Spatial and temporal variability of personal environmental exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields in children in Europe

Effects of 700 and 3500 MHz 5G radiofrequency exposure on developing zebrafish embryos

Telecommunications industries are rapidly deploying the fifth generation (5G) spectrum and there is public concern about the safety and health impacts of this type of Radio Frequency Radiation (RFR), in part because of the lack of comparable scientific evidence. In this study we have used a validated commercially available setting producing a uniform field to expose zebrafish embryos (ZFe) to unmodulated 700 and 3500 MHz frequencies. We have combined a battery of toxicity, developmental and behavioral assays to further explore potential RFR effects. Our neurobehavioral profiles include a tail coiling assay, a light/dark activity assay, two thigmotaxis anxiety assays (auditory and visual stimuli), and a startle response - habituation assay in response to auditory stimuli. ZFe were exposed for 1 and 4 h during the blastula period of development and endpoints evaluated up to 120 hours post fertilization (hpf). Our results show no effects on mortality, hatching or body length. However, we have demonstrated specific organ morphological effects, and behavioral effects in activity, anxiety-like behavior, and habituation that lasted in larvae exposed during the early embryonic period. A decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity was also observed and could explain some of the observed behavioral alterations. Interestingly, effects were more pronounced in ZFe exposed to the 700 MHz frequency, and especially for the 4 h exposure period. In addition, we have demonstrated that our exposure setup is robust, flexible with regard to frequency and power testing, and highly comparable. Future work will include exposure of ZFe to 5G modulated signals for different time periods to better understand the potential health effects of novel 5G RFR.

Systematic review of best practices for GPS data usage, processing, and linkage in health, exposure science and environmental context research

Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is increasingly used in health research to capture individual mobility and contextual and environmental exposures. However, the tools, techniques and decisions for using GPS data vary from study to study, making comparisons and reproducibility challenging.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this systematic review were to (1) identify best practices for GPS data collection and processing; (2) quantify reporting of best practices in published studies; and (3) discuss examples found in reviewed manuscripts that future researchers may employ for reporting GPS data usage, processing and linkage of GPS data in health studies.

DESIGN

A systematic review.

DATA SOURCES

Electronic databases searched (24 October 2023) were PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022322166).

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Included peer-reviewed studies published in English met at least one of the criteria: (1) protocols involving GPS for exposure/context and human health research purposes and containing empirical data; (2) linkage of GPS data to other data intended for research on contextual influences on health; (3) associations between GPS-measured mobility or exposures and health; (4) derived variable methods using GPS data in health research; or (5) comparison of GPS tracking with other methods (eg, travel diary).

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

We examined 157 manuscripts for reporting of best practices including wear time, sampling frequency, data validity, noise/signal loss and data linkage to assess risk of bias.

RESULTS

We found that 6% of the studies did not disclose the GPS device model used, only 12.1% reported the per cent of GPS data lost by signal loss, only 15.7% reported the per cent of GPS data considered to be noise and only 68.2% reported the inclusion criteria for their data.

CONCLUSIONS

Our recommendations for reporting on GPS usage, processing and linkage may be transferrable to other geospatial devices, with the hope of promoting transparency and reproducibility in this research.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022322166.

The effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields exposure on tinnitus, migraine and non-specific symptoms in the general and working population: A systematic review and meta-analysis on human observational studies

BACKGROUND

Applications emitting radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF; 100 kHz to 300 GHz) are widely used for communication (e.g. mobile phones), in medicine (diathermy) and in industry (RF heaters).

OBJECTIVES

The objective is to systematically review the effects of longer-term or repeated local and whole human body radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure on the occurrence of symptoms. Primary hypotheses were tinnitus, migraine and headaches in relation to RF-EMF exposure of the brain, sleep disturbances and composite symptom scores in relation to whole-body RF-EMF exposure.

METHODS

Eligibility criteria: We included case-control and prospective cohort studies in the general population or workers estimating local or whole-body RF-EMF exposure for at least one week.

INFORMATION SOURCES

We conducted a systematic literature search in various databases including Web of Science and Medline. Risk of bias: We used the Risk of Bias (RoB) tool developed by OHAT adapted to the topic of this review.

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

We synthesized studies using random effects meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Included studies: We included 13 papers from eight distinct cohort and one case-control studies with a total of 486,558 participants conducted exclusively in Europe. Tinnitus is addressed in three papers, migraine in one, headaches in six, sleep disturbances in five, and composite symptom scores in five papers. Only one study addressed occupational exposure.

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

For all five priority hypotheses, available research suggests that RF-EMF exposure below guideline values does not cause symptoms, but the evidence is very uncertain. The very low certainty evidence is due the low number of studies, possible risk of bias in some studies, inconsistencies, indirectness, and imprecision. In terms of non-priority hypotheses numerous exposure-outcome combinations were addressed in the 13 eligible papers without indication for an association related to a specific symptom or exposure source.

DISCUSSION

Limitations of evidence: This review topic includes various challenges related to confounding control and exposure assessment. Many of these aspects are inherently present and not easy to be solved in future research. Since near-field exposure from wireless communication devices is related to lifestyle, a particular challenge is to differentiate between potential biophysical effects and other potential effects from extensive use of wireless communication devices that may compete with healthy behaviour such as sleeping or physical activity. Future research needs novel and innovative methods to differentiate between these two hypothetical mechanisms.

INTERPRETATION

This is currently the best available evidence to underpin safety of RF-EMF. There is no indication that RF-EMF below guideline values causes symptoms. However, inherent limitations of the research results in substantial uncertainty.

OTHER

Funding: This review was partially funded by the WHO radioprotection programme.

REGISTRATION

The protocol for this review has been registered in Prospero (reg no CRD42021239432) and published in Environment International (Röösli et al., 2021).

Comparison of ambient radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels in outdoor areas and public transport in Switzerland in 2014 and 2021

Mobile communication technology has evolved rapidly over the last ten years with a drastic increase in wireless data traffic and the deployment of new telecommunication technologies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ambient radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels and temporal changes in various microenvironments in Switzerland in 2014 and 2021. We measured the ambient RF-EMF levels in V/m in the same 49 outdoor areas and in public transport in 2014 and 2021 using portable RF-EMF exposure meters carried in a backpack. The areas were selected to represent some typical types of microenvironments (e.g. urban city centres, suburban and rural areas). We calculated the summary statistics (mean, percentiles) in mW/m2 and converted back to V/m for each microenvironment. We evaluated the distribution and the variability of the ambient RF-EMF levels per microenvironment types in 2021. Finally, we compared the ambient RF-EMF mean levels in 2014 and 2021 using multilevel regression modelling. In outdoor areas, the average ambient RF-EMF mean levels per microenvironment in 2021 ranged from 0.19 V/m in rural areas to 0.43 V/m in industrial areas (overall mean: 0.27 V/m). In public transports, the mean levels were 0.27 V/m in buses, 0.33 V/m in trains and 0.36 V/m in trams. In 2021, mean levels across all outdoor areas were -0.022 V/m lower (95% confidence interval: -0.072, 0.030) than in 2014. Results from our comprehensive measurement study across Switzerland suggest that RF-EMF levels in public places have not significantly changed between 2014 and 2021 despite an 18-fold increase in mobile data transmission during that period. The absence of temporal changes may be owed to the shift to newer mobile communication technologies, which are more efficient.

Dosimetric assessment in the brain for downlink EMF exposure in Korean mobile communication networks

Because the position and direction of the human body is not fixed in an actual environment, the incidence direction of the electromagnetic field (EMF) from mobile communication base stations, WiFi access points, broadcasting towers, and other far-field sources is arbitrary. To analyze the overall health effects of radio frequency EMF exposure, the dosimetric assessment for such environmental exposures created from an unspecified number of sources in daily life, along with exposures from specific EMF sources, must be quantified. This study is aimed at numerically evaluating the time-averaged specific absorption rate (SAR) of the human brain for environmental EMF exposure in the frequency range of 50-5800 MHz. Whole-body exposure to EMFs that are evenly incident spatially is considered. By comparing the results of several incidence directions and the number of polarizations, an optimal calculation condition has been derived. Finally, based on the results measured in Seoul at the end of 2021, the SAR and daily specific energy absorption (SA) in the brains of both a child and an adult for downlink exposures from 3G to 5G base stations are reported. Comparison results of the daily brain SA for exposure to DL EMF in all 3G to 5G mobile networks and exposure to a 10-min voice call (uplink EMF) using a mobile phone connected to a 4G network show that the SA from the downlinks is much higher than that from the uplinks.

Personal exposure from free Wi-Fi hotspots in downtown Mexico City

In 2019, the Government of Mexico City implemented actions that allowed citizens to approach a free Wi-Fi hotspot, where more than 13000 points have been installed throughout the city. In this work, we present the results of the measurements of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields carried out in Plaza de la Constitución, better known as Zócalo located in the center of Mexico City. The measurements were taken by one of the researchers while walking on a weekday morning and afternoon, in different microenvironments (on the street, on public transport: subway, at the Zócalo, and finally, at home). We also carry out spot measurements in the center of the Zócalo. Subsequently, we carried out a comparative analysis of the different microenvironments, through box plot and violin plot, and we elaborate georeferenced and interpolated maps with intensity levels through the Kriging method, using the Geographic Information System. The Kriging interpolation gives us a good visualization of the spatial distribution of RF-EMF exposure in the study area, showing the highest and lowest intensity levels. The mean values recorded at the measured points in the Zócalo were 326 μW/m2 in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz Wi-Fi band and 2370 μW/m2 in the 5.15- to 5.85-GHz Wi-Fi band. In the case of the mean values recorded on the street, they were 119 μW/m2 in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz frequency band and 31.8 μW/m2 in the 5.15- to 5.85-GHz frequency band, like the values recorded at home, 122 μW/m2 and 33.9 μW/m2, respectively. All values are well below the reference levels established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection.

Measurement studies of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A systematic review

The last 25 years have seen an increase in the number of radiofrequency sources with the global adoption of smartphones as primary connectivity devices. The objective of this work was to review and evaluate the measured studies of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-RMF) and meet the basic quality criteria eligible for inclusion in this Review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, following the eligibility criteria of the PECO (Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome) methodology, and the instrument for critical reading Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Español (CASPe). We systematically reviewed the works published between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2021, yielding 56 publications. Of the different types of studies in which personal exposure to RF-EMF has been measured with two measurement methodologies can be highlighted: Personal measurements with volunteers and Personal measurements with a trained researcher (touring a specific area, one or several microenvironments, an entire city, walking or in some means of transport). Personal exposimeters were used in 83% of the studies. The lowest mean was measured in Egypt with a value of 0.00100 μW/m² (1.00 nW/m²) in 2007 and the highest mean was measured in Belgium with a value of 285000 μW/m² (0.285 W/m²) in 2019. The results of our study confirm that RF-EMF exposure levels are well below the maximum levels established by the ICNIRP guidelines.

Comparison of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields from Wi-Fi in a Spanish university over three years

In this work we present the personal exposure levels to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) from Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) 2.4 GHz and 5.85 GHz bands in a Spanish university, specifically, at the Faculty of Computer Science Engineering at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Albacete, Spain). We present results from three years, 2017, 2018 and 2019 in the same study place and points; and measurements carried out in 2022 inside a classroom and inside a professor's office, with the aim to compare the measurements and verify compliance with reference levels established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The minimum average was 0.0900 μW/m² in the 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, in 2019, and the maximum average was 211 μW/m² in the 5.85 GHz Wi-Fi in 2017, around the building. Comparing the measurements carried out inside the classroom with students and without students, we identified that the maximum value was 278 μW/m² (classroom with students, in the 5.85 GHz Wi-Fi band) and the minimum value was 37.9 μW/m² (classroom without students, in the 5.85 GHz Wi-Fi band). Finally, comparing the results of all the measurements (average values) inside the classroom and inside a professor's office, the maximum value was 205 μW/m² (in the 5.85 GHz Wi-Fi band) inside the classroom with students, and the minimum value was 0.217 μW/m² inside a professor's office (in the 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi band). These values in no case exceed the limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, 10 W/m² for general public exposure.

Modelling of daily radiofrequency electromagnetic field dose for a prospective adolescent cohort

INTRODUCTION

Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields originate from a variety of wireless communication sources operating near and far from the body, making it challenging to quantify daily absorbed dose. In the framework of the prospective cohort SCAMP (Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones), we aimed to characterize RF-EMF dose over a 2-year period.

METHODS

The SCAMP cohort included 6605 children from greater London, UK at baseline (age 12.1 years; 2014-2016) and 5194 at follow-up (age 14.2; 2016-2018). We estimated the daily dose of RF-EMF to eight tissues including the whole body and whole brain, using dosimetric algorithms for the specific absorption rate transfer into the body. We considered RF-EMF dose from 12 common usage scenarios such as mobile phone calls or data transmission. We evaluated the association between sociodemographic factors (gender, ethnicity, phone ownership and socio-economic status), and the dose change between baseline and follow-up.

RESULTS

Whole body dose was estimated at an average of 170 mJ/kg/day at baseline and 178 mJ/kg/day at follow-up. Among the eight tissues considered, the right temporal lobe received the highest daily dose (baseline 1150 mJ/kg/day, follow-up 1520 mJ/kg/day). Estimated daily dose [mJ/kg/day] increased between baseline and follow-up for head and brain related tissues, but remained stable for the whole body and heart. Doses estimated at baseline and follow-up showed low correlation among the 3384 children who completed both assessments. Asian ethnicity (compared to white) and owning a bar phone or no phone (as opposed to a smartphone) were associated with lower estimated whole-body and whole-brain RF-EMF dose, while black ethnicity, a moderate/low socio-economic status (compared to high), and increasing age (at baseline) were associated with higher estimated RF-EMF dose.

CONCLUSION

This study describes the first longitudinal exposure assessment for children in a critical period of development. Dose estimations will be used in further epidemiological analyses for the SCAMP study.

Limiting exposure to radiofrequency radiation: the principles and possible criteria for health protection

PURPOSE

The current paper is aimed to discuss the principles and criteria for health protection to radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF EMF) considering both thermal and non-thermal mechanisms to evaluate the reasonable level for the limits relevant to control the level of RF EMF for the general public in the living environment. The study combines the conclusions of analyses published in recent reviews on RF EMF effects and the data from RF EMF measurements in different countries to select the possible criteria and to derive proposals for the health protection limits on the level of RF EMF following the ALARA principle - as low as reasonably achievable.

CONCLUSIONS

Consideration of not only energetic but also coherent qualities of RF EMF leads to two different models for determining the impact of non-ionizing radiation on human health. The thermal model, based on absorption of electromagnetic energy, has a threshold limiting the heating of tissues. The non-thermal model, based on the ability of coherent electric fields to introduce biological effects at constant temperature, has no threshold. Therefore, the impact of RF EMF on human health cannot be excluded but can be minimized by limiting the level of the radiation. The limits can be selected based on indirect criteria. The minimal level of RF EMF that has caused a biological effect is about 2 V/m. The level of long-term broadcast radiation is 6 V/m and the people can be assumed to be adapted to that level without observable health problems. The level of RF EMF measured during last years does not exceed 5 V/m and the level is decreasing with newer generations of telecommunication technology. Limiting the level of RF EMF to the peak value of 6 V/m hopefully reduces the health risk to a minimal level people are adapted to and does not restrict the further development of telecommunication technology.

Measurement of personal radio frequency exposure in Japan: The Hokkaido Study on the Environment and Children's health

The opportunities for exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) among children are increasing. Children's exposure to RF-EMF in Japan was recorded using a personal exposure meter (ExpoM-RF), and factors associated with the exposure examined. A total of 101 children, aged 10-15 years old, participated in the prospective birth cohort "Hokkaido study". RF-EMF data were recorded in the 700 MHz-5.8 GHz frequency range for 3 days. The recorded data were summarized into six groups of frequency bands: downlink from mobile phone base stations (DL), uplink from mobile phones to a base station (UL), Wireless Local Area Network (LAN), terrestrial digital TV broadcasting (digital TV), 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz Time Division Duplex (TDD), 1.9 GHz TDD, and total (the summation of power density in all measured frequency bands). A questionnaire was used to document the internet environment (at home) and mobile phone usage. Personal RF-EMF exposure in Japanese children was lower than that reported in studies in Europe. The DL signals from mobile phone base stations were the most significant contributors to total exposure, while Wireless LAN and digital TV were only higher at home. The urban residence was consistently associated with increases in the four groups of frequency bands (DL, UL, digital TV, and TDD). TDD level has several associations with mobile phone usage (calls using mobile phones, video viewing, text message service, and online game). The association between inattention/hyperactivity subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and higher Wireless LAN exposure at nighttime was also noted. Further studies with additional data will shed light on factors involved in RF-EMF exposure among Japanese children.

Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Europe Utilizing Publicly Available Data

The ever-increasing use of wireless communication systems during the last few decades has raised concerns about the potential health effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on humans. Safety limits and exposure assessment methods were developed and are regularly updated to mitigate health risks. Continuous radiofrequency EMF monitoring networks and in situ measurement campaigns provide useful information about environmental EMF levels and their variations over time and in different microenvironments. In this study, published data from the five largest monitoring networks and from two extensive in situ measurement campaigns in different European countries were gathered and processed. Median electric field values for monitoring networks across different countries lay in the interval of 0.67-1.51 V/m. The median electric field value across different microenvironments, as evaluated from in situ measurements, varied from 0.10 V/m to 1.42 V/m. The differences between networks were identified and mainly attributed to variations in population density. No significant trends in the temporal evolution of EMF levels were observed. The influences of parameters such as population density, type of microenvironment, and height of measurement on EMF levels were investigated.

Personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure of adolescents in the Greater London area in the SCAMP cohort and the association with restrictions on permitted use of mobile communication technologies at school and at home

Personal measurements of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) have been used in several studies to characterise personal exposure in daily life, but such data are limitedly available for adolescents, and not yet for the United Kingdom (UK). In this study, we aimed to characterise personal exposure to RF-EMF in adolescents and to study the association between exposure and rules applied at school and at home to restrict wireless communication use, likely implemented to reduce other effects of mobile technology (e.g. distraction). We measured exposure to RF-EMF for 16 common frequency bands (87.5 MHz-3.5 GHz), using portable measurement devices (ExpoM-RF), in a subsample of adolescents participating in the cohort Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones (SCAMP) from Greater London (UK) (n = 188). School and home rules were assessed by questionnaire and concerned the school's availability of WiFi and mobile phone policy, and parental restrictions on permitted mobile phone use. Adolescents recorded their activities in real time using a diary app on a study smartphone, while characterizing their personal RF-EMF exposure in daily life, during different activities and times of the day. Data analysis was done for 148 adolescents from 29 schools who recorded RF-EMF data for a median duration of 47 h. The majority (74%) of adolescents spent part of their time at school during the measurement period. Median total RF-EMF exposure was 40 μW/m2 at home, 94 μW/m2 at school, and 100 μW/m2 overall. In general, restrictions at school or at home made little difference for adolescents' measured exposure to RF-EMF, except for uplink exposure from mobile phones while at school, which was found to be significantly lower for adolescents attending schools not permitting phone use at all, compared to adolescents attending schools allowing mobile phone use during breaks. This difference was not statistically significant for total personal exposure. Total exposure to RF-EMF in adolescents living in Greater London tended to be higher compared to exposure levels reported in other European countries. This study suggests that school policies and parental restrictions are not associated with a lower RF-EMF exposure in adolescents.

Assessment of Radiofrequency Exposure in the Vicinity of School Environments in Crete Island, South Greece

This study aimed to estimate the radiofrequency exposure levels in the vicinity of nursery and primary schools at the northwest part of Crete island in Greece. Moreover, the compliance with the exposure limits, according to Greek legislation, was investigated. A total of 396 in situ frequency-selective and broadband measurements were conducted around 69 schools, classified in urban and suburban environments, in the range of 27–3000 MHz (subdivided in seven frequency bands). The measured value of the electric field strength (V/m) was recorded and, subsequently, the exposure ratio was calculated. Statistical analysis was performed in order to analyze and evaluate the data. In addition, a worst-case scenario was examined by considering the highest measured exposure level around each school. The statistical tests indicated that the mean and median values of the exposure ratio, even in the worst-case scenario, were found well below 1 for all frequency bands. The calculated distributions of the electric field measurements demonstrated that almost 90% of the latter were below 1 V/m, with the majority of values lying in the range of 0.5–1 V/m. The main contributors to the total exposure were the mobile communication frequencies and broadcasting, while the exposure was greater in urban than in suburban environments.

Comment on: What is the radiation before 5G? A correlation study between measurements in situ and in real time and epidemiological indicators in Vallecas, Madrid, by I. López, N. Félix, M. Rivera, A. Alonso, and C. Maestú

We have read the article recently published by Lopez et al., 2020 (Lopez et al., 2021). This study aimed to find a possible relationship, if any, between exposure to RF-EMF with some health indicators such as sleep, headache, and fatigue collected through surveys, using maximum electromagnetic radiation peak-to-peak measurements. And after a detailed analysis of the study, we want to make some comments on said publication to clarify some aspects.

Longitudinal study of exposure to radio frequencies at population scale

Evaluating exposure to radio frequencies (RF) at population-scale is important for conducting sound epidemiological studies about possible health impact of RF radiations. Numerous studies reported population exposure to RF radiations used in wireless telecommunication technologies, but used very small population samples. In this context, the real exposure of the population at scale remains poorly understood. Here, to the best of our knowledge, we report the largest crowd-based measurement of population exposure to RF produced by cellular antennas, Wi-Fi access points, and Bluetooth devices for 254,410 unique users in 13 countries from January 2017 to December 2020. First, we present methods to assess the population exposure to RF radiations using smartphone measurements obtained using the ElectroSmart Android app. Then, we use these methods to evaluate and characterize the evolution of RF exposure. We show that total exposure has been multiplied by 2.3 in the four-year period considered, with Wi-Fi as the largest contributor. The cellular exposure levels are orders of magnitude lower than regulation limits and are not correlated to national regulation policies. The population tends to be more exposed at home; for half of the study subjects, personal Wi-Fi routers and Bluetooth devices contributed to more than 50% of their total exposure. In this work, we showcase how crowdsource-based data allow large-scale and long-term assessment of population exposure to RF radiations.

Estimated all-day and evening whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic fields doses, and sleep in preadolescents

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of estimated all-day and evening whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) doses with sleep disturbances and objective sleep measures in preadolescents.

METHODS

We included preadolescents aged 9-12 years from two population-based birth cohorts, the Dutch Generation R Study (n = 974) and the Spanish INfancia y Medio Ambiente Project (n = 868). All-day and evening overall whole-brain RF-EMF doses (mJ/kg/day) were estimated for several RF-EMF sources including mobile and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) phone calls (named phone calls), other mobile phone uses, tablet use, laptop use (named screen activities), and far-field sources. We also estimated all-day and evening whole-brain RF-EMF doses in these three groups separately (i.e. phone calls, screen activities, and far-field). The Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children was completed by mothers to assess sleep disturbances. Wrist accelerometers together with sleep diaries were used to measure sleep characteristics objectively for 7 consecutive days.

RESULTS

All-day whole-brain RF-EMF doses were not associated with self-reported sleep disturbances and objective sleep measures. Regarding evening doses, preadolescents with high evening whole-brain RF-EMF dose from phone calls had a shorter total sleep time compared to preadolescents with zero evening whole-brain RF-EMF dose from phone calls [-11.9 min (95%CI -21.2; -2.5)].

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest the evening as a potentially relevant window of RF-EMF exposure for sleep. However, we cannot exclude that observed associations are due to the activities or reasons motivating the phone calls rather than the RF-EMF exposure itself or due to chance finding.

Exposure to RF-EMF Alters Postsynaptic Structure and Hinders Neurite Outgrowth in Developing Hippocampal Neurons of Early Postnatal Mice

Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) has increased rapidly in children, but information on the effects of RF-EMF exposure to the central nervous system in children is limited. In this study, pups and dams were exposed to whole-body RF-EMF at 4.0 W/kg specific absorption rate (SAR) for 5 h per day for 4 weeks (from postnatal day (P) 1 to P28). The effects of RF-EMF exposure on neurons were evaluated by using both pups' hippocampus and primary cultured hippocampal neurons. The total number of dendritic spines showed statistically significant decreases in the dentate gyrus (DG) but was not altered in the cornu ammonis (CA1) in hippocampal neurons. In particular, the number of mushroom-type dendritic spines showed statistically significant decreases in the CA1 and DG. The expression of glutamate receptors was decreased in mushroom-type dendritic spines in the CA1 and DG of hippocampal neurons following RF-EMF exposure. The expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the CA1 and DG was significantly lower statistically in RF-EMF-exposed mice. The number of post-synaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) puncta gradually increased over time but was significantly decreased statistically at days in vitro (DIV) 5, 7, and 9 following RF-EMF exposure. Decreased BDNF expression was restricted to the soma and was not observed in neurites of hippocampal neurons following RF-EMF exposure. The length of neurite outgrowth and number of branches showed statistically significant decreases, but no changes in the soma size of hippocampal neurons were observed. Further, the memory index showed statistically significant decreases in RF-EMF-exposed mice, suggesting that decreased synaptic density following RF-EMF exposure at early developmental stages may affect memory function. Collectively, these data suggest that hindered neuronal outgrowth following RF-EMF exposure may decrease overall synaptic density during early neurite development of hippocampal neurons.

Protocol for personal RF-EMF exposure measurement studies in 5th generation telecommunication networks

BACKGROUND

The general population is exposed to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) used by telecommunication networks. Previous studies developed methods to assess this exposure. These methods will be inadequate to accurately assess exposure in 5G technologies or other wireless technologies using adaptive antennas. This is due to the fact that 5G NR (new radio) base stations will focus actively on connected users, resulting in a high spatio-temporal variations in the RF-EMFs. This increases the measurement uncertainty in personal measurements of RF-EMF exposure. Furthermore, a user's exposure from base stations will be dependent on the amount of data usage, adding a new component to the auto-induced exposure, which is often omitted in current studies.

GOALS

The objective of this paper is to develop a general study protocol for future personal RF-EMF exposure research adapted to 5G technologies. This protocol will include the assessment of auto-induced exposure of both a user's own devices and the networks' base stations.

METHOD

This study draws from lessons learned from previous RF-EMF exposure research and current knowledge on 5G technologies, including studies simulating 5G NR base stations and measurements around 5G NR test sites.

RESULTS

To account for auto-induced exposure, an activity-based approach is introduced. In survey studies, an RF-EMF sensor is fixed on the participants' mobile device(s). Based on the measured power density, GPS data and movement and proximity sensors, different activities can be clustered and the exposure during each activity is evaluated. In microenvironmental measurements, a trained researcher performs measurements in predefined microenvironments with a mobile device equipped with the RF-EMF sensor. The mobile device is programmed to repeat a sequence of data transmission scenarios (different amounts of uplink and downlink data transmissions). Based on simulations, the amount of exposure induced in the body when the user device is at a certain location relative to the body, can be evaluated.

CONCLUSION

Our protocol addresses the main challenges to personal exposure measurement introduced by 5G NR. A systematic method to evaluate a user's auto-induced exposure is introduced.

Personal Exposure Assessment to Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in Mexican Microenvironments

In recent years, personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) has substantially increased, and most studies about RF-EMF with volunteers have been developed in Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study carried out in Mexico with personal exposimeters. The main objective was to measure personal exposure to RF-EMF from Wireless Fidelity or wireless Internet connection (Wi-Fi) frequency bands in Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, to compare results with maximum levels permitted by international recommendations and to find if there are differences in the microenvironments subject to measurements. The study was conducted with 63 volunteers in different microenvironments: home, workplace, outside, schools, travel, and shopping. The mean minimum values registered were 146.5 μW/m² in travel from the Wi-Fi 2G band and 116.8 μW/m² at home from the Wi-Fi 5G band, and the maximum values registered were 499.7 μW/m² and 264.9 μW/m² at the workplace for the Wi-Fi 2G band and the Wi-Fi 5G band, respectively. In addition, by time period and type of day, minimum values were registered at nighttime, these values being 129.4 μW/m² and 93.9 μW/m², and maximum values were registered in the daytime, these values being 303.1 μW/m² and 168.3 μW/m² for the Wi-Fi 2G and Wi-Fi 5G bands, respectively. In no case, values exceeded limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Of the study participants (n = 63), a subgroup (n = 35) answered a survey on risk perception. According to these results, the Tamazunchale (Mexico) population is worried about this situation in comparison with several European cities; however, the risk perception changes when they are informed about the results for the study.

Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from mobile communication: Description of modeled dose in brain regions and the body in European children and adolescents

BACKGROUND

Little is known about radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF) from mobile technology and resulting dose in young people. We describe modeled integrated RF dose in European children and adolescents combining own mobile device use and surrounding sources.

METHODS

Using an integrated RF model, we estimated the daily RF dose in the brain (whole-brain, cerebellum, frontal lobe, midbrain, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobes) and the whole-body in 8358 children (ages 8-12) and adolescents (ages 14-18) from the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland during 2012-2016. The integrated model estimated RF dose from near-field sources (digital enhanced communication technology (DECT) phone, mobile phone, tablet, and laptop) and far-field sources (mobile phone base stations via 3D-radiowave modeling or RF measurements).

RESULTS

Adolescents were more frequent mobile phone users and experienced higher modeled RF doses in the whole-brain (median 330.4 mJ/kg/day) compared to children (median 81.8 mJ/kg/day). Children spent more time using tablets or laptops compared to adolescents, resulting in higher RF doses in the whole-body (median whole-body dose of 81.8 mJ/kg/day) compared to adolescents (41.9 mJ/kg/day). Among brain regions, temporal lobes received the highest RF dose (medians of 274.9 and 1786.5 mJ/kg/day in children and adolescents, respectively) followed by the frontal lobe. In most children and adolescents, calling on 2G networks was the main contributor to RF dose in the whole-brain (medians of 31.1 and 273.7 mJ/kg/day, respectively).

CONCLUSION

This first large study of RF dose to the brain and body of children and adolescents shows that mobile phone calls on 2G networks are the main determinants of brain dose, especially in temporal and frontal lobes, whereas whole-body doses were mostly determined by tablet and laptop use. The modeling of RF doses provides valuable input to epidemiological research and to potential risk management regarding RF exposure in young people.

Association between estimated whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic fields dose and cognitive function in preadolescents and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between estimated whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) dose, using an improved integrated RF-EMF exposure model, and cognitive function in preadolescents and adolescents.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis in preadolescents aged 9-11 years and adolescents aged 17-18 years from the Dutch Amsterdam Born Children and their Development Study (n = 1664 preadolescents) and the Spanish INfancia y Medio Ambiente Project (n = 1288 preadolescents and n = 261 adolescents), two population-based birth cohort studies. Overall whole-brain RF-EMF doses (mJ/kg/day) were estimated for several RF-EMF sources together including mobile and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications phone calls (named phone calls), other mobile phone uses than calling, tablet use, laptop use (named screen activities), and far-field sources. We also estimated whole-brain RF-EMF doses in these three groups separately (i.e. phone calls, screen activities, and far-field) that lead to different patterns of RF-EMF exposure. We assessed non-verbal intelligence in the Dutch and Spanish preadolescents, information processing speed, attentional function, and cognitive flexibility in the Spanish preadolescents, and working memory and semantic fluency in the Spanish preadolescents and adolescents using validated neurocognitive tests.

RESULTS

Estimated overall whole-brain RF-EMF dose was 90.1 mJ/kg/day (interquartile range (IQR) 42.7; 164.0) in the Dutch and Spanish preadolescents and 105.1 mJ/kg/day (IQR 51.0; 295.7) in the Spanish adolescents. Higher overall estimated whole-brain RF-EMF doses from all RF-EMF sources together and from phone calls were associated with lower non-verbal intelligence score in the Dutch and Spanish preadolescents (-0.10 points, 95% CI -0.19; -0.02 per 100 mJ/kg/day increase in each exposure). However, none of the whole-brain RF-EMF doses was related to any other cognitive function outcome in the Spanish preadolescents or adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that higher brain exposure to RF-EMF is related to lower non-verbal intelligence but not to other cognitive function outcomes. Given the cross-sectional nature of the study, the small effect sizes, and the unknown biological mechanisms, we cannot discard that our resultsare due to chance finding or reverse causality. Longitudinal studies on RF-EMF brain exposure and cognitive function are needed.

Estimated whole-brain and lobe-specific radiofrequency electromagnetic fields doses and brain volumes in preadolescents

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association between estimated whole-brain and lobe-specific radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) doses, using an improved integrated RF-EMF exposure model, and brain volumes in preadolescents at 9-12 years old.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis in preadolescents aged 9-12 years from the Generation R Study, a population-based birth cohort set up in Rotterdam, The Netherlands (n = 2592). An integrated exposure model was used to estimate whole-brain and lobe-specific RF-EMF doses (mJ/kg/day) from different RF-EMF sources including mobile and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) phone calls, other mobile phone uses than calling, tablet use, laptop use, and far-field sources. Whole-brain and lobe-specific RF-EMF doses were estimated for all RF-EMF sources together (i.e. overall) and for three groups of RF-EMF sources that lead to a different pattern of RF-EMF exposure. Information on brain volumes was extracted from magnetic resonance imaging scans.

RESULTS

Estimated overall whole-brain RF-EMF dose was 84.3 mJ/kg/day. The highest overall lobe-specific dose was estimated in the temporal lobe (307.1 mJ/kg/day). Whole-brain and lobe-specific RF-EMF doses from all RF-EMF sources together, from mobile and DECT phone calls, and from far-field sources were not associated with global, cortical, or subcortical brain volumes. However, a higher whole-brain RF-EMF dose from mobile phone use for internet browsing, e-mailing, and text messaging, tablet use, and laptop use while wirelessly connected to the internet was associated with a smaller caudate volume.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that estimated whole-brain and lobe-specific RF-EMF doses were not related to brain volumes in preadolescents at 9-12 years old. Screen activities with mobile communication devices while wirelessly connected to the internet lead to low RF-EMF dose to the brain and our observed association may thus rather reflect effects of social or individual factors related to these specific uses of mobile communication devices. However, we cannot discard residual confounding, chance finding, or reverse causality. Further studies on mobile communication devices and their potential negative associations with brain development are warranted, regardless whether associations are due to RF-EMF exposure or to other factors related to their use.

IEEE Committee on Man and Radiation-COMAR Technical Information Statement: Health and Safety Issues Concerning Exposure of the General Public to Electromagnetic Energy from 5G Wireless Communications Networks

This COMAR Technical Information Statement (TIS) addresses health and safety issues concerning exposure of the general public to radiofrequency (RF) fields from 5G wireless communications networks, the expansion of which started on a large scale in 2018 to 2019. 5G technology can transmit much greater amounts of data at much higher speeds for a vastly expanded array of applications compared with preceding 2-4G systems; this is due, in part, to using the greater bandwidth available at much higher frequencies than those used by most existing networks. Although the 5G engineering standard may be deployed for operating networks currently using frequencies extending from 100s to 1,000s of MHz, it can also operate in the 10s of GHz where the wavelengths are 10 mm or less, the so-called millimeter wave (MMW) band. Until now, such fields were found in a limited number of applications (e.g., airport scanners, automotive collision avoidance systems, perimeter surveillance radar), but the rapid expansion of 5G will produce a more ubiquitous presence of MMW in the environment. While some 5G signals will originate from small antennas placed on existing base stations, most will be deployed with some key differences relative to typical transmissions from 2-4G base stations. Because MMW do not penetrate foliage and building materials as well as signals at lower frequencies, the networks will require "densification," the installation of many lower power transmitters (often called "small cells" located mainly on buildings and utility poles) to provide for effective indoor coverage. Also, "beamforming" antennas on some 5G systems will transmit one or more signals directed to individual users as they move about, thus limiting exposures to non-users. In this paper, COMAR notes the following perspectives to address concerns expressed about possible health effects of RF field exposure from 5G technology. First, unlike lower frequency fields, MMW do not penetrate beyond the outer skin layers and thus do not expose inner tissues to MMW. Second, current research indicates that overall levels of exposure to RF are unlikely to be significantly altered by 5G, and exposure will continue to originate mostly from the "uplink" signals from one's own device (as they do now). Third, exposure levels in publicly accessible spaces will remain well below exposure limits established by international guideline and standard setting organizations, including ICNIRP and IEEE. Finally, so long as exposures remain below established guidelines, the research results to date do not support a determination that adverse health effects are associated with RF exposures, including those from 5G systems. While it is acknowledged that the scientific literature on MMW biological effect research is more limited than that for lower frequencies, we also note that it is of mixed quality and stress that future research should use appropriate precautions to enhance validity. The authorship of this paper includes a physician/biologist, epidemiologist, engineers, and physical scientists working voluntarily and collaboratively on a consensus basis.

Georeferencing of Personal Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields from Wi-Fi in a University Area

In the last two decades, due to the development of the information society, the massive increase in the use of information technologies, including the connection and communication of multiple electronic devices, highlighting Wi-Fi networks, as well as the emerging technological advances of 4G and 5G (new-generation mobile phones that will use 5G), have caused a significant increase in the personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF), and as a consequence, increasing discussions about the possible adverse health effects. The main objective of this study was to measure the personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from the Wi-Fi in the university area of German Jordanian University (GJU) and prepare georeferenced maps of the registered intensity levels and to compare them with the basic international restrictions. Spot measurements were made outside the university area at German Jordanian University. Measurements were made in the whole university area and around two buildings. Two Satimo EME SPY 140 (Brest, France) personal exposimeters were used, and the measurements were performed in the morning and afternoon, and on weekends and weekdays. The total average personal exposure to RF-EMF from the Wi-Fi band registered in the three study areas and in the four days measured was 28.82 μW/m2. The average total exposure from the Wi-Fi band registered in the ten measured points of the university area of GJU was 22.97 μW/m2, the one registered in the eight measured points of building H was 34.48 μW/m2, and the one registered in the eight points of building C was 29.00 μW/m2. The maximum average values registered in the campus of GJU are below the guidelines allowed by International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The measurement protocol used in this work has been applied in measurements already carried out in Spain and Mexico, and it is applicable in university areas of other countries.

A real-world quality assessment study in six ExpoM-RF measurement devices

Exposimeters measuring radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) are commonly used to assess personal exposure to RF-EMF in real-life environments. They are usually calibrated in an anechoic chamber using single, well-defined signals such as the center frequency of each band, and standardized orientations, but it is not clear how different devices compare in the real environment where complex mixtures of signals from all directions are present. We thus tested the comparability of six ExpoM-RF exposimeters before and after calibration in an anechoic chamber by varying their position and orientation while repeatedly measuring 15 microenvironments (9 walking routes, 4 tram routes and 2 bus routes) on 6 different days. We modelled the geometric mean levels of RF-EMF as a function of orientation, position, device ID, whether the device was recently calibrated, correcting for the microenvironment in which each measurement took place. We found that systematic differences introduced by device ID, calibration, day of the week, orientation and position are relatively small compared to exposure differences between microenvironments. Any corrections (if desired) should include both device ID and calibration session, but would have a small impact considering the negligible differences between devices. This supports the validity of previous exposure measurement studies relying on ExpoM-RF devices, which did not correct for device ID. We further found that summarizing the exposure per microenvironment as geometric means results in better models than arithmetic means and medians, and recommend that further exposure assessment studies report observed levels as geometric means.

Comparison of statistic methods for censored personal exposure to RF-EMF data

Several studies have characterized personal exposure to RF-EMF, which allows possible effects on health to be studied. All equipment has a detection limit, below which we obtain nondetects or censored data. This problem is a challenge for researchers as it makes the analysis of such data complex. We suggest reconsidering the statistical protocols of the nondetects analysis by comparing four different methods. Three of them substitute censored data using different approaches: regression on order of statistics (ROS) to simulate data below the detection limit (Method 1), substituting nondetect values by the detection limit divided by 2 (Method 2), a naïve calculation (Method 3) using the detection limit as a valid measurement. The fourth method consists of considering censored data to be missing values (Method 4). This article examines how these methods affect the quantification of personal exposure. We considered data from 14 frequency bands from FM to WiMax measured in Albacete (Spain) for 76 days every 10 s by a personal exposimeter (PEM) Satimo EME Spy 140.Methods 3 and 2 gave similar mean and median values to Method 1, but both underestimated the mean values when high nondetects records occurred, which conditioned the physical description of the real situation. The mean values calculated by Method 4 differed from those obtained by Method 1 but were similar when the percentage of nondetects was below 20%.Our comparison suggests that nondetects can be neglected when the percentage of censored data is low to provide a more realistic physical situation.

Public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in everyday microenvironments: An updated systematic review for Europe

Communication technologies are rapidly changing and this may affect public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). This systematic review of literature aims to update a previous review on public everyday RF-EMF exposure in Europe, which covered publications until 2015. From 144 eligible records identified by means of a systematic search in PubMed, Embase and Web of Knowledge databases, published between May 2015 and 1 July 2018, 26 records met the inclusion criteria. We extracted quantitative data on public exposure in different indoors, outdoors and transport environments. The data was descriptively analyzed with respect to the exposure patterns between different types of environments. Mean RF-EMF exposure in homes, schools and offices were between 0.04 and 0.76 V/m. Mean outdoor exposure values ranged from 0.07 to 1.27 V/m with downlink signals from mobile phone base stations being the most relevant contributor. RF-EMF levels tended to increase with increasing urbanity. Levels in public transport (bus, train and tram) and cars were between 0.14 and 0.69 V/m. The highest levels, up to 1.97 V/m, were measured in public transport stations with downlink as the most relevant contributor. In line with previous studies, RF-EMF exposure levels were highest in the transportation systems followed by outdoor and private indoor environments. This review does not indicate a noticeable increase in everyday RF-EMF exposure since 2012 despite increasing use of wireless communication devices.

Characterisation of spatial and temporal variability of RF-EMF exposure levels in urban environments in Flanders, Belgium

Personal exposure to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) was studied using personal measurements in five different microenvironments in each of five cities (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and Hasselt) in Flanders, Belgium. These measurements were carried out by two researchers using on-body calibrated personal exposimeters. In three out of the five studied cities (Brussels, Ghent and Bruges), temporal aspects of personal exposure to RF-EMFs were studied as well. Measurements during and outside of rush hours (7:00-9:15 and 16:30-19:00) were compared. Likewise, measurements were executed during night time and compared to the ones measured during working hours. Representativeness and repeatability of the measurement method was studied as well. The highest mean total exposure was found in Brussels (2.63 mW/m²), the most densely populated city in this study. However, we measured higher downlink exposure in Antwerp than in Brussels, which might be an effect of the stronger legislation on base stations in Brussels. The measurements and used protocol were found to be both repeatable over time (r = 0.95 for median total exposure) and representative for the studied microenvironments in terms of path selection (r = 0.88 for median total exposure). Finally, in 10 out of the 13 on-body calibrated frequency bands we found that the measurement devices underestimate the intensity of the incident RF-EMFs with median underestimations up to 68%.

The Response of Osteoblasts and Bone to Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Fields: Insights from the Literature

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) have been proposed as a tool to ameliorate bone formation and healing. Despite their promising results, however, they have failed to enter routine clinical protocols to treat bone conditions where higher bone mass has to be achieved. This is no doubt also due to a fundamental lack of knowledge and understanding on their effects and the optimal settings for attaining the desired therapeutic effects. This review analysed the available in vitro and in vivo studies that assessed the effects of sinusoidal EMFs (SEMFs) on bone and bone cells, comparing the results and investigating possible mechanisms of action by which SEMFs interact with tissues and cells. The effects of SEMFs on bone have not been as thoroughly investigated as pulsed EMFs; however, abundant evidence shows that SEMFs affect the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblastic cells, acting on multiple cellular mechanisms. SEMFs have also proven to increase bone mass in rodents under normal conditions and in osteoporotic animals.

Possible Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure on Central Nerve System

Technological advances of mankind, through the development of electrical and communication technologies, have resulted in the exposure to artificial electromagnetic fields (EMF). Technological growth is expected to continue; as such, the amount of EMF exposure will continue to increase steadily. In particular, the use-time of smart phones, that have become a necessity for modern people, is steadily increasing. Social concerns and interest in the impact on the cranial nervous system are increased when considering the area where the mobile phone is used. However, before discussing possible effects of radiofrequency-electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) on the human body, several factors must be investigated about the influence of EMFs at the level of research using in vitro or animal models. Scientific studies on the mechanism of biological effects are also required. It has been found that RF-EMF can induce changes in central nervous system nerve cells, including neuronal cell apoptosis, changes in the function of the nerve myelin and ion channels; furthermore, RF-EMF act as a stress source in living creatures. The possible biological effects of RF-EMF exposure have not yet been proven, and there are insufficient data on biological hazards to provide a clear answer to possible health risks. Therefore, it is necessary to study the biological response to RF-EMF in consideration of the comprehensive exposure with regard to the use of various devices by individuals. In this review, we summarize the possible biological effects of RF-EMF exposure.

Are rises in Electro-Magnetic Field in the human environment, interacting with multiple environmental pollutions, the tripping point for increases in neurological deaths in the Western World?

Whilst humans evolved in the earth's Electro-Magnetic-Field (EMF) and sun-light, both being essential to life but too much sun and we burn. What happens if background EMF rise to critical levels, coinciding with increasing environmental pollutants? Two of the authors can look back over 50 clinical years and appreciate the profound changes in human morbidity across a range of disparate conditions - autoimmune diseases, asthma, earlier cancer incidence and reduced male sperm counts. In particular have been increased autism, dyslexia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and neurological diseases, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's Disease, Early Onset Dementia, Multiple System Atrophy and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy. What might have caused these changes-whilst genetic factors are taken as given, multiple environmental pollutants are associated with neurological disease although the mechanisms are unclear. The pace of increased neurological deaths far exceeds any Gompertzian explanation - that because people are living longer they are more likely to develop more age-related problems such as neurological disease. Using WHO global mortality categories of Neurological Disease Deaths (NDD) and Alzheimer's and Dementia deaths (Alz), updated June 2018, together they constitute Total Neurological Mortality (TNM), to calculate mortality rates per million for people aged 55-74 and for the over-75's in twenty-one Western countries. Recent increases in American people aged over-75's rose 49% from 1989 to 2015 but US neurological deaths increased five-fold. In 1989 based on Age-Standardised-Deaths-Rates America USA was 17th at 324 pm but rising to 539 pm became second highest. Different environmental/occupational factors have been found to be associated with neuro-degenerative diseases, including background EMF. We briefly explore how levels of EMF interact upon the human body, which can be described as a natural antennae and provide new evidence that builds upon earlier research to propose the following hypothesis. Based upon recent and new evidence we hypothesise that a major contribution for the relative sudden upsurge in neurological morbidity in the Western world (1989-2015), is because of increased background EMF that has become the tipping point-impacting upon any genetic predisposition, increasing multiple-interactive pollutants, such as rises in petro-chemicals, hormone disrupting chemicals, industrial, agricultural and domestic chemicals. The unprecedented neurological death rates, all within just twenty-five years, demand a re-examination of long-term EMF safety related to the increasing background EMF on human health. We do not wish to 'stop the modern world', only make it safer.

Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Indoor Environments: A Review

Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in indoor environments depends on both outdoor sources such as radio, television and mobile phone antennas and indoor sources, such as mobile phones and wireless communications applications. Establishing the levels of exposure could be challenging due to differences in the approaches used in different studies. The goal of this study is to present an overview of the last ten years research efforts about RF EMF exposure in indoor environments, considering different RF-EMF sources found to cause exposure in indoor environments, different indoor environments and different approaches used to assess the exposure. The highest maximum mean levels of the exposure considering the whole RF-EMF frequency band was found in offices (1.14 V/m) and in public transports (0.97 V/m), while the lowest levels of exposure were observed in homes and apartments, with mean values in the range 0.13⁻0.43 V/m. The contribution of different RF-EMF sources to the total level of exposure was found to show slightly different patterns among the indoor environments, but this finding has to be considered as a time-dependent picture of the continuous evolving exposure to RF-EMF.

Early exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields at 1850 MHz affects auditory circuits in early postnatal mice

In the present study, we measured the spontaneous post synaptic currents (sPSCs) at the post synaptic principle cells of the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) in early postnatal mice after exposure to 1850 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). sPSC frequencies and amplitudes were significantly increased in the RF-EMF exposed group. Moreover, the number of synaptic vesicles in the calyx of Held was significantly increased in presynaptic nerve terminals. Following RF-EMF exposure, the number of docking synaptic vesicles in the active zone increased, thereby expanding the total length of the presynaptic active zone in the calyx of Held. These data suggest that the increased sPSCs are a result of greater synaptic vesicle release from presynaptic nerves. However, we found no morphological changes in the inner hair cell ribbon synapses. Further, there were no significant changes in the hearing threshold of the auditory brainstem response at postnatal day 15. Our results indicate that exposure to RF-EMF at an early postnatal stage might directly affect brainstem auditory circuits, but it does not seem to alter general sound perception.

Measurement of Low-level radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in the human environment

In recent years there has been an increase in development of electromagnetic (EM) technology in the telecommunication industry, resulting in an increase in human non-ionizing exposure. This fact has initiated a number of scientific studies on possible health effects of EM fields on human organism. Totally four representative microenvironments were investigated for RF EM fields distribution, namely: city center, residential area, rural area, and extra-village area. Each microenvironment was measured 20 times in accordance with the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines. The extra-village measurements were taken as the base values that reflect the E-field intensities with the lowest amplitudes. The statistical analysis revealed notable statistical significance (p < 0.001) in almost all measured frequency bands except the Wi-Fi where the p-values were less than 0.05 for the city center and residential area but not significant for rural area. The highest total E-field intensity was measured in the residential area (approximately 1.85 V/m). All measured values were below the legal limits of the Slovak Republic and ICNIRP safety guidelines. However, the ICNIRP safety limits were written in 1998 considering only the thermal effects of RF radiation. They were updated in 2009 without any changes in the limits and still recommend 27.5 – 61 V/m (2 – 10 W/m2) for the RF frequency band of 400–2,000 MHz. The BioInitiative Report of 2012 established the scientific benchmark for possible health risks as 30–60 μW/m2 (approximately 0.1 – 0.15 V/m). Thus, all measured values were above the scientifically derived limits.

Personal exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields in Europe: Is there a generation gap?

BACKGROUND

Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from mobile communication technologies is changing rapidly. To characterize sources and associated variability, we studied the differences and correlations in exposure patterns between children aged 8 to 18 and their parents, over the course of the day, by age, by activity pattern, and for different metrics of exposure.

METHODS

Using portable RF-EMF measurement devices, we collected simultaneous real-time personal measurements of RF-EMF over 24 to 72 h in 294 parent-child pairs from Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Spain. The devices measured the power flux density (mW/m²) in 16 different frequency bands every 4 s, and activity diary Apps kept by the participants were used to collect time-activity information in real-time. We analyzed their exposures by activity, for the different source constituents of exposure: downlink (radiation emitted from mobile phone base stations), uplink (transmission from phone to base station), broadcast, DECT (digital enhanced cordless telecommunications) and Wi-Fi. We looked at the correlations between parents and children overall, during day (06:00-22.00) and night (22:00-06:00) and while spending time at home.

RESULTS

The mean of time-weighted average personal exposures was 0.16 mW/m² for children and 0.15 mW/m² for parents, on average predominantly originating from downlink sources (47% for children and 45% for parents), followed by uplink (18% and 27% respectively) and broadcast (25% and 19%). On average, exposure for downlink and uplink were highest during the day, and for Wi-Fi and DECT during the evening. Exposure during activities where most of the time is spent (home, school and work) was relatively low whereas exposure during travel and outside activities was higher. Exposure to uplink increased with age among young people, while DECT decreased slightly. Exposure to downlink, broadcast, and Wi-Fi showed no obvious trend with age. We found that exposure to total RF-EMF is correlated among children and their parents (R_spearman = 0.45), especially while at home (0.62) and during the night (0.60). Correlations were higher for environmental sources such as downlink (0.57) and broadcast (0.62) than for usage-related exposures such as uplink (0.29).

CONCLUSION

The generation gap between children and their parents is mostly evident in uplink exposure, due to more and longer uplink and cordless phone calls among parents, and their tendency to spend slightly more time in activities with higher environmental RF-EMF exposure, such as travel. Despite these differences in personal behavior, exposure to RF-EMF is moderately correlated between children and their parents, especially exposures resulting from environmental RF-EMF sources.

Personal Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields among Australian Adults

The measurement of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) is important for epidemiological studies. RF-EMF exposure can be measured using personal exposimeters that register RF-EMFs over a wide range of frequency bands. This study aimed to measure and describe personal RF-EMF exposure levels from a wide range of frequency bands. Measurements were recorded from 63 participants over an average of 27.4 (±4.5) hours. RF-EMF exposure levels were computed for each frequency band, as well as from downlink (RF from mobile phone base station), uplink (RF from mobile phone handsets), broadcast, and Wi-Fi. Participants had a mean (±SD) age of 36.9 ± 12.5 years; 66.7% were women; and almost all (98.2%) from urban areas. A Wi-Fi router at home was reported by 61 participants (96.8%), with 38 (61.2%) having a Wi-Fi enabled smart TV. Overall, 26 (41.3%) participants had noticed the existence of a mobile phone base station in their neighborhood. On average, participants estimated the distance between the base station and their usual residence to be about 500 m. The median personal RF-EMF exposure was 208 mV/m. Downlink contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure, followed by broadcast (22.4%), uplink (17.3%), and Wi-Fi (15.9%). RF-EMF exposure levels on weekdays were higher than weekends (p < 0.05). Downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure. Personal RF-EMF exposure levels vary according to day of the week and time of day.

The Use of Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields to Promote Bone Responses to Biomaterials In Vitro and In Vivo

Implantable biomaterials are extensively used to promote bone regeneration or support endosseous prosthesis in orthopedics and dentistry. Their use, however, would benefit from additional strategies to improve bone responses. Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs) have long been known to act on osteoblasts and bone, affecting their metabolism, in spite of our poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Hence, we have the hypothesis that PEMFs may also ameliorate cell responses to biomaterials, improving their growth, differentiation, and the expression of a mature phenotype and therefore increasing the tissue integration of the implanted devices and their clinical success. A broad range of settings used for PEMFs stimulation still represents a hurdle to better define treatment protocols and extensive research is needed to overcome this issue. The present review includes studies that investigated the effects of PEMFs on the response of bone cells to different classes of biomaterials and the reports that focused on in vivo investigations of biomaterials implanted in bone.