Hepatocellular carcinoma targeting effect of PEGylated liposomes modified with lactoferrin

Multifunctional and stimuli-responsive liposomes in hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most prevalent type of liver cancer, mainly occurring in Asian countries with an increased incidence rate globally. Currently, several kinds of therapies have been deployed for HCC therapy including surgical resection, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy. However, this tumor is still incurable, requiring novel strategies for its treatment. The nanomedicine has provided the new insights regarding the treatment of cancer that liposomes as lipid-based nanoparticles, have been widely applied in cancer therapy due to their biocompaitiblity, high drug loading and ease of synthesis and modification. The current review evaluates the application of liposomes for the HCC therapy. The drugs and genes lack targeting ability into tumor tissues and cells. Therefore, loading drugs or genes on liposomes can increase their accumulation in tumor site for HCC suppression. Moreover, the stimuli-responsive liposomes including pH-, redox- and light-sensitive liposomes are able to deliver drug into tumor microenvironment to improve therapeutic index. Since a number of receptors upregulate on HCC cells, the functionalization of liposomes with lactoferrin and peptides can promote the targeting ability towards HCC cells. Moreover, phototherapy can be induced by liposomes through loading phtoosensitizers to stimulate photothermal- and photodynamic-driven ablation of HCC cells. Overall, the findings are in line with the fact that liposomes are promising nanocarriers for the treatment of HCC.

Integrin αvβ3 and LHRH Receptor Double Directed Nano-Analogue Effective Against Ovarian Cancer in Mice Model

Introduction

The high mortality rate of malignant ovarian cancer is attributed to the absence of effective early diagnosis methods. The LHRH receptor is specifically overexpressed in most ovarian cancers, and the integrin αvβ3 receptor is also overexpressed on the surface of ovarian cancer cells. In this study, we designed LHRH analogues (LHRHa)/RGD co-modified paclitaxel liposomes (LHRHa-RGD-LP-PTX) to target LHRH receptor-positive ovarian cancers more effectively and enhance the anti-ovarian cancer effects.

Methods

LHRHa-RGD-LP-PTX liposomes were prepared using the thin film hydration method. The morphology, physicochemical properties, cellular uptake, and cell viability were assessed. Additionally, the cellular uptake mechanism of the modified liposomes was investigated using various endocytic inhibitors. The inhibitory effect of the formulations on tumor spheroids was observed under a microscope. The co-localization with lysosomes was visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and the in vivo tumor-targeting ability of the formulations was assessed using the IVIS fluorescent imaging system. Finally, the in vivo anti-tumor efficacy of the formulations was evaluated in the armpits of BALB/c nude mice.

Results

The results indicated that LHRHa-RGD-LP-PTX significantly enhanced cellular uptake in A2780 cells, increased cytotoxicity, and hand a more potent inhibitory effect on tumor spheroids of A2780 cells. It also showed enhanced co-localization with endosomes or lysosome in A2780 cells, improved tumor-targeting capability, and demonstrated an enhanced anti-tumor effect in LHRHR-positive ovarian cancers.

Conclusion

The designed LHRHa-RGD-LP-PTX liposomes significantly enhanced the tumor-targeting ability and therapeutic efficacy for LHRH receptor-positive ovarian cancers.

Specific surface modification of liposomes for gut targeting of food bioactive agents

Liposomes have become a research hotspot in recent years as food delivery systems with attractive properties, including the bilayer structure assembled like the cell membrane, reducing the side-effect and improving environmental stability of cargos, controlling release, extending duration of functional ingredients, and high biodegradable and biocompatible abilities in the body. However, the conventional liposomes lack stability during storage and are weak in targeted absorption in the gastrointestinal track. At present, surface modification has been approved to be an effective platform to shield these barricades and help liposomes deliver the agents safely and effectively to the ideal site. In this review, the gastrointestinal stability of conventional liposomes, cargo release models from liposomes, and the biological fate of the core materials after release were emphasized. Then, the strategies in both physical and chemical perspectives to improve the stability and utilization of liposomes in the gastrointestinal tract, and the emerging approaches for improving gut targeting by specifically modified liposomes and the intestinal receptors relative to liposomes/cargos absorption were highlighted. Last but not the least, the safety, challenges, and opportunities for the improvement of liposomal bioavailability were also discussed to inspire new applications of liposomes as oral carriers.

Lactoferrin and Nanotechnology: The Potential for Cancer Treatment

Lactoferrin (Lf)-a glycoprotein of the transferrin family-has been investigated as a promising molecule with diverse applications, including infection inhibition, anti-inflammation, antioxidant properties and immune modulation. Along with that, Lf was found to inhibit the growth of cancerous tumors. Owing to unique properties such as iron-binding and positive charge, Lf could interrupt the cancer cell membrane or influence the apoptosis pathway. In addition, being a common mammalian excretion, Lf offers is promising in terms of targeting delivery or the diagnosis of cancer. Recently, nanotechnology significantly enhanced the therapeutic index of natural glycoproteins such as Lf. Therefore, in the context of this review, the understanding of Lf is summarized and followed by different strategies of nano-preparation, including inorganic nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles and polymer-based nanoparticles in cancer management. At the end of the study, the potential future applications are discussed to pave the way for translating Lf into actual usage.

Lipid based nanoparticles as a novel treatment modality for hepatocellular carcinoma: a comprehensive review on targeting and recent advances

Liver cancer is considered one of the deadliest diseases with one of the highest disease burdens worldwide. Among the different types of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma is considered to be the most common type. Multiple conventional approaches are being used in treating hepatocellular carcinoma. Focusing on drug treatment, regular agents in conventional forms fail to achieve the intended clinical outcomes. In order to improve the treatment outcomes, utilizing nanoparticles-specifically lipid based nanoparticles-are considered to be one of the most promising approaches being set in motion. Multiple forms of lipid based nanoparticles exist including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, phytosomes, lipid coated nanoparticles, and nanoassemblies. Multiple approaches are used to enhance the tumor uptake as well tumor specificity such as intratumoral injection, passive targeting, active targeting, and stimuli responsive nanoparticles. In this review, the effect of utilizing lipidic nanoparticles is being discussed as well as the different tumor uptake enhancement techniques used.

Nanomedicine in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A New Frontier in Targeted Cancer Treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death and is associated with a dismal median survival of 2-9 months. The fundamental limitations and ineffectiveness of current HCC treatments have led to the development of a vast range of nanotechnologies with the goal of improving the safety and efficacy of treatment for HCC. Although remarkable success has been achieved in nanomedicine research, there are unique considerations such as molecular heterogeneity and concomitant liver dysfunction that complicate the translation of nanotheranostics in HCC. This review highlights the progress, challenges, and targeting opportunities in HCC nanomedicine based on the growing literature in recent years.

Development of Encapsulation Strategies and Composite Edible Films to Maintain Lactoferrin Bioactivity: A Review

Lactoferrin (LF) is a whey protein with various and valuable biological activities. For this reason, LF has been used as a supplement in formula milk and functional products. However, it must be considered that the properties of LF can be affected by technological treatments and gastrointestinal conditions. In this article, we have revised the literature published on the research done during the last decades on the development of various technologies, such as encapsulation or composite materials, to protect LF and avoid its degradation. Multiple compounds can be used to conduct this protective function, such as proteins, including those from milk, or polysaccharides, like alginate or chitosan. Furthermore, LF can be used as a component in complexes, nanoparticles, hydrogels and emulsions, to encapsulate, protect and deliver other bioactive compounds, such as essential oils or probiotics. Additionally, LF can be part of systems to deliver drugs or to apply certain therapies to target cells expressing LF receptors. These systems also allow improving the detection of gliomas and have also been used for treating some pathologies, such as different types of tumours. Finally, the application of LF in edible and active films can be effective against some contaminants and limit the increase of the natural microbiota present in meat, for example, becoming one of the most interesting research topics in food technology.

Asialoglycoprotein receptor targeted optical and magnetic resonance imaging and therapy of liver fibrosis using pullulan stabilized multi-functional iron oxide nanoprobe

Early diagnosis and therapy of liver fibrosis is of utmost importance, especially considering the increased incidence of alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver syndromes. In this work, a systematic study is reported to develop a dual function and biocompatible nanoprobe for liver specific diagnostic and therapeutic applications. A polysaccharide polymer, pullulan stabilized iron oxide nanoparticle (P-SPIONs) enabled high liver specificity via asialogycoprotein receptor mediation. Longitudinal and transverse magnetic relaxation rates of 2.15 and 146.91 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹ respectively and a size of 12 nm, confirmed the T₂ weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) efficacy of P-SPIONs. A current of 400A on 5 mg/ml of P-SPIONs raised the temperature above 50 °C, to facilitate effective hyperthermia. Finally, a NIR dye conjugation facilitated targeted dual imaging in liver fibrosis models, in vivo, with favourable histopathological results and recommends its use in early stage diagnosis using MRI and optical imaging, and subsequent therapy using hyperthermia.

Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems for Glaucoma: Experimental and In Silico Advances

In this review, nanoscale-based drug delivery systems, particularly in relevance to the antiglaucoma drugs, have been discussed. In addition to that, the latest computational/in silico advances in this field are examined in brief. Using nanoscale materials for drug delivery is an ideal option to target tumours, and the drug can be released in areas of the body where traditional drugs may fail to act. Nanoparticles, polymeric nanomaterials, single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), quantum dots (QDs), liposomes and graphene are the most important nanomaterials used for drug delivery. Ocular drug delivery is one of the most common and difficult tasks faced by pharmaceutical scientists because of many challenges like circumventing the blood-retinal barrier, corneal epithelium and the blood-aqueous barrier. Authors found compelling empirical evidence of scientists relying on in-silico approaches to develop novel drugs and drug delivery systems for treating glaucoma. This review in nanoscale drug delivery systems will help us understand the existing queries and evidence gaps and will pave the way for the effective design of novel ocular drug delivery systems.

The combination of lactoferrin and linolenic acid inhibits colorectal tumor growth through activating AMPK/JNK-related apoptosis pathway

Colorectal cancer is a common cause of death with few available therapeutic strategies, and the preventative complexes in adjunctive therapy are urgently needed. Increasing evidences have shown that natural ingredients, including lactoferrin, oleic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and linolenic acid, possess anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities. However, investigations and comparisons of their combinations in colorectal tumor model have not been reported, and the mechanism is still unrevealed. In the study, we examined the viability, migration, invasion and apoptosis of HT29 cells to choose the proper doses of these components and to select the effective combination in vitro. BALB/c nude mice bearing colorectal tumor were used to explore the role of selected combination in inhibiting tumor development in vivo. Additionally, metabonomic detection was performed to screen out the specific changed metabolitesand related pathway. The results demonstrated that lactoferrin at 6.25 μM, oleic acid at 0.18 mM, DHA at 0.18 mM, and linolenic acid at 0.15 mM significantly inhibited the viabilities of HT29 cells (p < 0.05). The combination of lactoferrin (6.25 μM) + linolenic acid (0.15 mM) exhibited the strongest activity in inhibiting the migration and invasion of HT29 cells in vivo and suppressing tumor development in vitro (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the lactoferrin + linolenic acid combination activated p-AMPK and p-JNK, thereby inducing apoptosis of HT29 cells (p < 0.05). The present study was the first to show that lactoferrin + linolenic acid combination inhibited HT29 tumor formation by activating AMPK/JNK related pathway.

Insights into Nanotherapeutic Strategies as an Impending Approach to Liver Cancer Treatment

Liver cancer, being the utmost prevalent fatal malignancy worldwide, is ranked as the fifth leading cause of deaths associated with cancer. Patients with liver cancer are diagnosed often at an advanced stage, contributing to poor prognosis. Of all forms of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) contributes to 90% of cases, with chemotherapy being the treatment of choice. However, unfavorable toxicity of chemotherapy drugs and the vulnerability of nucleic acid-based drugs to degradation, have limited their application in clinical settings. So, in order to improvise their therapeutic efficacy in HCC treatment, various nanocarrier drug delivery systems have been explored. Furthermore, nanoparticle based imaging provides valuable means of accurately diagnosing HCC. Thus, in recent years, the advent of nanomedicine has shown great potential and progress in dramatically altering the approach to the diagnosis as well as treatment of liver cancer. Nanoparticles (NPs) are being explored as potential drug carriers for small molecules, miRNAs, and therapeutic genes used for liver cancer treatment. This review emphasizes on the current developments and applications of nanomedicine based therapeutic and diagnostic approaches in HCC.

Nanotechnology Based Approach for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Targeting

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the primary liver cancer that has shown a high incidence and mortality rate worldwide among several types of cancers. A large variety of chemotherapeutic agents employed for the treatment have a limited success rate owing to their limited site-specific drug targeting ability. Thus, there is a demand to develop novel approaches for the treatment of HCC. With advancements in nanotechnology-based drug delivery approaches, the challenges of conventional chemotherapy have been continuously decreasing. Nanomedicines constituted of lipidic and polymeric composites provide a better platform for delivering and opening new pathways for HCC treatment. A score of nanocarriers such as surface-engineered liposomes, nanoparticles, nanotubes, micelles, quantum dots, etc., has been investigated in the treatment of HCC. These nanocarriers are considered to be highly effective clinically for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs with high site-specificity ability and therapeutic efficiency. The present review highlights the current focus on the application of nanocarrier systems using various ligand-based receptor-specific targeting strategies for the treatment and management of HCC. Moreover, the article has also included information on the current clinically approved drug therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment and updates of regulatory requirements for approval of such nanomedicines.

In vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of lupeol-loaded galactosylated liposomes

Lupeol liposomes, modified with Gal-PEG-DSPE, were developed following a thin-film dispersion method. Then, the morphology, physicochemical properties, and in vitro release properties of those liposomes were investigated. The scanning electron microscopic images showed that most of the liposomes were spherical particles; they were similar in size and uniformly dispersed. Both lupeol liposomes and Gal-lupeol liposomes exhibited an average particle size of about 100 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 85%. The encapsulation efficiency of lupeol liposome and Gal-lupeol liposome, stored with 15% sucrose as glycoprotein for 6 months, was higher than 80%; although the particle size increased, they remained within 200 nm. The cell-uptake study demonstrated that the Gal-lupeol-liposome uptake efficiency was the highest in HepG2 cells. The HepG2 cells treated with the Gal-lupeol liposomes had higher apoptotic efficiency than the lupeol liposome and free lupeol. After HepG2 cells were treated with Gal-lupeol liposome, the expressions of AKT/mTOR-related proteins (p-AKT308 and p-AKT473) were also significantly reduced than the lupeol-liposome and free lupeol group. The in vivo targeting studies showed that Gal-NR-L exhibited liver-targeting effects on FVB mice. The pharmacodynamic study was performed by transfecting AKT and c-MET via the high-pressure tail vein of FVB mice. After Gal-lupeol-L administration, the liver index and liver weight of mice were less than those non-targeted group. The histopathological study showed that the lobular structure in the mice liver was clearer, the vacuoles were more obvious, and the cytoplasm was more abundant after Gal-lupeol-L administration. Also, the qRT-PCR study showed that AFP, GPC3, and EpCAM mRNA expression levels were significantly lower than those non-targeted lupeol-liposomes.

Fabrication of Imatinib Mesylate-Loaded Lactoferrin-Modified PEGylated Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles for Mitochondrial-Dependent Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of concern as it has substantial morbidity associated with it. Previous reports have ascertained the antiproliferative activity of imatinib mesylate (IMS) against diverse types of carcinomas, but limited bioavailability has also been reported. The present study envisaged optimized IMS-loaded lactoferrin (LF)-modified PEGylated liquid crystalline nanoparticles (IMS-LF-LCNPs) for effective therapy of IMS to HCC via asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) targeting. Results displayed that IMS-LF-LCNPs presented an optimum particle size of 120.40 ± 2.75 nm, a zeta potential of +12.5 ± 0.23 mV, and 73.94 ± 2.69% release. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy were used to confirm the surface architecture of IMS-LF-LCNPs. The results of cytotoxicity and 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole revealed that IMS-LF-LCNPs had the highest growth inhibition and significant apoptotic effects. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution studies showed that IMS-LF-LCNPs have superior pharmacokinetic performance and targeted delivery compared to IMS-LCNPs and plain IMS, which was attributed to the targeting action of LF that targets the ASGPR in hepatic cells. Next, our in vivo experiment established that the HCC environment existed due to suppression of BAX, cyt c, BAD, e-NOS, and caspase (3 and 9) genes, which thus owed upstream expression of Bcl-xl, iNOS, and Bcl-2 genes. The excellent therapeutic potential of IMS-LF-LCNPs began the significant stimulation of caspase-mediated apoptotic signals accountable for its anti-HCC prospect. ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (serum) metabolomics revealed that IMS-LF-LCNPs are capable of regulating the disturbed levels of metabolites linked to HCC triggered through N-nitrosodiethylamine. Therefore, IMS-LF-LCNPs are a potentially effective formulation against HCC.

Lactoferrin coated or conjugated nanomaterials as an active targeting approach in nanomedicine

A successful drug delivery to a specific site relies on two essential factors including; efficient entrapment of the drug within the carrier and successful delivery of drug- loaded nanocarrier to the target site without opsonisation or drug release in the circulation before reaching the organ of interest. Lactoferrin (LF) is a glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin (TF) family which can bind to TF receptors (TFRs) and LF membrane internalization receptors (LFRs) highly expressed on the cell surface of both highly proliferating cancer cells and blood brain barrier (BBB), which in turn can facilitate its accessibility to the cell nucleus. This merit could be exploited to develop actively targeted drug delivery systems that can easily cross the BBB or internalize into tumor cells. In this review, the most recent advances of utilizing LF as an active targeting ligand for different types of nanocarriers including: inorganic nanoparticles, dendrimers, synthetic biodegradable polymers, lipid nanocarriers, natural polymers, and nanoemulstions will be highlighted. Collectively, LF seems to be a promising targeting ligand in the field of nanomedicine.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of SP94 Modified Liposomes Loaded with N-14NCTDA, a Norcantharimide Derivative for Hepatocellular Carcinoma-Targeting

The purpose of this research is to develop a liposomal drug delivery system, which can selectively target hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to deliver the antitumor agent N-14NCTDA, a C₁₄ alkyl chain norcantharimide derivative of norcantharidin. N-14NCTDA-loaded liposomes were successfully prepared by lipid membrane hydration and extrusion methods. SP94, a targeting peptide for HCC cells, was attached to the liposomes loaded with N-14NCTDA by the post-insertion method to obtain SP94 modified liposomes (SP94-LPs). SP94-LPs had a significant cytotoxicity against Hep G2 cells with the IC₅₀ of 15.395 ± 0.89 μg/mL, which is lower than that of NCTD-S (IC₅₀ = 20.863 ± 0.56 μg/mL) and GAL-LPs (IC₅₀ = 24.589 ± 1.02 μg/mL). Compared with conventional liposomes (Con-LPs), SP94-LPs showed greater cellular uptake in Hep G2 cells. Likewise, significant tumor suppression was achieved in H22 tumor-bearing mice which were treated with SP94-LPs. The tumor inhibition rate (IRw) of SP94-LPs was 82 ± 0.98%, obviously higher than that of GAL-LPs (69 ± 1.39%), Con-LPs (60 ± 2.78%), and NCTD-S (51 ± 3.67%). SP94-LPs exhibited a significant hepatocellular carcinoma-targeting activity in vitro and in vivo, which will provide a new alternative for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment in future. Graphical Abstract.

Diagnostic and therapeutic evaluation of folate-targeted paclitaxel and vinorelbine encapsulating theranostic liposomes for non-small cell lung cancer

NSCLC is the most common type of lung cancer. However, non-specific contrast agents, radiopharmaceuticals, and treatment methods are insufficient in early diagnosis and eradication of all tumor tissue. Therefore, the formulation of a novel, targeted, specific theranostic agents possess critical importance. In our previous study, paclitaxel and vinorelbine encapsulating, Tc-99m radiolabeled, folate targeted, nanosized liposomes were formulated and found promising due to characterization properties, high cellular uptake, and cytotoxicity. In this study, in vivo therapeutic and diagnostic efficacy of liposomal formulations were tested by biodistribution study, evaluation of tumor growth inhibition, and histopathologic examination after in vitro assays on LLC1 cells. Both actively and passively targeted liposomal formulations exhibited high cellular uptake, and co-drug encapsulating liposomes showed a greater cytotoxicity profiles than free drug combination in LLC1 cells. By the results of biodistribution studies performed in NSCLC tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice, the uptake of radiolabeled, actively folate targeted, co-drug encapsulating liposomal formulation was found to be higher in tumor tissue when compared to non-actively targeted one. Also, more effective treatment was achieved by using folate-targeted, co-drug encapsulating liposomal formulation when compared to free drugs combination according to changes in tumor size of mice. Furthermore, liposomal formulations showed lower toxicity compared to free drug combinations in the toxicity study considering body weight. Moreover, according to the histopathological study, folate targeted, co-drug encapsulating liposomes not only inhibited the tumor growth effectively but also restricted the lung metastasis entirely.

Targeting lung cancer stem cells using combination of Tel and Docetaxel liposomes in 3D cultures and tumor xenografts

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) accounts for recurrence and resistance to chemotherapy in various tumors. Efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs is limited by tumor stromal barriers, which hinder their penetration into deep tumor sites. We have earlier shown telmisartan (Tel) pretreatment prior to Docetaxel (DTX) administration enhances anti-cancer effects in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Herein, we demonstrated for the first time the efficacy of Docetaxel liposomes (DTXPL) in combination with Tel in 3D cultures of H460 cells by using polysaccharide-based hydrogels (TheWell Biosciences) and also in xenograft model of DTX resistant H460 derived CD133+ lung tumors. DTXPL and Tel combination showed enhanced cytotoxicity in H460 WT 3D cultures by two folds. In H460 3D cultures, Tel pretreatment showed increased liposomal uptake. DTXPL and Tel combination treated tumors showed reduction in tumor volume (p < .001), increased apoptosis and downregulation of CSC markers (p < .01) in H460 WT and DTX resistant CD133+ xenograft models.

The impact of size and surface ligand of gold nanorods on liver cancer accumulation and photothermal therapy in the second near-infrared window

Gold nanorods (GNRs) with longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peaks in second near-infrared (NIR-II) window have attracted a great amount of attention as photothermal transducer because of their inherently excellent photothermal transition efficiency, high biocompatibility and versatile surface functionalization. One key question for the application of these GNRs against tumors in vivo is which size/shape and surface ligand conjugation are promising for circulation and tumor targeting. In this study, we prepared a series of gold nanorods (GNRs) of similar aspect ratio and LSPR peaks, and thus similar photothermal transfer efficiency under irradiation of 980 nm laser, but with tunable size in width and length. The obtained GNRs were subjected to surface modification with PEG and tumor targeting ligand lactoferrin. With these tailor-designed GNRs in hand, we have the chance to study the impact of dimension and surface property of the GNRs on their internalization via tumor cells, photothermal cytotoxicity in vitro, blood circulation and tissue distribution pattern in vivo. As a result, the GNRs with medium size (70 nm in length and 11.5 nm in width) and surface PEG/LF modification (GNR70@PEG-LF) exhibit the fastest cell internalization via HepG2 cells and best photothermal outcome in vitro. The GNR70@PEG-LF also display long circulation time and the highest tumor accumulation in vivo, due to the synergetic effect of surface coating and dimension. Finally, tumor ablation ability of the GNRs under irradiation of 980 nm light were validated on mice xenograft model, suggesting their potential photothermal therapy against cancer in NIR-II window.

Recent advances of nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy

This review highlights recent advancements in nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy.

Surface engineering of nanomaterials with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates for molecular imaging and targeted therapy

In recent years, phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates have been widely employed to decorate different nanomaterials, due to their excellent biocompatibility, long blood circulation characteristics, and specific targeting capability. Numerous in vivo studies have demonstrated that nanomedicines peripherally engineered with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates show significantly increased selective and efficient internalization by target cells/tissues. Targeting moieties including small-molecule ligands, peptides, proteins, and antibodies are generally conjugated onto PEGylated phospholipids to decorate liposomes, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, nanocomplexes, and nanoemulsions for targeted delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents to diseased sites. In this review, the synthesis methods of phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates, biophysicochemical properties of nanomedicines decorated with these conjugates, factors dominating their targeting efficiency, as well as their applications for in vivo molecular imaging and targeted therapy were summarized and discussed.

Dual-Targeted Lactoferrin Shell-Oily Core Nanocapsules for Synergistic Targeted/Herbal Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Herein, both strategies of synergistic drug combination together with dual active tumor targeting were combined for effective therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, based on the tumor sensitizing action, the herbal quercetin (QRC) was co-delivered with the targeted therapeutic drug sorafenib (SFB), preformulated as phospholipid complex, via protein shell-oily core nanocapsules (NCs). Inspired by the targeting action of lactoferrin (LF) via binding to LF receptors overexpressed by HCC cells, LF shell was electrostatically deposited onto the drug-loaded oily core to elaborate LF shell-oily core NCs. For dual tumor targeting, lactobionic acid (LA) or glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) was individually coupled to LF shell for binding to asialoglycoprotein and GA receptors on liver cancer cells, respectively. Compared to LF and GA/LF NCs, the dual-targeted LA/LF-NCs showed higher internalization into HepG2 cells with 2-fold reduction in half-maximal inhibitory concentration compared to free combination therapy after 48 h. Moreover, dual-targeted LF-NCs showed powerful in vivo antitumor efficacy. It was revealed as significant downregulation of the mRNA expression levels of nuclear factor-kappa B and tumor necrosis factor α as well as suppression of Ki-67 protein expression level in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC mice (P < 0.05). Furthermore, dual-targeted LF-NCs attenuated the liver toxicity induced by DEN in animal models. Overall, this study proposes dual-targeted LF-NCs for combined delivery of SFB and QRC as a potential therapeutic HCC strategy.

CXCR4-targeted liposomal mediated co-delivery of pirfenidone and AMD3100 for the treatment of TGFβ-induced HSC-T6 cells activation

Background: Liver fibrosis is a chronic liver disease associated with an excessive accumulation of extracellualr matrix (ECM) proteins which ultimately lead to cirrohosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Purpose: Liver fibrosis therapies that use combination approaches with the ability to affect multiple disease pathways have proven higher efficacies. This study aimed at optimizing and characterizing the co-encapsulation of pirfenidone (PF) and AMD3100 (AMD) into CXCR4-targeted combination liposomes (CTC liposome) for CXCR4 targeting, and the inhibition of major molecular culprits ie α-SMA, CXCR4, TGFβ, and P-p38 involved in liver fibrosis in-vitro.

Methods: The CTC liposomes were prepared using the thin-film hydration method. The concentration of encapsulated AMD and PF was measured by HPLC and UV spectrophotometry, respectively. Tramsmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to determine the liposomal morphology. The CXCR4 targeting ability was determined by CXCR4 redistribution assay. Confocal microscopy and flowcytometry were used to determine the CXCR4 mediated cell uptake. The apoptosis inducing and protein downreguating ability of CTC liposomes were determined by apoptosis assay and western blot analysis, respectively. In-vivo biodistribution and Hoechst staining were used to confirm the feasibility of CTC liposome for the in-vivo applications and drug targeted accumulation, respectively.

Results: The TEM studies revealed that CTC liposomes were spherical in shape. The cumulative release of AMD and PF from CTC liposome was 67% and 84%, respectively, at 48 h. Compared to the free drug counterparts, encapsulated drugs displayed higher cell viability. The CXCR4 redistribution assay confirmed the CXCR4 targeting and antagonistic ability of CTC liposomes. The CTC liposomes were internalized more effectively via caveolae-mediated endocytic pathways. CTC liposomes displayed aggressive apoptosis (87.3%) in TGFβ-induced activated HSC-T6 cells suggesting a propensity to fibrosis regression. Also, CTC liposomes significantly reduced α-SMA (65%), CXCR4 (77%), TGFβ (89%), and P-p38 (66%) expressions, better than free drugs. CTC@IR780 liposomes (CTC liposomes incorporating IR780 dye) were more accumulated in fibrotic livers compared to free IR780, as judged by in-vivo imaging, biodistribution analysis, and Hoechst staining. These findings suggest that this simple and stable CTC liposomal system holds a great promise for the treatment and prevention of liver fibrosis.

Engineering of Bone- and CD44-Dual-Targeting Redox-Sensitive Liposomes for the Treatment of Orthotopic Osteosarcoma

This study aimed to develop an efficient step-by-step osteosarcoma (OS)-targeting liposome system functionalized with a redox-cleavable, bone- and cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44)-dual-targeting polymer. Furthermore, the effect of coadministration of a tumor-penetrating peptide, internalizing RGD (iRGD), was investigated. First, a bone-targeting moiety, alendronate (ALN), was conjugated with hyaluronic acid (HA), a ligand for CD44. This ALN-HA conjugate was coupled with DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀-COOH through a bioreducible disulfide linker (-SS-) to obtain a functionalized lipid, ALN-HA-SS-L, to be postinserted into preformed liposomes loaded with doxorubicin (DOX). The roles of ALN, HA, and the redox sensitivity of the ALN-HA-SS-L liposomes (ALN-HA-SS-L-L) in the anti-OS effect were critically evaluated against various reference liposomal formulations (with only ALN, HA, or redox sensitivity). ALN-HA-SS-L-L displayed a zeta potential of -26.07 ± 0.32 mV and selectively disassembled in the presence of a reducing agent, 10 mM glutathione, which can be found in cancer cells. Compared to various reference liposomes, ALN-HA-SS-L-L/DOX had significantly higher cytotoxicity to human OS MG-63 cells alongside high and rapid cellular uptake. In the orthotopic OS nude mouse models, ALN-HA-SS-L-L/DOX showed remarkable tumor growth suppression and prolonged survival time. This result was further improved by the coadministration of iRGD. The antitumor effects of various liposomes were ranked in the same order as the degree of tumor biodistribution shown by in vivo/ex vivo imaging: ALN-HA-SS-L-L coadministered with iRGD > ALN-HA-SS-L-L > HA-SS-L-L > HA-L-L > PEG-L> free drug. ALN-HA-SS-L-L/DOX also reduced the cardiotoxicity of DOX and lung metastases. Overall, this study demonstrated that ALN-HA-SS-L-L/DOX, equipped with bone- and CD44-dual-targeting abilities and redox sensitivity, could be a promising OS-targeted therapy. The efficacy could also be augmented by coadministration of iRGD.

Regression of prostate tumors after intravenous administration of lactoferrin-bearing polypropylenimine dendriplexes encoding TNF-α, TRAIL, and interleukin-12

The possibility of using gene therapy for the treatment of prostate cancer is limited by the lack of intravenously administered delivery systems able to safely and selectively deliver therapeutic genes to tumors. Given that lactoferrin (Lf) receptors are overexpressed on prostate cancer cells, we hypothesized that the conjugation of Lf to generation 3-diaminobutyric polypropylenimine dendrimer would improve its transfection and therapeutic efficacy in prostate cancer cells. In this study, we demonstrated that the intravenous administration of Lf-bearing DAB dendriplexes encoding TNFα resulted in the complete suppression of 70% of PC-3 and 50% of DU145 tumors over one month. Treatment with DAB-Lf dendriplex encoding TRAIL led to tumor suppression of 40% of PC-3 tumors and 20% of DU145 tumors. The treatment was well tolerated by the animals. Lf-bearing generation 3-polypropylenimine dendrimer is therefore a highly promising delivery system for non-viral gene therapy of prostate cancer.

Decorating protein nanospheres with lactoferrin enhances oral COX-2 inhibitor/herbal therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

Aim: Lactoferrin (LF)-targeted gliadin nanoparticles (GL-NPs) were developed for targeted oral therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Materials & methods: Celecoxib and diosmin were incorporated in the hydrophobic matrix of GL-NPs whose surface was decorated with LF by electrostatic interaction for binding to asialoglycoprotein receptors overexpressed by liver cancer cells. Results: Targeted GL-NPs showed enhanced cytotoxic activity and increased cellular uptake in liver tumor cells compared with nontargeted NPs. Moreover, they demonstrated superior in vivo antitumor effects including reduction in the expression levels of tumor biomarkers and induction of caspase-mediated apoptosis. Ex vivo imaging of isolated organs exhibited extensive accumulation of NPs in livers more than other organs. Conclusion: LF-targeted GL-NPs could be considered as an efficient nanoplatform for targeted oral drug delivery for liver cancer therapy.

Dual-targeted casein micelles as green nanomedicine for synergistic phytotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

In recent years, green nanomedicines have made transformative difference in cancer therapy researches. Herein, we propose dual-functionalized spray-dried casein micelles (CAS-MCs) for combined delivery of two phytochemicals; berberine (BRB) and diosmin (DSN) as targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The nanomicelles enabled parenteral delivery of the poorly soluble DSN via its encapsulation within their hydrophobic core. Moreover, sustained release of the water soluble BRB was attained by hydrophobic ion pairing with sodium deoxycholate followed by genipin crosslinking of CAS-MCs. Dual-active targeting of MCs, via conjugating both lactobionic acid (LA) and folic acid (FA), resulted in superior cytotoxicity and higher cellular uptake against HepG2 cells compared to single-targeted and non-targeted CAS-MCs. The dual-targeted DSN/BRB-loaded CAS-MCs demonstrated superior in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in HCC bearing mice as revealed by down regulation of cell necrosis markers (NF-κB and TNF-α), inflammatory marker COX2, inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis. Histopathological analysis and immunohistochemical Ki67 staining confirmed the superiority of the dual-targeted micelles. Ex-vivo imaging showed preferential liver-specific accumulation of dual-targeted CAS-MCs. Overall, this approach combined the benefits of traditional herbal medicine with nanotechnology via LA/FA-CAS-MCs loaded with BRB and DSN as a promising nanoplatform for targeted HCC therapy.

Liposome-chaperoned cell-free synthesis for the design of proteoliposomes: Implications for therapeutic delivery

Cell-free (CF) protein synthesis has emerged as a powerful technique platform for efficient protein production in vitro. Liposomes have been widely studied as therapeutic carriers due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, flexible surface manipulation, easy preparation, and higher cargo encapsulation capability. However, rapid immune clearance, insufficient targeting capacity, and poor cytoplasmic delivery efficiency substantially restrict their clinical application. The incorporation of functional membrane proteins (MPs) or peptides allows the transfer of biological properties to liposomes and imparts them with improved circulation, increased targeting, and efficient intracellular delivery. Liposome-chaperoned CF synthesis enables production of proteoliposomes in one-step reaction, which not only substantially simplifies the production procedure but also keeps protein functionality intact. Building off these observations, proteoliposomes with integrated MPs represent an excellent candidate for therapeutic delivery. In this review, we describe recent advances in CF synthesis with emphasis on detailing key factors for improving CF expression efficiency. Furthermore, we provide insights into strategies for rational design of proteoliposomal nanodelivery systems via CF synthesis.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Liposome-chaperoned CF synthesis has emerged as a powerful approach for the design of recombinant proteoliposomes in one-step reaction. The incorporation of bioactive MPs or peptides into liposomes via CF synthesis can facilitate the development of proteoliposomal nanodelivery systems with improved circulation, increased targeting, and enhanced cellular delivery capacity. Moreover, by adapting lessons learned from natural delivery vehicles, novel bio-inspired proteoliposomes with enhanced delivery properties could be produced in CF systems. In this review, we first give an overview of CF synthesis with focus on enhancing protein expression in liposome-chaperoned CF systems. Furthermore, we intend to provide insight into harnessing CF-synthesized proteoliposomes for efficient therapeutic delivery.

Cleavable PEGylation: a strategy for overcoming the "PEG dilemma" in efficient drug delivery

To prolong the circulation time of drug, PEGylation has been widely used via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, thereby providing new hope for better treatment. However, PEGylation also brings the "PEG dilemma", which is difficult for the cellular absorption of drugs and subsequent endosomal escape. As a result, the activity of drugs is inevitably lost after PEG modification. To achieve successful drug delivery for effective treatment, the crucial issue associated with the use of PEG-lipids, that is, “PEG dilemma” must be addressed. In this paper, we introduced the development and application of nanocarriers with cleavable PEGylation, and discussed various strategies for overcoming the PEG dilemma. Compared to the traditional ones, the vehicle systems with different environmental-sensitive PEG-lipids were discussed, which cleavage can be achieved in response to the intracellular as well as the tumor microenvironment. This smart cleavable PEGylation provides us an efficient strategy to overcome “PEG dilemma”, thereby may be a good candidate for the cancer treatment in future.

Preparation, characterization, in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor effect of thalidomide nanoparticles on lung cancer

Introduction

Thalidomide (THA) is an angiogenesis inhibitor and an efficient inhibitor of the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). However, the clinical application of THA has been limited due to hydrophobicity of the compound.

Materials and methods

To increase the water solubility of THA and in order to evaluate the anticancer abilities of this material on human lung carcinoma, methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) nanoparticles loaded with THA (THA-NPs) were prepared. The synthesis of THA-NPs was carried out via a dialysis method with relative satisfactory encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, size distribution, and zeta potential.

Results

A cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that THA-NPs inhibited the growth of cells in a dose-dependent manner. The evaluation of anti-tumor activity in vivo showed that THA-NPs could inhibit tumor growth and prolong the survival rate of tumor-bearing mice. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that THA-NPs inhibited cell proliferation (Ki-67 positive rate, 32.8%±4.2%, P<0.01), and resulted in a decreased rate of the tumor tissue microvessel density (3.87%±0.77%, P<0.01), VEGF (26.67%±4.02%, P<0.01), and TNF-α (75.21±6.85 ng/mL, P<0.01).

Conclusion

In general, the drug delivery system reported herein may shed light on future targeted therapy in lung cancer treatment.

A novel lactoferrin-modified stealth liposome for hepatoma-delivery of triiodothyronine

Triiodothyronine (T3), a thyroid hormone synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland, plays an essential role in morphogenesis and differentiation through interaction with its nuclear receptors (TRs). However, there are increasing evidences for its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) suppression. The aim of this work was to develop an effective hepatocellular carcinoma targeting drug delivery system to improve T3 delivery to hepatic cancer cells as well as to reduce toxic side effects. Three different liposomal systems, such as unmodified, Stealth (PEGylated) and Lactoferrin (Lf)-modified-Stealth liposomes were successfully prepared by the film hydration method, and fully characterized. Liposome cell interactions and cellular uptake were evaluated in three different HCC target cells (FaO, HepG2 and SKHep) by confocal microscopy. Finally, in vitro cytotoxicity studies were carried out by using MTT assay to evaluate toxicity of the liposome delivery system and to test the effect of T3 when incorporated into liposomes. Internalization studies, performed using Lf-modified-liposomes labeled with the lipophilic marker Rho-PE and loaded with the hydrophilic probe CF, clearly demonstrated the effective internalization of both hydrophilic and lipophilic markers. Lf-liposomes might markedly enhance the specific cell binding and cellular uptake in hepatoma cells due to the mediating of Lf that could bind with high affinity to multiple receptors on cell surface, such as ASGP-R. Results obtained from this study highlight that the Lf- modified-liposomal delivery system may ensure a specific and sustained T3 delivery, thus, allowing reduced therapeutic doses and deleterious side effects of T3.

In vitro and In vivo Studies on a Novel Bioadhesive Colloidal System: Cationic Liposomes of Ibuprofen

The objective of this study was to develop an ocular drug delivery system built on the cationic liposomes, a novel bioadhesive colloidal system, which could enhance the precorneal residence time, ocular permeation, and bioavailability of ibuprofen. The optimal formulation of cationic liposomes prepared by ethanol injection method was ultimately confirmed by an orthogonal L₉ (3³) test design. In addition, γ-scintigraphic technology and the microdialysis technique were utilized in the assessment of in vivo precorneal retention capability and ocular bioavailability individually. In the end, we acquired the optimal formulation of ibuprofen cationic liposomes (Ibu-CL) by orthogonal test design, and the particle size and entrapment efficiency (EE%) were 121.0 ± 3.5 nm and 72.9 ± 3.4%, respectively. In comparison to ibuprofen eye drops (Ibu-ED), Ibu-CL could significantly prolong the T _max to 100 min and the AUC to 1.53-folds, which indicated that the Ibu-CL could improve the precorneal retention time and bioavailability of ibuprofen. Consequently, these outcomes designated that the ibuprofen cationic liposomes we researched probably are a promising application in ocular drug delivery system.

Surface Engineering of Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery to Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-associated deaths worldwide. There is a lack of efficient therapy for HCC; the only available first-line systemic drug, sorafenib, can merely improve the average survival by two months. Among the efforts to develop an efficient therapy for HCC, nanomedicine has drawn the most attention, owing to its unique features such as high drug-loading capacity, intrinsic anticancer activities, integrated diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities, and easy surface engineering with targeting ligands. Despite its tremendous advantages, no nanomedicine can be effective unless it successfully targets the tumor site, which is a challenging task. In this review, the features of HCC are described, and the physiological hurdles that prevent nanoparticles from targeting HCC are discussed. Then, the surface physicochemical factors of nanoparticles that can influence targeting efficiency are discussed. Finally, a thorough description of the physiological barriers that nanomedicine must conquer before uptake by HCC cells if possible is provided, as well as the surface engineering approaches to nanomedicine to achieve targeted delivery to HCC cells. The physiological hurdles and corresponding solutions summarized in this review provide a general guide for the rational design of HCC targeting nanomedicine systems.

Recent advancements in liposomes targeting strategies to cross blood-brain barrier (BBB) for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

In this modern era, with the help of various advanced technologies, medical science has overcome most of the health-related issues successfully. Though, some diseases still remain unresolved due to various physiological barriers. One such condition is Alzheimer; a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory impairment, behavioral abnormalities, mood swing and disturbed routine activities of the person suffering from. It is well known to all that the brain is entirely covered by a protective layer commonly known as blood brain barrier (BBB) which is responsible to maintain the homeostasis of brain by restricting the entry of toxic substances, drug molecules, various proteins and peptides, small hydrophilic molecules, large lipophilic substances and so many other peripheral components to protect the brain from any harmful stimuli. This functionally essential structure creates a major hurdle for delivery of any drug into the brain. Still, there are some provisions on BBB which facilitate the entry of useful substances in the brain via specific mechanisms like passive diffusion, receptor-mediated transcytosis, carrier-mediated transcytosis etc. Another important factor for drug transport is the selection of a suitable drug delivery systems like, liposome, which is a novel drug carrier system offering a potential approach to resolving this problem. Its unique phospholipid bilayer structure (similar to physiological membrane) had made it more compatible with the lipoidal layer of BBB and helps the drug to enter the brain. The present review work focused on various surface modifications with functional ligand (like lactoferrin, transferrin etc.) and carrier molecules (such as glutathione, glucose etc.) on the liposomal structure to enhance its brain targeting ability towards the successful treatment of Alzheimer disease.

Neuroprotection against apoptosis of SK-N-MC cells using RMP-7- and lactoferrin-grafted liposomes carrying quercetin

A drug delivery system of quercetin (QU)-encapsulated liposomes (LS) grafted with RMP-7, a bradykinin analog, and lactoferrin (Lf) was developed to permeate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and rescue degenerated neurons, acting as an Alzheimer's disease (AD) pharmacotherapy. This colloidal formulation of QU-encapsulated LS grafted with RMP-7 and Lf (RMP-7-Lf-QU-LS) was used to traverse human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) regulated by human astrocytes (HAs) and to treat SK-N-MC cells after an insult with cytotoxic β-amyloid (Aβ) fibrils. We found that surface RMP-7 and Lf enhanced the ability of QU to cross the BBB without inducing strong toxicity and damaging the tight junction. In addition, RMP-7-Lf-QU-LS significantly reduced Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and improved the viability of SK-N-MC cells. Compared with free QU, RMP-7-Lf-QU-LS could also significantly inhibit the expression of phosphorylated c-Jun N terminal kinase, phosphorylated p38, and phosphorylated tau protein at serine 202 by SK-N-MC cells, indicating an important role of RMP-7, Lf, and LS in protecting neurons against apoptosis. RMP-7-Lf-QU-LS is a promising carrier targeting the BBB to prevent Aβ-insulted neurodegeneration and may have potential in managing AD in future clinical applications.

Asialoglycoprotein receptor targeted delivery of doxorubicin nanoparticles for hepatocellular carcinoma

We report asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR)-targeted doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox) nanoparticles (NPs) for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Polyethylene sebacate (PES)-Gantrez® AN 119 Dox NPs of average size 220 nm with PDI < 0.62 and ∼20% Dox loading were prepared by modified nanoprecipitation. ASGPR ligands, pullulan (Pul), arabinogalactan (AGn), and the combination (Pul-AGn), were anchored by adsorption. Ligand anchoring enabled high liver uptake with a remarkable hepatocyte:nonparenchymal cell ratio of 85:15. Furthermore, Pul-AGn NPs exhibited an additive effect implying incredibly high hepatocyte accumulation. Galactose-mediated competitive inhibition confirmed ASGPR-mediated uptake of ligand-anchored NPs in HepG2 cell lines. Subacute toxicity in rats confirmed the safety of the NP groups. However, histopathological evaluation suggested mild renal toxicity of AGn. Pul NPs revealed sustained reduction in tumor volume in PLC/PRF/5 liver tumor-bearing Nod/Scid mice up to 46 days. Extensive tumor necrosis, reduced collagen content, reduction in the HCC biomarker serum α-fetoprotein (p < 0.05), a mitotic index of 1.135 (day 46), and tumor treated/tumor control (T/C) values of <0.42 signified superior efficacy of Pul NPs. Furthermore, weight gain in the NP groups, and no histopathological alterations indicated that they were well tolerated by the mice. The high efficacy coupled with greater safety portrayed Pul Dox NPs as a promising nanocarrier for improved therapy of HCC.

Protein-lipid nanohybrids as emerging platforms for drug and gene delivery: Challenges and outcomes

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have been long used to deliver a vast range of drugs and bioactives owing to their ability to demonstrate novel physical, chemical, and/or biological properties. An exponential growth has spurred in research and development of these nanocarriers which led to the evolution of a great number of diverse nanosystems including liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), metallic NPs, and carbon nanotubes. Among them, lipid-based nanocarriers have made the largest progress whether commercially or under development. Despite this progress, these lipid-based nanocarriers suffer from several limitations that led to the development of many protein-coated lipid nanocarriers. To less extent, protein-based nanocarriers suffer from limitations that led to the fabrication of some lipid bilayer enveloping protein nanocarriers. This review discusses in-depth some limitations associated with the lipid-based or protein-based nanocarriers and the fruitful outcomes brought by protein-lipid hybridization. Also discussed are the various hybridization techniques utilized to formulate these protein-lipid nanohybrids and the mechanisms involved in the drug loading process.

Enhanced therapeutic efficacy of LHRHa-targeted brucea javanica oil liposomes for ovarian cancer

Background

Although brucea javanica oil liposomes (BJOLs) have been used clinically to treat ovarian cancer, its clinical efficacy is often limited by systemic side effects due to non-specific distribution. Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone receptor (LHRHR) is overexpressed in most ovarian cancers but negligibly expressed in most of the other visceral organs. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel LHRHa targeted and BJO-loaded liposomes (LHRHa-BJOLs), and investigate its characteristics, targeting ability and anti-ovarian cancer efficiency both in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

The LHRHa-BJOLs were prepared by film-dispersion and biotin-streptavidin linkage methods, and characterized in terms of its morphology, particle size, zeta potential, ligand conjugation, encapsulation efficiency and stability. The targeting nature and antitumor effects of the liposomes were evaluated in vitro using cultured human ovarian cancer A2780/DDP cells, and in vivo using ovarian cancer-bearing nude mice.

Results

The LHRHa-BJOLs were successfully synthesized, with a uniformly spherical shape, appropriate particle size and zeta potential, as well as a high encapsulation efficiency. Compared to non-targeted liposomes and BJO emulsion, the LHRHa-BJOLs could significantly increase specific intracellular uptaking rate, enhance cell inhibitory effect and induce cell apoptosis in A2780/DDP cells in vitro. Meanwhile, LHRHa-BJOLs also had a significantly stronger activity of targeting tumor tissue, inhibiting tumor growth, inducing tumor apoptosis and prolonging survival time in ovarian cancer-bearing mice in vivo.

Conclusions

Our experiment suggests that LHRHa-BJOLs may be a useful targeted drug for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Tumor stromal disrupting agent enhances the anticancer efficacy of docetaxel loaded PEGylated liposomes in lung cancer

AIM

Therapeutic efficacy of anticancer nanomedicine is compromised by tumor stromal barriers. The present study deals with the development of docetaxel loaded PEGylated liposomes (DTXPL) and to investigate the effect of tumor stroma disrupting agent, telmisartan, on anticancer efficacy of DTXPL.

METHODS

DTXPL was prepared using proprietary modified hydration method. Effect of oral telmisartan treatment on tumor uptake of coumarin-6 liposomes and anticancer efficacy of DTXPL was evaluated in orthotopic xenograft lung tumor bearing mice.

RESULTS

DTXPL (105.7 ± 3.8 nm) showed very high physical stability, negligible hemolysis, 428% enhancement in bioavailability with significantly higher intratumoral uptake. Marked reduction in collagen-I, MMP2/9 and lung tumor weight were observed in DTXPL+telmisartan group.

CONCLUSION

Combination of DTXPL with telmisartan could significantly enhance clinical outcome in lung cancer.

Drug delivery system targeting advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: Current and future

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has a fairly high morbidity and is notoriously difficult to treat due to long latent period before detection, multidrug resistance and severe drug-related adverse effects from chemotherapy. Targeted drug delivery systems (DDS) that can selectively deliver therapeutic drugs into tumor sites have demonstrated a great potential in cancer treatment, which could be utilized to resolve the limitations of conventional chemotherapy. Numerous preclinical studies of DDS have been published, but targeted DDS for HCC has yet to be made for practical clinical use. Since rational targeted DDS design should take cancer-specific properties into consideration, we have reviewed the biological and physicochemical properties of HCC extensively to provide a comprehensive understanding on HCC, and recent DDS studies on HCC, aiming to find some potential targeted DDSs for HCC treatment and a meaningful platform for further development of HCC treatments.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

Hepatocellular carcinoma has a high incidence worldwide and is known to be multidrug resistant. Thus, intensive research is being carried out to find better chemotherapeutic agents as well as new drug delivery systems. In this article, the authors reviewed in depth the current challenges facing new drug designs and also outlined novel targeted drug delivery systems (DDS) in the fight against HCC.

Potential Use of Biological Proteins for Liver Failure Therapy

Biological proteins have unlimited potential for use as pharmaceutical products due to their various biological activities, which include non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Recent scientific advances allow for the development of novel innovative protein-based products that draw on the quality of their innate biological activities. Some of them hold promising potential for novel therapeutic agents/devices for addressing hepatic diseases such as hepatitis, fibrosis, and hepatocarcinomas. This review attempts to provide an overview of the development of protein-based products that take advantage of their biological activity for medication, and discusses possibilities for the therapeutic potential of protein-based products produced through different approaches to specifically target the liver (or hepatic cells: hepatocytes, hepatic stellate cells, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, and Kupffer cells) in the treatment of hepatic diseases.

In vitro study of novel gadolinium-loaded liposomes guided by GBI-10 aptamer for promising tumor targeting and tumor diagnosis by magnetic resonance imaging

Novel gadolinium-loaded liposomes guided by GBI-10 aptamer were developed and evaluated in vitro to enhance magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis of tumor. Nontargeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes were achieved by incorporating amphipathic material, Gd (III) [N,N-bis-stearylamidomethyl-N'-amidomethyl] diethylenetriamine tetraacetic acid, into the liposome membrane using lipid film hydration method. GBI-10, as the targeting ligand, was then conjugated onto the liposome surface to get GBI-10-targeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes (GTLs). Both nontargeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes and GTLs displayed good dispersion stability, optimal size, and zeta potential for tumor targeting, as well as favorable imaging properties with enhanced relaxivity compared with a commercial MRI contrast agent (CA), gadopentetate dimeglumine. The use of GBI-10 aptamer in this liposomal system was intended to result in increased accumulation of gadolinium at the periphery of C6 glioma cells, where the targeting extracellular matrix protein tenascin-C is overexpressed. Increased cellular binding of GTLs to C6 cells was confirmed by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and MRI, demonstrating the promise of this novel delivery system as a carrier of MRI contrast agent for the diagnosis of tumor. These studies provide a new strategy furthering the development of nanomedicine for both diagnosis and therapy of tumor.