screen identifies novel anti-inflammatory activity of sunitinib in macrophages

Inflammation is a driver of human disease and an unmet clinical need exists for new anti-inflammatory medicines. As a key cell type in both acute and chronic inflammatory pathologies, macrophages are an appealing therapeutic target for anti-inflammatory medicines. Drug repurposing - the use of existing medicines for novel indications - is an attractive strategy for the identification of new anti-inflammatory medicines with reduced development costs and lower failure rates than de novo drug discovery. In this study, FDA-approved medicines were screened in a murine macrophage NF-κB reporter cell line to identify potential anti-inflammatory drug repurposing candidates. The multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor sunitinib was found to be a potent inhibitor of NF-κB activity and suppressor of inflammatory mediator production in murine bone marrow derived macrophages. Furthermore, oral treatment with sunitinib in mice was found to reduce TNFα production, inflammatory gene expression and organ damage in a model of endotoxemia via inhibition of NF-κB. Finally, we revealed sunitinib to have immunomodulatory effects in a model of chronic cardiovascular inflammation by reducing circulating TNFα. This study validates drug repurposing as a strategy for the identification of novel anti-inflammatory medicines and highlights sunitinib as a potential drug repurposing candidate for inflammatory disease via inhibition of NF-κB signalling.

Synergistic inhibition effects of andrographolide and baicalin on coronavirus mechanisms by downregulation of ACE2 protein level

The SARS-CoV-2 virus, belonging to the Coronavirus genus, which poses a threat to human health worldwide. Current therapies focus on inhibiting viral replication or using anti-inflammatory/immunomodulatory compounds to enhance host immunity. This makes the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine compounds ideal therapies due to their proven safety and minimal toxicity. Previous research suggests that andrographolide and baicalin inhibit coronaviruses; however, their synergistic effects remain unclear. Here, we studied the antiviral mechanisms of their synergistic use in vitro and in vivo. We selected the SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus for viral studies and found that synergistic andrographolide and baicalein significantly reduced angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protein level and viral entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells compared to singal compound individually and inhibited the major protease activity of SARS-CoV-2. This mechanism is essential to reduce the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. In addition, their synergistic use in vivo also inhibited the elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α-the primary cytokines in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (the main cause of COVID-19 deaths). In conclusion, this study shows that synergistic andrographolide and baicalein treatment acts as potent inhibitors of coronavirus mechanisms in vitro and in vivo-and is more effective together than in isolation.

The role of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in pan-cancer

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important components of the innate and adaptive immune systems, and abnormal TLR expression has been linked to a variety of cancers. However, there was a lack of clarity on the association of TLR stimulation with the carcinogenesis of cancer. The study's goal was to analyse the clinical importance of TLRs expression at the mRNA level in pan-cancer datasets, as well as the link between TLR expression and carcinogenesis, progression, and clinical prognosis.

METHODS

The expression profile of TLRs derived from UCSC pan-cancer data was analysed in multiple dimensions, including clinical analysis, immunological subtype analysis, tumour microenvironment (TME) analysis, tumour stem cell correlation analysis, and drug sensitivity analysis. Additionally, we analyse protein-protein interactions, functional enrichment, and chromatin accessibility, as well as TLR expression in single-cell sequencing data.

RESULTS

Our multi-omics analysis results imply that TLRs may operate as a biological marker for carcinogenesis and progression, a potential target for anti-tumour therapy, and a prognostic biomarker, laying the theoretical groundwork for future translational medicine research.

CONCLUSION

TLRs are involved in the formation of malignancies and can be explored in further detail as potential prognostic indicators. Key MessagesToll-like receptors (TLRs) are key factors in the process of the innate and adaptive immune response, and their aberrant expression of TLRs have been widely reported in various cancer. However, the association between TLRs stimulation and tumorigenesis of cancer has not been well clarified.In this study, in the pan-cancer data, integrated TLR family gene expression analysis, clinical correlation analysis, immune subtype correlation analysis, tumour microenvironment correlation analysis, tumour stem cell correlation analysis, and drug sensitivity correlation analysis were performed.TLRs play an important role in the development of tumours and can be studied in depth as potential prognostic markers.

COVID-19 susceptibility, severity, clinical outcome and Toll-like receptor (7) mRNA expression driven by TLR7 gene polymorphism (rs3853839) in middle-aged individuals without previous comorbidities

Background

Toll-like receptors are implicated in the pathophysiology of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East respiratory disease (MERS), according to several studies. The whole-genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 revealed that the TLR7 gene could be implicated in the virus's pathogenesis since the virus includes ssRNA patterns that could bind to TLR7.

Aim

The purpose of this study was to look into the function of the TLR7 (rs3853839) C/G polymorphism and the expression of TLR7 mRNA transcript in the development, severity and progression of COVID-19.

Subjects and methods

A case-control study included 285 participants who were divided into two groups: 150 middle-aged people with COVID 19 who had no previous co-morbidities and 135 healthy volunteers who served as controls. TaqMan test was used to genotype the TLR7 (rs3853839) C/G polymorphism, and real-time PCR was used to determine the relative expression of its mRNA transcript. The level of IL-6 in serum was determined using the ELISA method as an indicator of cytokine storm and COVID-19 severity.

Results

The GG genotype was shown to be much more common in COVID-19 patients (38.7%) than controls (4.4%), with an OR of 19.86 (95% CI: 7.85; 50.22) and was linked to disease severity and poor clinical outcomes (hospitalization, respiratory failure, cardiac complications, ICU admission and mechanical ventilation).As a result, the G allele was considerably higher in cases (57.0%), while the C allele was significantly higher in controls (p = 0.001). The GG genotype was found to be substantially more common in patients who were severely/critically unwell. TLR7 mRNA expression levels were significantly higher in COVID-19 patients (2.44 ± 0.89) than in controls (1.06 ± 0.46) (p = 0.001). TLR7 mRNA levels were highest in COVID 19 patients with the GG genotype (rs3853839). Patients with the GG genotype had considerably lower WBC counts, but significantly higher serum ferritin, CRP, IL-6 and D dimer levels (P = 0.045, 0.001, 0.023, 0.033, 0.001, respectively).

Conclusion

The GG form of the TLR7 SNP (rs3853839) could be a genetic risk factor for COVID-19 infection, severe illness and poor clinical outcome. TLR7 mRNA expression was also elevated in COVID-19 patients who were severely/critically unwell and had a bad outcome, suggesting that they could be used as COVID-19 prognostic biomarkers.

The Impact of Alcohol-Induced Dysbiosis on Diseases and Disorders of the Central Nervous System

The human digestive tract contains a diverse and abundant microbiota that is important for health. Excessive alcohol use can disrupt the balance of these microbes (known as dysbiosis), leading to elevated blood endotoxin levels and systemic inflammation. Using QIAGEN Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) bioinformatics tool, we have confirmed that peripheral endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) mediates various cytokines to enhance the neuroinflammation signaling pathway. The literature has identified alcohol-mediated neuroinflammation as a possible risk factor for the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), and psychiatric disorders such as addiction to alcohol and other drugs. In this review, we discuss alcohol-use-induced dysbiosis in the gut and other body parts as a causal factor in the progression of Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases including neurodegenerative disease and possibly alcohol use disorder.

Survival of HT29 cancer cells is influenced by hepatocyte growth factor receptor inhibition through modulation of self-DNA-triggered TLR9-dependent autophagy response

HGFR activation drives the malignant progression of colorectal cancer, and its inhibition displays anti-autophagic activity. The interrelated role of HGFR inhibition and TLR9/autophagy signaling in HT29 cancer cells subjected to modified self-DNA treatments has not been clarified. We analyzed this complex interplay with cell metabolism and proliferation measurements, TLR9, HGFR and autophagy inhibitory assays and WES Simple Western blot-based autophagy flux measurements, gene expression analyses, immunocytochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. The overexpression of MyD88 and caspase-3 was associated with enhanced HT29 cell proliferation, suggesting that incubation with self-DNAs could suppress the apoptosis-induced compensatory cell proliferation. HGFR inhibition blocked the proliferation-reducing effect of genomic and hypermethylated, but not that of fragmented DNA. Lowest cell proliferation was achieved with the concomitant use of genomic DNA, HGFR inhibitor, and chloroquine, when the proliferation stimulating effect of STAT3 overexpression could be outweighed by the inhibitory effect of LC3B, indicating the putative involvement of HGFR-mTOR-ULK1 molecular cascade in HGFR inhibitor-mediated autophagy. The most intense cell proliferation was caused by the co-administration of hypermethylated DNA, TLR9 and HGFR inhibitors, when decreased expression of both canonical and non-canonical HGFR signaling pathways and autophagy-related genes was present. The observed ultrastructural changes also support the context-dependent role of HGFR inhibition and autophagy on cell survival and proliferation. Further investigation of the influence of the studied signaling pathways and cellular processes can provide a basis for novel, individualized anti-cancer therapies.

Discovering Common Pathophysiological Processes between COVID-19 and Cystic Fibrosis by Differential Gene Expression Pattern Analysis

Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that infect mammals and birds. Coronaviruses cause infections of the respiratory system in humans, which can be minor or fatal. A comparative transcriptomic analysis has been performed to establish essential profiles of the gene expression of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) linked to cystic fibrosis (CF). Transcriptomic studies have been carried out in relation to SARS-CoV-2 since a number of people have been diagnosed with CF. The recognition of differentially expressed genes demonstrated 8 concordant genes shared between the SARS-CoV-2 and CF. Extensive gene ontology analysis and the discovery of pathway enrichment demonstrated SARS-CoV-2 response to CF. The gene ontological terms and pathway enrichment mechanisms derived from this research may affect the production of successful drugs, especially for the people with the following disorder. Identification of TF-miRNA association network reveals the interconnection between TF genes and miRNAs, which may be effective to reveal the other influenced disease that occurs for SARS-CoV-2 to CF. The enrichment of pathways reveals SARS-CoV-2-associated CF mostly engaged with the type of innate immune system, Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease, intestinal immune network for IgA production, mineral absorption, autoimmune thyroid disease, legionellosis, viral myocarditis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), etc. The drug compound identification demonstrates that the drug targets of IMIQUIMOD and raloxifene are the most significant with the significant hub DEGs.

Inspiration for COVID-19 Treatment: Network Analysis and Experimental Validation of Baicalin for Cytokine Storm

Background: Cytokine storm (CS) is a systemic inflammatory syndrome and a major cause of multi-organ failure and even death in COVID-19 patients. With the increasing number of COVID-19 patients, there is an urgent need to develop effective therapeutic strategies for CS. Baicalin is an anti-inflammatory and antiviral traditional Chinese medicine. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic mechanism of baicalin against CS through network analysis and experimental validation, and to detect key targets of CS that may bind closely to baicalin through molecular docking. Method: Access to potential targets of baicalin and CS in public databases. We constructed the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of baicalin and CS by Cytoscape 9.0 software and performed network topology analysis of the potential targets. Then, the hub target was identified by molecular docking technique and validated in the CS model. Finally, GO and KEGG pathway functional enrichment analysis of common targets were confirmed using R language, and the location of overlapping targets in key pathways was queried via KEGG Mapper. Result: A total of 86 overlapping targets of baicalin and CS were identified, among which MAPK14, IL2, FGF2, CASP3, PTGS2, PIK3CA, EGFR, and TNF were the core targets. Moreover, it was found that baicalin bound most closely to TNF through molecular docking, and demonstrated that baicalin can effectively inhibit the elevation of TNF-α in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, bioenrichment analysis revealed that the TNF signaling pathway and IL-17 signaling pathway may be potential key pathways for baicalin to treat CS. Conclusion: Based on this study, baicalin was identified as a potential drug for the alleviation of CS, and the possible key targets and pathways of baicalin for the treatment of CS were elucidated to reveal the main pharmacological mechanisms.

A systematic review and meta-analyses of interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase 3 (IRAK3) action on inflammation in in vivo models for the study of sepsis

Background

Interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase 3 (IRAK3) is a critical modulator of inflammation and is associated with endotoxin tolerance and sepsis. Although IRAK3 is known as a negative regulator of inflammation, several studies have reported opposing functions, and the temporal actions of IRAK3 on inflammation remain unclear. A systematic review and meta-analyses were performed to investigate IRAK3 expression and its effects on inflammatory markers (TNF-α and IL-6) after one- or two-challenge interventions, which mimic the hyperinflammatory and immunosuppression phases of sepsis, respectively, using human or animal in vivo models.

Methods

This systematic review and meta-analyses has been registered in the Open Science Framework (OSF) (Registration DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/V39UR). A systematic search was performed to identify in vivo studies reporting outcome measures of expression of IRAK3 and inflammatory markers. Meta-analyses were performed where sufficient data was available.

Results

The search identified 7778 studies for screening. After screening titles, abstracts and full texts, a total of 49 studies were included in the systematic review. The review identified significant increase of IRAK3 mRNA and protein expression at different times in humans compared to rodents following one-challenge, whereas the increases of IL-6 and TNF-α protein expression in humans were similar to rodent in vivo models. Meta-analyses confirmed the inhibitory effect of IRAK3 on TNF-α mRNA and protein expression after two challenges.

Conclusions

A negative correlation between IRAK3 and TNF-α expression in rodents following two challenges demonstrates the association of IRAK3 in the immunosuppression phase of sepsis. Species differences in underlying biology affect the translatability of immune responses of animal models to human, as shown by the dissimilarity in patterns of IRAK3 mRNA and protein expression between humans and rodents following one challenge that are further influenced by variations in experimental procedures.

The role of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in cancer progression: A possible therapeutic target?

The toll-like receptor (TLR) family consists of vital receptors responsible for pattern recognition in innate immunity, making them the core proteins involved in pathogen detection and eliciting immune responses. The most studied member of this family, TLR4, has been the center of attention regarding its contributory role in many inflammatory diseases including sepsis shock and asthma. Notably, mounting pieces of evidence have proved that this receptor is aberrantly expressed on the tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment in a wide range of cancer types and it is highly associated with the initiation of tumorigenesis as well as tumor progression and drug resistance. Cancer therapy using TLR4 inhibitors has recently drawn scientists' attention, and the promising results of such studies may pave the way for more investigation in the foreseeable future. This review will introduce the key proteins of the TLR4 pathway and how they interact with major growth factors in the tumor microenvironment. Moreover, we will discuss the many aspects of tumor progression affected by the activation of this receptor and provide an overview of the recent therapeutic approaches using various TLR4 antagonists.

The main bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. for alleviation of inflammatory cytokines: A comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi., a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine, has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects, and can be used to treat respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, colitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The main active substances of S. baicalensis, baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside, and oroxylin A, can act directly on immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, and inhibit the production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and other inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and reactive oxygen species. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of the active compounds of S. baicalensis include downregulation of toll-like receptors, activation of the Nrf2 and PPAR signaling pathways, and inhibition of the nuclear thioredoxin system and inflammation-associated pathways such as those of MAPK, Akt, NFκB, and JAK-STAT. Given that in addition to the downregulation of cytokine production, the active constituents of S. baicalensis also have antiviral and antibacterial effects, they may be more promising candidate therapeutics for the prevention of infection-related cytokine storms than are drugs having only antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities.

Inhibitory Effects of the Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Effector Protein HM0539 on Inflammatory Response Through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-кB Axis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and relapsing intestinal inflammatory condition with no effective treatment. Probiotics have gained wide attention because of their outstanding advantages in intestinal health issues. In previous studies, a novel soluble protein, HM0539, which is derived from Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), showed significant protective effects against murine colitis, but no clear precise mechanism for this effect was provided. In this study, we hypothesized that the protective function of HM0539 might be derived from its modulation of the TLR4/Myd88/NF-κB axis signaling pathway, which is a critical pathway widely involved in the modulation of inflammatory responses. To test this hypothesis, the underlying anti-inflammatory effects and associated mechanisms of HM0539 were determined both in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced murine colitis. Our results showed that HM0539 inhibited the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the expression inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) by down-regulating the activation of their respective promoter, and as a result this inhibited the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and nitric oxide (NO). Meanwhile, we demonstrated that HM0539 could ultimately modulate the activation of distal NF-κB by reducing the activation of TLR4 and suppressing the transduction of MyD88. However, even though the overexpression of TLR4 or MyD88 obviously reversed the effect of HM0539 on LPS-induced inflammation, HM0539 still retained some anti-inflammatory activity. Consistent with the in vitro findings, we found that HM0539 inhibited to a great extent the production of inflammatory mediators associated with the suppression of the TLR4/Myd88/NF-κB axis activation in colon tissue. In conclusion, HM0539 was shown to be a promising anti-inflammatory agent, at least in part through its down-regulation of the TLR4-MyD88 axis as well as of the downstream MyD88-dependent activated NF-κB signaling, and hence might be considered as a potential therapeutic option for IBD.

Imiquimod - A toll like receptor 7 agonist - Is an ideal option for management of COVID 19

According to numerous recent publications, the COVID-19 patients have lymphopenia, higher infection-related biomarkers and several elevated inflammatory cytokines (i.e. tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin IL-2R and IL-6). The total number of B cells, T cells and NK cells are significantly decreased. RNA viruses, SARS-CoV-2 included, hit the innate immune system in order to cause infection, through TLRs 3, 7 and 8. Imiquimod is an immune-stimulator that activates TLR 7 and can be used to enhance the innate and adaptive immunity. Preclinical and clinical trials are proposed.

Repurposing of Kinase Inhibitors for Treatment of COVID-19

The outbreak of COVID-19, the pandemic disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spurred an intense search for treatments by the scientific community. In the absence of a vaccine, the goal is to target the viral life cycle and alleviate the lung-damaging symptoms of infection, which can be life-threatening. There are numerous protein kinases associated with these processes that can be inhibited by FDA-approved drugs, the repurposing of which presents an alluring option as they have been thoroughly vetted for safety and are more readily available for treatment of patients and testing in clinical trials. Here, we characterize more than 30 approved kinase inhibitors in terms of their antiviral potential, due to their measured potency against key kinases required for viral entry, metabolism, or reproduction. We also highlight inhibitors with potential to reverse pulmonary insufficiency because of their anti-inflammatory activity, cytokine suppression, or antifibrotic activity. Certain agents are projected to be dual-purpose drugs in terms of antiviral activity and alleviation of disease symptoms, however drug combination is also an option for inhibitors with optimal pharmacokinetic properties that allow safe and efficacious co-administration with other drugs, such as antiviral agents, IL-6 blocking agents, or other kinase inhibitors.

Anemoside B4 protects against Klebsiella pneumoniae- and influenza virus FM1-induced pneumonia via the TLR4/Myd88 signaling pathway in mice

Background

Pneumonia refers to the inflammation of the terminal airway, alveoli and pulmonary interstitium, which can be caused by pathogenic microorganisms, physical and chemical factors, immune damage, and drugs. Anemoside B4, the major ingredient of Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel, exhibited anti-inflammatory activity. However, the therapeutic effect of anemoside B4 on pneumonia has not been unraveled. This study aims to investigate that anemoside B4 attenuates the inflammatory responses in Klebsiella pneumonia (KP)- and influenza virus FM1 (FM1)-induced pneumonia mice model.

Methods

The network pharmacology and molecular docking assays were employed to predict the targets of anemoside B4’s treatment of pneumonia. Two models (bacterial KP-infected mice and virus FM1-infected mice) were employed in our study. BALB/c mice were divided into six groups: control, model group (KP-induced pneumonia or FM1-induced pneumonia), anemoside B4 (B4)-treated group (2.5, 5, 10 mg/kg), and positive drug group (ribavirin or ceftriaxone sodium injection). Blood samples were collected for hematology analysis. The effects of B4 on inflammation-associated mediators were investigated by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and hematoxylin and eosin staining (HE) staining. Proteins expression was quantified by western blotting.

Results

The network results indicated that many pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) participated in anemoside B4’s anti-inflammatory activity. The counts of neutrophil (NEU) and white blood cell (WBC), the level of myeloperoxidase (MPO), and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 increased by KP or FM1 infection, which were reversed by anemoside B4. In addition, anemoside B4 significantly suppressed the FM1-induced expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differential protein-88 (MyD88), and myeloid differentiation protein-2 (MD-2), which were further validated by molecular docking data that anemoside B4 bound to bioactive sites of TLR4. Therefore, anemoside B4 exhibited a significant therapeutic effect on pneumonia via the TLR4/MyD88 pathway.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrated that anemoside B4 attenuates pneumonia via the TLR4/Myd88 signaling pathway, suggesting that anemoside B4 is a promising therapeutic candidate for bacterial-infected or viral-infected pneumonia.

Synthetic MUC1 breast cancer vaccine containing a Toll-like receptor 7 agonist exerts antitumor effects

Adjuvant immunotherapy has recently emerged as a potential treatment strategy for breast cancer. The tumor-associated protein mucin 1 (MUC1) has received increasing attention due to its high expression in numerous types of common tumors, in which MUC1 acts as a cancer antigen. However, the simple mixed composition of an adjuvant and a peptide is not a sufficient rationale for a MUC1 peptide-based vaccine. The present study developed a novel Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist-conjugated MUC1 peptide vaccine (T7-MUC1), which elicited an effective immune response and a robust antitumor effect in a mouse breast cancer model. In vitro, T7-MUC1 significantly increased the release of cytokines in mouse bone marrow dendritic cells and spleen lymphocytes, and induced the dendritic cell-cytokine-induced killer response against tumor cells with high MUC1 expression. In vivo, it was observed that the 4T1 tumor weights in mice immunized with the T7-MUC1 conjugate were reduced by ≥70% compared with those in the control group. Furthermore, the therapeutic responses in vivo were attributed to the increase in specific humoral and cellular immunity, including high antibody titers, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity. The percentages of CD3⁺/CD8⁺ T-cells were significantly higher in the T7-MUC1 treatment group compared with those in the control group. Therefore, the results of the present study suggested that the T7-MUC1 vaccine inhibited tumor growth in mice and thus may have potential as a therapeutic candidate in clinical trials for breast cancer immunotherapy.

Molecular modelling of TLR agonist Pam3CSK4 entrapment in PLA nanoparticles as a tool to explain loading efficiency and functionality

Designing potent and safe-of-use therapies against cancers and infections remains challenging despite the emergence of novel molecule classes like checkpoint inhibitors or Toll-Like-Receptor ligands. The latest therapeutic perspectives under development for immune modulator administration exploits vectorization, and biodegradable delivery systems are one of the most promising vehicles. Nanoparticles based on Poly (D,L) Lactic Acid (PLA) as polymer for formulation are widely investigated due to its bioresorbable, biocompatible and low immunogen properties. We propose a PLA-based nanoparticle delivery system to vectorize Pam₃CSK₄, a lipopeptide TLR1/2 ligand and a potent activator of the proinflammatory transcription factor NF-κB that shows a self-assembling behavior from 30 µg/mL onwards. We demonstrate successful encapsulation of Pam₃CSK₄ in PLA nanoparticles by nanoprecipitation in a 40-180 µg/mL concentration range, with 99% of entrapment efficiency. By molecular modelling, we characterize drug/carrier interactions and conclude that Pam₃CSK₄ forms clusters onto the nanoparticle and is not encapsulated into the hydrophobic core. In silico predictions provide nanoprecipitation optimization and the mechanistic understanding of the particle dynamics. The loaded-Pam₃CSK₄ maintains bioactivity on TLR2, confirmed by in vitro experiments using reporter cell line HEK-Blue hTLR2. Our presented data and results are convincing evidence that Pam₃CSK₄-loaded in PLA nanoparticles represent a promising immune modulating system.