Oxide growth dynamics at Pt(111) in absence of specific adsorption: A mechanistic study

Relationship between oxide identity and electrocatalytic activity of platinum for ethanol electrooxidation in perchlorate acidic solution

Water and its dissociated species at the solid‒liquid interface play critical roles in catalytic science; e.g., functions of oxygen species from water dissociation are gradually being recognized. Herein, the relationship between oxide identity (PtOH_ads, PtO_ads, and PtO₂) and electrocatalytic activity of platinum for ethanol electrooxidation was obtained in perchlorate acidic solution over a wide potential range with an upper potential of 1.5 V (reversible hydrogen electrode, RHE). PtOH_ads and α-PtO₂, rather than PtO_ads, act as catalytic centers promoting ethanol electrooxidation. This relationship was corroborated on Pt(111), Pt(110), and Pt(100) electrodes, respectively. A reaction mechanism of ethanol electrooxidation was developed with DFT calculations, in which platinum oxides-mediated dehydrogenation and hydrated reaction intermediate, geminal diol, can perfectly explain experimental results, including pH dependence of product selectivity and more active α-PtO₂ than PtOH_ads. This work can be generalized to the oxidation of other substances on other metal/alloy electrodes in energy conversion and electrochemical syntheses.

Driving Force of the Initial Step in Electrochemical Pt(111) Oxidation

The first step of electrochemical surface oxidation is extraction of a metal atom from its lattice site to a location in a growing oxide. Here we show by fast simultaneous electrochemical and in situ high-energy surface X-ray diffraction measurements that the initial extraction of Pt atoms from Pt(111) is a fast, potential-driven process, whereas charge transfer for the related formation of adsorbed oxygen-containing species occurs on a much slower time scale and is evidently uncoupled from the extraction process. It is concluded that potential plays a key independent role in electrochemical surface oxidation.

Electrocatalysis in Alkaline Media and Alkaline Membrane-Based Energy Technologies

Hydrogen energy-based electrochemical energy conversion technologies offer the promise of enabling a transition of the global energy landscape from fossil fuels to renewable energy. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the fundamentals of electrocatalysis in alkaline media and applications in alkaline-based energy technologies, particularly alkaline fuel cells and water electrolyzers. Anion exchange (alkaline) membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) enable the use of nonprecious electrocatalysts for the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), relative to proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), which require Pt-based electrocatalysts. However, the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) kinetics is significantly slower in alkaline media than in acidic media. Understanding these phenomena requires applying theoretical and experimental methods to unravel molecular-level thermodynamics and kinetics of hydrogen and oxygen electrocatalysis and, particularly, the proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) process that takes place in a proton-deficient alkaline media. Extensive electrochemical and spectroscopic studies, on single-crystal Pt and metal oxides, have contributed to the development of activity descriptors, as well as the identification of the nature of active sites, and the rate-determining steps of the HOR and ORR. Among these, the structure and reactivity of interfacial water serve as key potential and pH-dependent kinetic factors that are helping elucidate the origins of the HOR and ORR activity differences in acids and bases. Additionally, deliberately modulating and controlling catalyst-support interactions have provided valuable insights for enhancing catalyst accessibility and durability during operation. The design and synthesis of highly conductive and durable alkaline membranes/ionomers have enabled AEMFCs to reach initial performance metrics equal to or higher than those of PEMFCs. We emphasize the importance of using membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) to integrate the often separately pursued/optimized electrocatalyst/support and membranes/ionomer components. Operando/in situ methods, at multiscales, and ab initio simulations provide a mechanistic understanding of electron, ion, and mass transport at catalyst/ionomer/membrane interfaces and the necessary guidance to achieve fuel cell operation in air over thousands of hours. We hope that this Review will serve as a roadmap for advancing the scientific understanding of the fundamental factors governing electrochemical energy conversion in alkaline media with the ultimate goal of achieving ultralow Pt or precious-metal-free high-performance and durable alkaline fuel cells and related technologies.

A Ni(II) coordination polymer with dual electrochemical functions: synthesis, crystal structure, hydrogen evolution reaction and l-ascorbic acid sensing

A two-dimensional Ni(II) coordination polymer (NiCP) of the formula {[NiL(terephthalate)(H2O)2]·2H2O} n (L = bis(1-(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)-benzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)ether), has been obtained from a solvothermal reaction, and characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, elemental analysis, and IR and UV/Vis spectra. The coordinated terephthalate anions and the L ligands connect the Ni(II) ions in two directions, resulting in the construction of a corrugated layered structure. The electrochemical properties of a NiCP-CPE composite electrode supported by this coordination polymer were studied. For the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction, the required overpotential of this electrode (NiCP-CPE) is −521 mV when the current density reaches 10 mA cm−2. Compared with the solid carbon paste electrode (sCPE, −976 mV), the smaller overpotential proves effective electrocatalysis of the coordination polymer of the hydrogen evolution reaction. The doped electrode also exhibits high-efficiency in the electrochemical sensing of l-ascorbic acid in water, showing a detection limit of 0.28 μM in a linear range of 0.4–4000 μM.

Stabilizing Pt-Based Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction: Fundamental Understanding and Design Strategies

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) with high efficiency and nonpollution characteristics have attracted massive attention from both academic and industrial communities due to their irreplaceable roles in building the future sustainable energy system. However, the stability issue of Pt-based catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) has become a central constraint to the widespread deployment of the devices relative to the catalytic activity. This review aims to provide comprehensive insights into how to improve the stability of Pt-based catalysts for ORR. First, the basic physical chemistry behind the catalyst degradation, including the fundamental understandings of carbon corrosion, catalyst dissolution, and particle sintering, is highlighted. After a discussion of advanced characterization techniques for the catalyst degradation, the design strategies for improving the stability of Pt-based catalysts are summarized. Finally, further insights into the remaining challenges and future research directions are also provided.

A platinum-nickel bimetallic nanocluster ensemble-on-polyaniline nanofilm for enhanced electrocatalytic oxidation of dopamine

We report a new approach to design flexible functional material platforms based on electropolymerized polyaniline (PANI) polymer nanofilms modified with bimetallic nanoclusters (NCs) for efficient electro-oxidation of small organic molecules. Composition defined ligand free Pt_0.75Ni_0.25 NCs were synthesized in the gas phase using the Cluster Beam Deposition (CBD) technology and characterized using RToF, HAADF-STEM, XAFS and XPS. NCs were then directly deposited on PANI coated templates to construct electrodes. Dopamine (DP) molecules were used as a representative organic analyte and the influence of the NC-PANI hybrid atomistic structure on the electrochemical and electrocatalytic performance was investigated. The as prepared, nearly monodispersed, Pt_0.75Ni_0.25 NCs of ca. 2 nm diameter featuring a PtOx surface combined with a shallow platelet-like Ni-O(OH) phase formed a densely packed active surface on PANI at ultralow metal coverages. Electrochemical measurements (EIS and CV) show a 2.5 times decrease in charge transfer resistance and a remarkable 6-fold increase at lower potential in the mass activity for Pt_0.75Ni_0.25 NCs in comparison with their pure Pt counterparts. The enhanced electrochemical performance of the Pt_0.75Ni_0.25 NC hybrid's interface is ascribed to the formation of mixed Pt metal and Ni-O(OH) phases at the surface of the alloyed PtNi cores of the bimetallic NCs under electrochemical conditions combined with an efficient charge conduction pathway between NCs.

Solvated proton and the origin of the high onset overpotential in the oxygen reduction reaction on Pt(111)

For the hydrogenation of O atoms on Pt(111), protonation can be bypassed by hydrolysis as the electrode potential rises.

Effect of the Random Defects Generated on the Surface of Pt(111) on the Electro-oxidation of Ethanol: An Electrochemical Study

In the present work, the Pt(111) surface was disordered by controlling the density of {110}- and {100}-type defects. The cyclic voltammogram (CV) of a disordered surface in acid media consists of three contributions within the hydrogen adsorption/desorption region: one from the well-ordered Pt(111) symmetry and the other two transformed from the {111}-symmetry with contributions of {110}- and {100}-type surface defects. The ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) was studied on these disordered surfaces. Electrochemical studies were performed in 0.1 M HClO₄ +0.1 M ethanol using cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. Changes in current densities associated to the specific potentials at which each oxidation peak appears suggest that different surface domains of disordered platinum oxidize ethanol independently. Additionally, as the surface-defect density increases, the EOR is catalysed better. This tendency is directly observed from the CV parameters because the onset and peak potentials are shifted to less positive values and accompanied by increases in the oxidation-peak current on disordered surfaces. Similarly, the CO oxidation striping confirmed this same tendency. Chronoamperometric experiments showed two opposite behaviors at short oxidation times (0.1 s). The EOR was quickly catalyzed on the most disordered surface, Pt(111)-16, and was then rapidly deactivated. These results provide fundamental information on the EOR, which contributes to the atomic-level understanding of real catalysts.

Mechanistic Insights into Cyclic Voltammograms on Pt(111): Kinetics Simulations

A detailed understanding of the electrochemistry of platinum electrodes is of great importance for the electrochemical oxidation of fuels and electrochemical reduction of dioxygen in fuel cells. The Pt(111) facet is the most representative model mimicking Pt nanoparticles and polycrystals for fundamental studies. Herein, we propose a site-specific model accompanied with the typical elementary steps of the electrochemistry of Pt(111) in non-adsorbing electrolyte within the potential range between 0.05 and 1.15 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode. Simulations were conducted at different scanning rates based on the kinetics models. We reproduce all the anodic and cathodic peaks observed in the reported experimental curves. These results demonstrate the underlying mechanisms of the peak formation in different potential regions.

An Integrated Single-Electrode Method Reveals the Template Roles of Atomic Steps: Disturb Interfacial Water Networks and Thus Affect the Reactivity of Electrocatalysts

A method enabling the accurate and precise correlation between structures and properties is critical to the development of efficient electrocatalysts. To this end, we developed an integrated single-electrode method (ISM) that intimately couples electrochemical rotating disk electrodes, in situ/operando X-ray absorption fine structures, and aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy on identical electrodes. This all-in-one method allows for the one-to-one, in situ/operando, and atomic-scale correlation between structures of electrocatalysts with their electrochemical reactivities, distinct from common methods that adopt multisamples separately for electrochemical and physical characterizations. Because the atomic step is one of the most fundamentally structural elements in electrocatalysts, we demonstrated the feasibility of ISM by exploring the roles of atomic steps in the reactivity of electrocatalysts. In situ and atomic-scale evidence shows that low-coordinated atomic steps not only generate reactive species at low potentials and strengthen surface contraction but also act as templates to disturb interfacial water networks and thus affect the reactivity of electrocatalysts. This template role interprets the long-standing puzzle regarding why high-index facets are active for the oxygen reduction reaction in acidic media. The ISM as a fundamentally new method for workflows should aid the study of many other electrocatalysts regarding their nature of active sites and operative mechanisms.

Correlation of surface site formation to nanoisland growth in the electrochemical roughening of Pt(111)

Platinum plays a central role in a variety of electrochemical devices and its practical use depends on the prevention of electrode degradation. However, understanding the underlying atomic processes under conditions of repeated oxidation and reduction inducing irreversible surface structure changes has proved challenging. Here, we examine the correlation between the evolution of the electrochemical signal of Pt(111) and its surface roughening by simultaneously performing cyclic voltammetry and in situ electrochemical scanning tunnelling microscopy (EC-STM). We identify a 'nucleation and early growth' regime of nanoisland formation, and a 'late growth' regime after island coalescence, which continues up to at least 170 cycles. The correlation analysis shows that each step site that is created in the 'late growth' regime contributes equally strongly to both the electrochemical and the roughness evolution. In contrast, in the 'nucleation and early growth' regime, created step sites contribute to the roughness, but not to the electrochemical signal.

Theoretical Analysis of Electrochemical Formation and Phase Transition of Oxygenated Adsorbates on Pt(111)

The electrochemical oxygenation processes of Pt(111) surface are investigated by combining density functional theory (DFT) calculations and Monto Carlo (MC) simulations. DFT calculations are performed to construct force-field parameters for computing the energy of (√3 × √3)R30°-structured OH*-H2O* hydrogen-bonding networks (differently dissociated water bilayer) on the Pt(111) surface, with which MC simulations are conducted to probe the reversible H2O* ↔ OH* conversion in OH*-H2O* networks. The simulated isotherm (relation between electrode potential and OH* coverage) agrees well with that predicted by the experimental cyclic voltammetry (CV) in the potential region of 0.55-0.85 V (vs RHE). It is suggested that the butterfly shape of CV in this region is due to different variation trends of Pt-H2O* distance in low and high OH* coverages. DFT calculation results indicate that the oxidative voltammetry in the potential region from 0.85 V to ca. 1.07 V is associated with the dissociation of OH* to O*, which yields surface structures consisting of OH*-H2O* networks and (√3 × √3)-structured O* clusters. The high stability of the half-dissociated water bilayer (OH*-H2O* hydrogen-bonding network with equal OH* and H2O* coverages) formed in the butterfly region makes OH* dissociation initially very difficult in energetics, but become facile once starts due to the destabilization of OH* by the formed O* nearby. This explains the experimentally observed nucleation and growth behavior of O* phase formation and the high asymmetry of oxidation-reduction voltammetry in this potential region.

Kinetically induced irreversibility in electro-oxidation and reduction of Pt surface

A mean field kinetic model was developed for electrochemical oxidations and reductions of Pt(111) on the basis of density functional theory calculations, and the reaction mechanisms were analyzed. The model reasonably describes asymmetric shapes of cyclic voltammograms and small Tafel slopes of relevant redox reactions observed in experiments without assuming any unphysical forms of rate equations. Simulations using the model indicate that the oxidation of Pt(111) proceeds via an electrochemical oxidation from Pt to PtOH and a disproportionation reaction from PtOH to PtO and Pt, while its reduction proceeds via two electrochemical reductions from PtO to PtOH and from PtOH to Pt.

Some reflections on the understanding of the oxygen reduction reaction at Pt(111)

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is a pivotal process in electrochemistry. Unfortunately, after decades of intensive research, a fundamental knowledge about its reaction mechanism is still lacking. In this paper, a global and critical view on the most important experimental and theoretical results regarding the ORR on Pt(111) and its vicinal surfaces, in both acidic and alkaline media, is taken. Phenomena such as the ORR surface structure sensitivity and the lack of a reduction current at high potentials are discussed in the light of the surface oxidation and disordering processes and the possible relevance of the hydrogen peroxide reduction and oxidation reactions in the ORR mechanism. The necessity to build precise and realistic reaction models, which are deducted from reliable experimental results that need to be carefully taken under strict working conditions is shown. Therefore, progress in the understanding of this important reaction on a molecular level, and the choice of the right approach for the design of the electrocatalysts for fuel-cell cathodes is only possible through a cooperative approach between theory and experiments.