Gellan gum-based hydrogel containing nanocapsules for vaginal indole-3-carbinol delivery in trichomoniasis treatment

Indole-3-carbinol loaded-nanocapsules modulated inflammatory and oxidative damages and increase skin wound healing in rats

This study evaluated the effects of topically applied hydrogels (HG) containing nanoencapsulated indol-3-carbinol (I3C) and its free form in a rat model of skin wounds. Formulations were topically applied twice a day for five days to the wounds. On days 1, 3, and 6, the wound area was measured to verify the % of regression. On the sixth day, the animals were euthanized for the analysis of the inflammatory and oxidative profile in wounds. The nanocapsules (NC) exhibited physicochemical characteristics compatible with this kind of suspension. After five hours of exposure to ultraviolet C, more than 78% of I3C content in the suspensions was still observed. The NC-I3C did not modify the physicochemical characteristics of HG when compared to the HG base. In the in vivo study, an increase in the size of the wound was observed on the 3rd experimental day, which was lower in the treated groups (mainly in HG-NC-I3C) compared to the control. On the 6th day, HG-I3C, HG-NC-B, and HG-NC-I3C showed lower regression of the wound compared to the control. Additionally, HG-NC-I3C exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect (as observed by decreased levels of interleukin-1B and myeloperoxidase), reduced oxidative damage (by decreased reactive species, lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation levels), and increased antioxidant defense (by improved catalase activity and vitamin C levels) compared to the control. The current study showed more satisfactory results in the HG-NC-I3C group than in the free form of I3C in decreasing acute inflammation and oxidative damage in wounds.

Recent advances on biomedical applications of gellan gum: A review

Gellan gum (GG) has attracted considerable attention as a versatile biopolymer with numerous potential biological applications, especially in the fields of tissue engineering, wound healing, and cargo delivery. Due to its distinctive characteristics like biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and gel-forming ability, GG is well-suited for these applications. This review focuses on recent research on GG-based hydrogels and biocomposites and their biomedical applications. It discusses the incorporation of GG into hydrogels for controlled drug release, its role in promoting wound healing processes, and its potential in tissue engineering for various tissues including bone, retina, cartilage, vascular, adipose, and cardiac tissue. It provides an in-depth analysis of the latest findings and advancements in these areas, making it a valuable resource for researchers and professionals in these fields.

Cyclodextrin-grafted redox-responsive hydrogel mediated by disulfide bridges for regulated drug delivery

In this paper, a novel mono-methacrylated β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) monomer mediated by disulfide bond was synthesized, and then thermal copolymerized with HEMA monomer in the presence of a little crosslinker to prepare redox-responsive hydrogel for regulated drug delivery. The structure of the monomer was confirmed by FTIR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR spectroscopy. The substitution degree of polymerizable methacrylated group grafted onto β-CD was about 1 by calculating by1H NMR (0.987) and element analysis (0.937). The mono-methacrylated β-CD monomer can well copolymerize with 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) monomer with gel fraction over 80%. The hydrogel shows low cytotoxicity, and copolymerization of the mono-methacrylated β-CD monomer in the hydrogels increases its equilibrium swelling degree (ESD) and tensile strength, while its transmittance slightly decreases. Drug loading and release rate are dependent on the β-CD content. The hydrogel with high β-CD content of 13.83 wt% shows 1.8 and 8.5 folds puerarin (PUE) and curcumin (CUR) loading than pure pHEMA hydrogel, respectively. The incorporation of β-CD sustained drug release, especially CUR release was prolonged more than 24 h from 5 h of pure pHEMA hydrogel (80% release). The hydrogels are highly sensitive to reduced glutathione (GSH), and low concentration of GSH of 3 mM can significantly accelerate drug release rate. The higher of β-CD content, the more sensitive the hydrogels to GSH, resulting in rapider drug release rate.

Carrageenan-xanthan nanocomposite film with improved bioadhesion and permeation profile in human skin: A cutaneous-friendly platform for ketoprofen local delivery

Ketoprofen (KET), commonly used for inflammation in clinical settings, leads to systemic adverse effects with prolonged use, mitigated by topical administration. Nanotechnology-based cutaneous forms, like films, may enhance KET efficacy. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare and characterize films containing KET nanoemulsions (F-NK) regarding mechanical properties, chemical composition and interactions, occlusive potential, bioadhesion, drug permeation in human skin, and safety. The films were prepared using a κ-carrageenan and xanthan gum blend (2 % w/w, ratio 3: 1) plasticized with glycerol through the solvent casting method. Non-nanoemulsioned KET films (F-K) were prepared for comparative purposes. F-NK was flexible and hydrophilic, exhibited higher drug content and better uniformity (94.40 ± 3.61 %), maintained the NK droplet size (157 ± 12 nm), and was thinner and lighter than the F-K. This film also showed increased tensile strength and Young's modulus values, enhanced bioadhesion and occlusive potential, and resulted in more of the drug in the human skin layers. Data also suggested that nano-based formulations are homogeneous and more stable than F-KET. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests suggested the formulations' safety. Thus, the nano-based film is suitable for cutaneous KET delivery, which may improve the drug's efficacy in managing inflammatory conditions.

New horizon of rosehip seed oil: Extraction, characterization for its potential applications as a functional ingredient

In recent years, rosehip is gaining more attention due to its high nutritional and medicinal value. Rosehip seeds usually discarded as waste, contain oil with high bioactive potential. These nutritional properties recommend the use of rosehip seed oil (RSO) to develop innovative food, pharma, and cosmetic products. In this review, different conventional and novel technologies for the extraction of RSO in terms of optimized conditions for better extraction of oil are discussed. In the lateral section of the manuscript, the detailed composition and biological activities of RSO are reviewed. Finally, a glimpse of the recent applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry are provided. This review could provide a comprehensive understanding of the value of RSO and promote its nutrition research and commercial product development.

Xanthan-carrageenan film containing sesame seed oil: A nanocomposite pharmaceutical platform for trichomoniasis treatment

Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted infection that poses significant complications for women. Challenges in treatment include adverse effects and resistance to standard antimicrobial agents. Given this context, a sesame seed oil nanoemulsion (SONE) was developed and showed anti-Trichomonas vaginalis activity. To facilitate the local application of SONE, a polysaccharide film was developed using xanthan gum (XG) and κ-carrageenan gum (CG). A blend of XG and CG (at 2 %, ratio 1:3) plasticized with glycerol produced a more promising film (XCF) than using the gums individually. The film containing SONE (SONE-XCF) was successfully obtained by replacing the aqueous solvent with SONE via solvent evaporation technique. The hydrophilic SONE-XCF exhibited homogeneity and suitable mechanical properties for vaginal application. Furthermore, SONE-XCF demonstrated mucoadhesive properties and high absorption capacity for excessive vaginal fluids produced in vaginitis. It also had a disintegration time of over 8 h, indicating long retention at the intended site of action. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests confirmed the safety of the film. Therefore, SONE-XCF is a biocompatible film with a natural composition and inherent activity against T. vaginalis, possessing exceptional characteristics that make it appropriate for vaginal application, offering an interesting alternative for trichomoniasis treatment.

The Association of Oleic Acid and Dexamethasone Acetate into Nanocapsules Enables a Reduction in the Effective Corticosteroid Dose in a UVB Radiation-Induced Sunburn Model in Mice

Dexamethasone has a high anti-inflammatory efficacy in treating skin inflammation. However, its use is related to the rebound effect, rosacea, purple, and increased blood glucose levels. Nanotechnology approaches have emerged as strategies for drug delivery due to their advantages in improving therapeutic effects. To reduce dexamethasone-related adverse effects and improve the anti-inflammatory efficacy of treatments, we developed nanocarriers containing this corticosteroid and oleic acid. Nanocapsules and nanoemulsion presented dexamethasone content close to the theoretical value and controlled dexamethasone release in an in vitro assay. Gellan gum-based hydrogels were successfully prepared to employ the nanostructured systems. A permeation study employing porcine skin showed that hydrogels containing non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.025%) plus oleic acid (3%) or oleic acid (3%) plus dexamethasone (0.025%)-loaded nanocapsules provided a higher amount of dexamethasone in the epidermis compared to non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.5%). Hydrogels containing oleic acid plus dexamethasone-loaded nanocapsules effectively inhibited mice ear edema (with inhibitions of 89.26 ± 3.77% and 85.11 ± 2.88%, respectively) and inflammatory cell infiltration (with inhibitions of 49.58 ± 4.29% and 27.60 ± 11.70%, respectively). Importantly, the dexamethasone dose employed in hydrogels containing the nanocapsules that effectively inhibited ear edema and cell infiltration was 20-fold lower (0.025%) than that of non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.5%). Additionally, no adverse effects were observed in preliminary toxicity tests. Our study suggests that nanostructured hydrogel containing a reduced effective dose of dexamethasone could be a promising therapeutic alternative to treat inflammatory disorders with reduced or absent adverse effects. Additionally, testing our formulation in a clinical study on patients with skin inflammatory diseases would be very important to validate our study.

Biomolecules based hydrogels and their potential biomedical applications: A comprehensive review

The need for biocompatible drug carriers has been significantly increased from the past few years. Researchers show great interest in the development of more versatile and sophisticated biomaterials based drug carriers. Hydrogels are beneficial drug carriers and easily release the controlled amount of drug at target site due to its tunable structure. The hydrogels made-up of potent biological macromolecules including collagen, gelatin, fibrin, elastin, fibroin, chitosan, starch, alginate, agarose and carrageenan have been proven as versatile biomaterials. These are three-dimensional polymeric networks, synthesized by crosslinking of hydrophilic polymers. The biological macromolecules based hydrogels containing therapeutic substances are used in a wide range of biomedical applications including wound healing, tissue engineering, cosmetics and contact lenses. However, many aspects related to hydrogels such as the mechanism of cross-linking and molecular entanglement are not clear. So, there is a need to do more research and exploration toward the extensive and cost-effective use of hydrogels. The present review article elaborately discusses the biomolecules based hydrogels and their possible biomedical applications in different fields.

Karaya/Gellan-Gum-Based Bilayer Films Containing 3,3'-Diindolylmethane-Loaded Nanocapsules: A Promising Alternative to Melanoma Topical Treatment

This study aimed to incorporate nanocapsules containing 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) with antitumor activity into a bilayer film of karaya and gellan gums for use in topical melanoma therapy. Nanocarriers and films were prepared by interfacial deposition of the preformed polymer and solvent casting methods, respectively. Incorporating DIM into nanocapsules increased its antitumor potential against human melanoma cells (A-375) (IC50 > 24.00 µg/mL free DIM × 2.89 µg/mL nanocapsules). The films were transparent, hydrophilic (θ < 90°), had homogeneous thickness and weight, and had a DIM content of 106 µg/cm2. Radical ABTS+ scavenger assay showed that the DIM films presented promising antioxidant action. Remarkably, the films showed selective bioadhesive potential on the karaya gum side. Considering the mechanical analyses, the nanotechnology-based films presented appropriate behavior for cutaneous application and controlled DIM release profile, which could increase the residence time on the application site. Furthermore, the nanofilms were found to increase the permeation of DIM into the epidermis, where melanoma develops. Lastly, the films were non-hemolytic (hemolysis test) and non-irritant (HET-CAM assay). In summary, the combination of karaya and gellan gum in bilayer films that contain nanoencapsulated DIM has demonstrated potential in the topical treatment of melanoma and could serve as a viable option for administering DIM for cutaneous melanoma therapy.

Maximizing the value of indole-3-carbinol, from its distribution in dietary sources, health effects, metabolism, extraction, and analysis in food and biofluids

Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is a major dietary component produced in Brassica vegetables from glucosinolates (GLS) upon herbivores' attack. The compound is gaining increasing interest due to its anticancer activity. However, reports about improving its level in plants or other sources are still rare. Unfortunately, I3C is unstable in acidic media and tends to polymerize rendering its extraction and detection challenging. This review presents a multifaceted overview of I3C regarding its natural occurrence, biosynthesis, isolation, and extraction procedure from dietary sources, and optimization for the best recovery yield. Further, an overview is presented on its metabolism and biotransformation inside the body to account for its health benefits and factors to ensure the best metabolic yield. Compile of the different analytical approaches for I3C analysis in dietary sources is presented for the first time, together with approaches for its detection and its metabolism in body fluids for proof of efficacy. Lastly, the chemopreventive effects of I3C and the underlying action mechanisms are summarized. Optimizing the yield and methods for the detection of I3C will assist for its incorporation as a nutraceutical or adjuvant in cancer treatment programs. Highlighting the complete biosynthetic pathway and factors involved in I3C production will aid for its future biotechnological production.

Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for drug delivery and wound management: a review

INTRODUCTION

Polysaccharide-based hydrogels (PBHs) offer several advantages over their synthetic counterparts. Their natural origin contributes to their nontoxicity, high biocompatibility, and in vivo biodegradability. Their properties can be tuned finely to obtain hydrogels with desired mechanical, structural, and chemical properties.

AREAS COVERED

Such versatile characteristics have potentiated the use of PBHs for the delivery of drugs, vaccines, protein and peptide therapeutics, genes, cells, probiotics, bacteriophages, and other therapeutic agents. Recent advances in hydrogel-based formulations such as nanogels, microgels, microneedles, hydrogel beads, nanocarrier-loaded hydrogels, and complexation hydrogels have enabled the precise delivery of a wide range of therapeutics. This review aims to give a holistic overview of hydrogels in the delivery of a variety of therapeutics through different routes.

EXPERT OPINION

PBHs have been used to enable the oral delivery of vaccines and other biologicals, thereby allowing self-administration of life-saving vaccines during public health emergencies. There is a lack of commercialized wound dressings for the treatment of chronic wounds. PBH-based wound dressings, especially those based on chitosan and loaded with actives and growth factors, have the potential to help in the long-term treatment of such wounds. Recent developments in the 3D printing of hydrogels can enable the quick and large-scale production of drug-loaded hydrogels.

Novel Pullulan/Gellan Gum Bilayer Film as a Vehicle for Silibinin-Loaded Nanocapsules in the Topical Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

In this study a novel gellan gum/pullulan bilayer film containing silibinin-loaded nanocapsules was developed for topical treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). The bilayer films were produced by applying a pullulan layer on a gellan gum layer incorporated with silibinin nanocapsules by two-step solvent casting method. The bilayer formation was confirmed by microscopic analysis. In vitro studies showed that pullulan imparts bioadhesitvity for the films and the presence of nanocapsules increased their occlusion factor almost 2-fold. Besides, the nano-based film presented a slow silibinin release and high affinity for cutaneous tissue. Moreover, this film presented high scavenger capacity and non-hemolytic property. In the in vivo study, interestingly, the treatments with vehicle film attenuated the scratching behavior and the ear edema in mice induced by 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB). However, the nano-based film containing silibinin modulated the inflammatory and oxidative parameters in a similar or more pronounced way than silibinin solution and vehicle film, as well as than hydrocortisone, a classical treatment of AD. In conclusion, these data suggest that itself gellan gum/pullulan bilayer film might attenuate the effects induced by DNCB, acting together with silibinin-loaded nanocapsules, which protected the skin from oxidative damage, improving the therapeutic effect in this AD-model.

The use of natural gums to produce nano-based hydrogels and films for topical application

Natural gums are a source of biopolymeric materials with a wide range of applications for multiple purposes. These polysaccharides are extensively explored due to their low toxicity, gelling and thickening properties, and bioadhesive potential, which have sparked interest in researchers given their use in producing pharmaceutic dosage forms compared to synthetic agents. Hence, gums can be used as gelling and film-forming agents, which are suitable platforms for topical drug administration. Additionally, recent studies have demonstrated the possibility of obtaining nanocomposite materials formed by a polymeric matrix of gums associated with nanoscale carriers that have shown superior drug delivery performance and compatibility with multiple administration routes compared to starting components. In this sense, research on topical natural gum-based form preparation containing drug-loaded nanocarriers was detailed and discussed herein. A special focus was devoted to the advantages achieved regarding physicochemical and mechanical features, drug delivery capacity, permeability through topical barriers, and biocompatibility of the hydrogels and polymeric films.

Locust Bean Gum Nano-Based Hydrogel for Vaginal Delivery of Diphenyl Diselenide in the Treatment of Trichomoniasis: Formulation Characterization and In Vitro Biological Evaluation

Trichomoniasis is the most common nonviral sexually transmitted infection in the world, but its available therapies present low efficacy and high toxicity. Diphenyl diselenide (PhSe₂) is a pharmacologically active organic selenium compound; however, its clinical use is hindered by its lipophilicity and toxicity. Nanocarriers are an interesting approach to overcome the limitations associated with this compound. This study designed and evaluated a vaginal hydrogel containing PhSe₂-loaded Eudragit^® RS100 and coconut oil nanocapsules for the treatment of trichomoniasis. Nanocapsules presented particle sizes in the nanometric range, positive zeta potential, a compound content close to the theoretical value, and high encapsulation efficiency. The nanoencapsulation maintained the anti-Trichomonas vaginalis action of the compound while improving the scavenger action in a DPPH assay. The hydrogels were prepared by thickening nanocapsule suspensions with locust bean gum (3%). The semisolids maintained the nanometric size of the particles and the PhSe₂ content at around the initial concentration (1.0 mg/g). They also displayed non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic behavior and a highly mucoadhesive property. The chorioallantoic membrane method indicated the absence of hemorrhage, coagulation, or lysis. The compound, from both non-encapsulated and nano-based hydrogel delivery systems, remained on the surface of the bovine vaginal mucosa. Therefore, the formulations displayed the intended properties and could be a promising alternative for the treatment of trichomoniasis.

Encapsulation of indole-3-carbinol in Pickering emulsions stabilized by OSA-modified high amylose corn starch: Preparation, characterization and storage stability properties

The stability of hydrophobic bioactive compound indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is a challenge for application. In this work, Pickering emulsions were prepared to encapsulate I3C. As the emulsifier, high amylose corn starch was pretreated by acid hydrolysis, afterwards modified by different concentrations of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA), and their emulsions were evaluated. The XRD, SEM and FTIR results indicated the successful modification. ζ-potential, mean droplet size and emulsification index (EI) of the emulsions confirmed that modified starch with a higher degree of substitution (DS) was more effective for enhancing the storage stability. The results of encapsulation efficiency (EE) and retention degree of I3C after 14 d also proved the assumption. Moreover, the Pickering emulsions protected I3C against ultraviolet light and achieved controlled release in vitro. The food-grade Pickering emulsion loading I3C is promising to be used as a nutrient or dietary supplement for food applications.

Drug Delivery Strategies and Biomedical Significance of Hydrogels: Translational Considerations

Hydrogels are a promising and attractive option as polymeric gel networks, which have immensely fascinated researchers across the globe because of their outstanding characteristics such as elevated swellability, the permeability of oxygen at a high rate, good biocompatibility, easy loading, and drug release. Hydrogels have been extensively used for several purposes in the biomedical sector using versatile polymers of synthetic and natural origin. This review focuses on functional polymeric materials for the fabrication of hydrogels, evaluation of different parameters of biocompatibility and stability, and their application as carriers for drugs delivery, tissue engineering and other therapeutic purposes. The outcome of various studies on the use of hydrogels in different segments and how they have been appropriately altered in numerous ways to attain the desired targeted delivery of therapeutic agents is summarized. Patents and clinical trials conducted on hydrogel-based products, along with scale-up translation, are also mentioned in detail. Finally, the potential of the hydrogel in the biomedical sector is discussed, along with its further possibilities for improvement for the development of sophisticated smart hydrogels with pivotal biomedical functions.

Mucoadhesive gellan gum hydrogel containing diphenyl diselenide-loaded nanocapsules presents improved anti-candida action in a mouse model of vulvovaginal candidiasis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro antifungal action of a diphenyl diselenide-loaded poly(ε-caprolactone) nanocapsules suspension (NC-1) and incorporate it into a gellan gum hydrogel formulation in order to assess its in vivo efficacy in an animal model of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Nanocapsules suspensions containing the compound (NC-1 ∼ 5 mg/mL) or not (NC-B) were prepared by the interfacial deposition of preformed polymer method. To estimate in vitro antifungal effect, the broth microdilution test was applied. The results showed that NC-1 had equal or lower MIC values when compared to free compound against fifteen Candida strains. Following, the hydrogel was prepared by direct thickening of the nanocapsules suspension by gellan gum addition. The animal model of vulvovaginal candidiasis was induced by infecting female Swiss mice with Candida albicans strains. The animals were topically treated with 20 µL of hydrogels (NC-1 and free compound - 0.1 mg of diphenyl diselenide/once a day for seven days) and then the total fungal burden was assessed after the euthanasia. The results showed that the hydrogels presented pH in the acidic range, compound content close to theoretical value, homogeneous particle distribution with nanometric size, high physicochemical and microbiological stability as well as great bioadhesive property. The nano-based presented superior pharmacological action in comparison to the hydrogel containing non-encapsulated diphenyl diselenide. The results demonstrated that the nanoencapsulation maintained the effective antifungal action of diphenyl diselenide. The nano-based hydrogel formulation may be considered a promising approach against vulvovaginal candidiasis.

Antimicrobial Polymer-Based Hydrogels for the Intravaginal Therapies-Engineering Considerations

The review is focused on the hydrogel systems dedicated to the intravaginal delivery of antibacterial, antifungal and anti-Trichomonas vaginalis activity drugs for the treatment of gynaecological infections. The strategies for the enhancement of the hydrophobic drug solubility in the hydrogel matrix based on the formation of bigel systems and the introduction of nano- and microparticles as a drug reservoir are presented. Hydrogel carriers of natural and synthetic pharmacological substances, drug-free systems displaying antimicrobial activity thanks to the hydrogel building elements and systems combining the antimicrobial activity of both drug and polymer building components are distinguished. The design of hydrogels facilitating their administration and proper distribution in the vaginal mucosa and the vagina based on thermoresponsive systems capable of gelling at vaginal conditions and already-cross-linked injectable systems after reaching the yield stress are discussed. In addition, the mechanisms of hydrogel bioadhesion that regulate the retention time in the vagina are indicated. Finally, the prospects for the further development of hydrogel-based drug carriers in gynaecological therapies are highlighted.

Emerging Role of Hydrogels in Drug Delivery Systems, Tissue Engineering and Wound Management

The popularity of hydrogels as biomaterials lies in their tunable physical properties, ability to encapsulate small molecules and macromolecular drugs, water holding capacity, flexibility, and controllable degradability. Functionalization strategies to overcome the deficiencies of conventional hydrogels and expand the role of advanced hydrogels such as DNA hydrogels are extensively discussed in this review. Different types of cross-linking techniques, materials utilized, procedures, advantages, and disadvantages covering hydrogels are tabulated. The application of hydrogels, particularly in buccal, oral, vaginal, and transdermal drug delivery systems, are described. The review also focuses on composite hydrogels with enhanced properties that are being developed to meet the diverse demand of wound dressing materials. The unique advantages of hydrogel nanoparticles in targeted and intracellular delivery of various therapeutic agents are explained. Furthermore, different types of hydrogel-based materials utilized for tissue engineering applications and fabrication of contact lens are discussed. The article also provides an overview of selected examples of commercial products launched particularly in the area of oral and ocular drug delivery systems and wound dressing materials. Hydrogels can be prepared with a wide variety of properties, achieving biostable, bioresorbable, and biodegradable polymer matrices, whose mechanical properties and degree of swelling are tailored with a specific application. These unique features give them a promising future in the fields of drug delivery systems and applied biomedicine.

Promising Drug Delivery Approaches to Treat Microbial Infections in the Vagina: A Recent Update

An optimal host-microbiota interaction in the human vagina governs the reproductive health status of a woman. The marked depletion in the beneficial Lactobacillus sp. increases the risk of infection with sexually transmitted pathogens, resulting in gynaecological issues. Vaginal infections that are becoming increasingly prevalent, especially among women of reproductive age, require an effective concentration of antimicrobial drugs at the infectious sites for complete disease eradication. Thus, topical treatment is recommended as it allows direct therapeutic action, reduced drug doses and side effects, and self-insertion. However, the alterations in the physiological conditions of the vagina affect the effectiveness of vaginal drug delivery considerably. Conventional vaginal dosage forms are often linked to low retention time in the vagina and discomfort which significantly reduces patient compliance. The lack of optimal prevention and treatment approaches have contributed to the unacceptably high rate of recurrence for vaginal diseases. To combat these limitations, several novel approaches including nano-systems, mucoadhesive polymeric systems, and stimuli-responsive systems have been developed in recent years. This review discusses and summarises the recent research progress of these novel approaches for vaginal drug delivery against various vaginal diseases. An overview of the concept and challenges of vaginal infections, anatomy and physiology of the vagina, and barriers to vaginal drug delivery are also addressed.

Nanoencapsulation potentiates the cutaneous anti-inflammatory effect of p,p'-methoxyl-diphenyl diselenide: Design, permeation, and in vivo studies of a nanotechnological-based carrageenan gum hydrogel

This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of preparing a hydrogel based on (OMePhSe)₂-loaded poly(Ɛ-caprolactone) nanocapsules using carrageenan gum as a gel-forming agent. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory action of hydrogel was assessed in an animal model of skin lesion induced by ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation in mice. Nanocapsules were prepared using the interfacial deposition of preformed polymer technique. The hydrogels were obtained by the direct addition of nanocapsules suspension in carrageenan gum (3%). Formulations with free compound, vehicle, and blank nanocapsules were also produced. The hydrogels were characterized by pH, compound content, diameter, spreadability, rheological behavior, and permeation profile. The pharmacological performance was assessed in an animal model of skin injury induced by UVB-radiation in male Swiss mice. All hydrogels had pH around 7.0, compound content close to the theoretical value (2.5 mg/g), an average diameter in nanometric range (around 350 nm), non-Newtonian flow with pseudoplastic behavior, and suitable spreadability factor. The nano-based hydrogel increased the compound content in the epidermis and dermis layers in comparison to the formulation prepared with non-encapsulated (OMePhSe)₂. Stability studies revealed that the hydrogels of nanoencapsulated compound had superior physicochemical stability in comparison to the formulation of free (OMePhSe)_2. Moreover, topical treatment with the hydrogel containing (OMePhSe)₂ loaded-nanocapsules was more effective in reducing ear thickness and the inflammatory process induced by UVB radiation in mice. Herein, a polysaccharide was applied as a gel-forming agent using a simple and low-cost method. Besides, a superior permeation profile and improved pharmacological action were achieved by the compound encapsulation.