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Peng F, Wang Y, Lu Y, Yang Z, Li H. Formation and control of disinfection by-products during the trichloroisocyanuric acid disinfection in swimming pool water. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 346:123536. [PMID: 38365079 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
The increasing demand for trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCCA) in swimming pool disinfection highlights the need to evaluate its applicability in terms of disinfection by-product (DBP) formation. Nevertheless, there is limited understanding of DBP formation and control during TCCA disinfection, particularly concerning the effects of various management parameters. This study aimed to fill this knowledge gap by comprehensively investigating DBP formation during TCCA chlorination, with a particular focus on assessing the contribution and interaction of influencing factors using Box-Behnken Design and response surface methodology. Results indicated that the concentrations of trichloroacetaldehyde, chloroform, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetonitrile produced by TCCA disinfectant were 42.5%, 74.0%, 48.1%, 94.7% and 42.6% of those by the conventional sodium hypochlorite disinfectant, respectively. Temperature exhibited the most significant impact on chloroform formation (49%), while pH played a major role in trichloroacetaldehyde formation (44%). pH2 emerged as the primary contributor to dichloroacetic acid (90%) and trichloroacetic acid (93%) formation. The optimum water quality conditions were determined based on the minimum total DBPs (pH = 7.32, Temperature = 23.7 °C, [Cl-] = 437 mg/L). Chlorine dosage and contact time exhibited greater influence than precursor concentration on chloroform, dichloroacetonitrile, trichloroacetaldehyde, trichloroacetic acid, and total DBPs. Although the interaction between water quality parameters was weak, the interaction between disinfection operating parameters demonstrated substantial effects on DBP formation (8.56-19.06%). Furthermore, the DBP predictive models during TCCA disinfection were provided for the first time, which provides valuable insights for DBP control and early warning programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China.
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Lin HHH, Lin AYC. Peracetic acid as an alternative disinfectant for micropollutants degradation and disinfection byproducts control in outdoor swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:132988. [PMID: 37979421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Peracetic acid (PAA) has garnered significant interest as a novel alternative to chlorine-based disinfectants for water treatment due to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and its ability of reactive species generation when exposed to UV light. However, limited studies have investigated micropollutant degradation in the presence of PAA under solar irradiation. This is the first study to comprehensively investigate the photodegradation of caffeine (CAF) and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) and the removal of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in the presence of PAA under simulated solar light. The study revealed that the photodegradation of CAF and 4-MBC was significantly enhanced in the presence of PAA, following pseudo-first-order kinetics (R2 > 0.98) with reaction rates (kobs) of 0.220 and 0.111 h-1, respectively. In addition, substantial reduction of 21 DBPs, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and haloacetonitriles, and no DBPs formation were observed in the presence of PAA and simulated solar irradiation. The proportion of coexisting H2O2 in the PAA solution considerably influenced target compounds degradation. CAF and 4-MBC were degraded faster under acidic conditions than under alkaline conditions. Hydroxyl radicals (·OH) dominated the degradation of CAF at different pH values, while direct photolysis and other reactive species played a major role in the degradation of 4-MBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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3
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Ahmadpour E, Delpla I, Debia M, Simard S, Proulx F, Sérodes JB, Valois I, Tardif R, Haddad S, Rodriguez M. Full-scale multisampling and empirical modeling of DBPs in water and air of indoor pools. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1128. [PMID: 37650940 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11619-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed in the water in swimming pools due to reactions between disinfectants (chlorine, bromine, ozone) and the organic matter introduced by bathers and supply water. High concentrations of DBPs are also reported in the air of indoor swimming pools. Based on a robust multisampling program, the levels and variations of DBPs in the air (trichloramine [TCAM] and trihalomethanes [THMs]) and water (THM) were assessed, as well as their precursors (total organic carbon, water temperature, pH, free, and total chlorine) and proxies (CO2 and relative humidity) in four indoor chlorinated swimming pools. High-frequency sampling was conducted during one high-attendance day for each pool. This study focused on parameters that are easy to measure in order to develop models for predicting levels of THMs and TCAM in the air. The results showed that the number of bathers had an important impact on the levels of THMs and TCAM, with a two-to-three-fold increase in air chloroform (up to 110 μg/m3) and a two-to-four-fold increase in TCAM (up to 0.52 mg/m3) shortly after pools opened. The results of this study for the first time showed that CO2 and relative humidity can serve as proxies for monitoring variations in airborne THMs and TCAM. Our results highlight the good predictive capacity of the developed models and their potential for use in day-to-day monitoring. This could help optimize and control DBPs formation in the air of indoor swimming pools and reduce contaminant exposure for both pool employees and users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Ianis Delpla
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - François Proulx
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Jean-Baptiste Sérodes
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Isabelle Valois
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Robert Tardif
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Universite de Montreal, 2900, Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- Ecole superieure d'amenagement du territoire et de developpement regional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Quebec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
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Peng F, Lu Y, Dong X, Wang Y, Li H, Yang Z. Advances and research needs for disinfection byproducts control strategies in swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 454:131533. [PMID: 37146331 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is of great significance due to the non-negligible toxicity and widespread existence of DBPs. However, the management of DBPs remains challenging as the removal and regulation of DBPs is a multifactorial phenomenon in pools. This study summarized recent studies on the removal and regulation of DBPs, and further proposed some research needs. Specifically, the removal of DBPs was divided into the direct removal of the generated DBPs and the indirect removal by inhibiting DBP formation. Inhibiting DBP formation seems to be the more effective and economically practical strategy, which can be achieved mainly by reducing precursors, improving disinfection technology, and optimizing water quality parameters. Alternative disinfection technologies to chlorine disinfection have attracted increasing attention, while their applicability in pools requires further investigation. The regulation of DBPs was discussed in terms of improving the standards on DBPs and their preccursors. The development of online monitoring technology for DBPs is essential for implementing the standard. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the control of DBPs in pool water by updating the latest research advances and providing detailed perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Xuelian Dong
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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5
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Ahmadpour E, Hallé S, Valois I, Ryan PE, Haddad S, Rodriguez M, Tardif R, Debia M. Comparison of sampling collection strategies for assessing airborne trichloramine levels in indoor swimming pools. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:36012-36022. [PMID: 36539665 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24790-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Since 1995, Hery's trichloramine sampling procedure has been widely used to determine trichloramine exposure in indoor swimming pools. This method consists of pumping air at a 1 L/min flow rate for 2 h through a Teflon prefilter and two quartz fiber filters. Modified Hery methods have been reported using different sampling pump flow rates and types of prefilters. It is possible that the prefilter type or sample collection pump flow rate influenced the results of these studies. This study is designed to evaluate the effects of different cassette assemblies and sampling flow rates on the levels of measured trichloramine. Laboratory tests were performed using a trichloramine production setup designed for this study. Workplace measurements were carried out at four indoor swimming pools. Different prefiltering strategies were used: no prefilter, glass prefilter or Teflon prefilter in the sampling cassette, and an original separable prefilter cassette is presented in this study. Laboratory tests indicated that at trichloramine concentrations higher than 1 mg/m3, the percentage of trichloramine captured on the first filter could be less than 75%, which demonstrated possible loss of the material during sampling. An investigation of the prefilter effect on the sampling strategy using different cassette assemblies revealed that using a separable cassette assembly prevented overestimations of trichloramine levels. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between trichloramine concentrations measured at flow rates (from 0.5 to 2 L/min) in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Stéphane Hallé
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Canada
| | - Isabelle Valois
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Patrick Eddy Ryan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- École Supérieure d'aménagement du Territoire Et de Développement Régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Robert Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
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6
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Boecker D, Zhang Z, Breves R, Herth F, Kramer A, Bulitta C. Antimicrobial efficacy, mode of action and in vivo use of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) for prevention or therapeutic support of infections. GMS HYGIENE AND INFECTION CONTROL 2023; 18:Doc07. [PMID: 37034111 PMCID: PMC10073986 DOI: 10.3205/dgkh000433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
The objective is to provide a comprehensive overview of the rapidly developing field of the current state of research on in vivo use of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) to aid infection prevention and control, including naso-pharyngeal, alveolar, topical, and systemic HOCl applications. Also, examples are provided of dedicated applications in COVID-19. A brief background of HOCl's biological and chemical specifics and its physiological role in the innate immune system is provided to understand the effect of in vivo applications in the context of the body's own physiological defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Boecker
- TOTO Consulting LLC, San Jose CA, USA
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dirk Boecker, TOTO Consulting LLC, San Jose CA, USA, E-mail:
| | - Zhentian Zhang
- Institute for Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Felix Herth
- Thoraxklinik, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Axel Kramer
- Institut of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Clemens Bulitta
- Institut für Medizintechnik, Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule (OTH) Amberg-Weiden, Amberg-Weiden, Germany
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Ma L, Yang H, Guan L, Liu X, Zhang T. Risks of antibiotic resistance genes and antimicrobial resistance under chlorination disinfection with public health concerns. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 158:106978. [PMID: 34784521 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As a widely used disinfection technology, the effects of chlorination on antibiotic resistome and bacterial community received great scientific concerns, while the pathogens associated health risks kept largely unknown. With this concern, the present study used metagenomic analysis combined with culture method to reveal chlorination effects on antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and their bacterial hosts (total microbes and Escherichia coli) through simulating the chlorination dosage with human health concerns (drinking water and swimming pool). The resistome profiling showed that chlorination process could significantly decrease both abundance and diversity of total ARGs, while with limited removal rates of 6.0-8.7% for opportunistic pathogens E. coli isolates. Of all the observed 515 ARG subtypes, 105 core subtypes were identified and persistent during chlorination for both total microbes and E. coli. Antibiotic susceptibility test showed that chlorination treatment could efficiently remove multi-resistant E. coli isolates but select for tetracycline resistant isolates. Five ARG-carrying genomes (assigned to Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria) enriched by 18.1-102% after chlorination were retrieved by using metagenomic binning strategies. Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, network and procrustes analyses all indicated the remained antibiotic resistome and bacterial community were mainly chlorination-driven. Furthermore, a systematic pipeline for monitoring chlorination-associated antimicrobial resistance risks was proposed. These together enhance our knowledge of chlorination treatment associated public concerns, as important reference and guidance for surveillance and control of antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Ma
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China.
| | - Huiying Yang
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Lei Guan
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Tong Zhang
- Environmental Microbiome Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
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Kongkaew S, Joonyong K, Kanatharana P, Thavarungkul P, Limbut W. Fabrication and characterization of Prussian blue screen-printed working electrode and their application for free chlorine monitoring in swimming pool water. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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9
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Wu T, Földes T, Lee LT, Wagner DN, Jiang J, Tasoglou A, Boor BE, Blatchley ER. Real-Time Measurements of Gas-Phase Trichloramine (NCl 3) in an Indoor Aquatic Center. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:8097-8107. [PMID: 34033479 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
NCl3 is formed as a disinfection byproduct in chlorinated swimming pools and can partition between the liquid and gas phases. Exposure to gas-phase NCl3 has been linked to asthma and can irritate the eyes and respiratory airways, thereby affecting the health and athletic performance of swimmers. This study involved an investigation of the spatiotemporal dynamics of gas-phase NCl3 in an aquatic center during a collegiate swim meet. Real-time (up to 1 Hz) measurements of gas-phase NCl3 were made via a novel on-line derivatization cavity ring-down spectrometer and a proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Significant temporal variations in gas-phase NCl3 and CO2 concentrations were observed across varying time scales, from seconds to hours. Gas-phase NCl3 concentrations increased with the number of active swimmers due to swimming-enhanced liquid-to-gas transfer of NCl3, with peak concentrations between 116 and 226 ppb. Strong correlations between concentrations of gas-phase NCl3 with concentrations of CO2 and water (relative humidity) were found and attributed to similar features in their physical transport processes in pool air. A vertical gradient in gas-phase NCl3 concentrations was periodically observed above the water surface, demonstrating that swimmers can be exposed to elevated levels of NCl3 beyond those measured in the bulk air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianren Wu
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ray W. Herrick Laboratories, Center for High Performance Buildings, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Tomas Földes
- Aquality Technologies Srl, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Spectroscopy, Quantum Chemistry, and Atmospheric Remote Sensing, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lester T Lee
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Danielle N Wagner
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ray W. Herrick Laboratories, Center for High Performance Buildings, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jinglin Jiang
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ray W. Herrick Laboratories, Center for High Performance Buildings, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | | | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ray W. Herrick Laboratories, Center for High Performance Buildings, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Wyczarska-Kokot J, Lempart-Rapacewicz A, Dudziak M, Łaskawiec E. Impact of swimming pool water treatment system factors on the content of selected disinfection by-products. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:722. [PMID: 33089340 PMCID: PMC7577915 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08683-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Recommendations regarding disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool waters consider the content of trihalomethanes (THMs) and combined chlorine (CC) as indicators of DBPs based on which the health risk for swimmers and staff of pool facility can be determined. However, the content of DBPs in swimming pools depends on many factors. In this paper, the influence of selected factors (physicochemical parameters of water and technological parameters) on the content of THMs and CC in pool water was determined. During the 6-month period, 9 pools of various functions were analyzed. The water in pools was subjected to the same method of treatment. The content of THMs and CC was compared against the content of organic matter, free chlorine and nitrates, pH, temperature, redox potential and turbidity, technological, and operational parameters. The THM content did not exceed the limit value of 0.1 mg/L. The content of CC varied significantly, from 0.05 to 1.13 mg Cl2/L. It was found that a very large water volume per person, in comparison to a very small one, contributed to the low content of CC and THMs. The high load expressed as m3 of water per person or m2 of water per person and the specific function of hot tubs (HT1 and HT2) led to the average concentration of CC in these pools exceeding 0.3 mg Cl2/L. The THM concentrations in hot tubs (especially in HT1) were also among the largest (0.038-0.058 mg/L). In terms of the analyzed microbiological indicators, the quality of the tested pool water samples was not in doubt. It was found that the purpose of the pool, its volume, and number of swimmers should be the key parameters that determine the choice of methods of water treatment. The research on the pool water quality in the actual working conditions of swimming pool facilities is necessary due to the need to preserve the health safety of swimmers and staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Anna Lempart-Rapacewicz
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Mariusz Dudziak
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Edyta Łaskawiec
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
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11
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Simon F, Kiss E, Szabó M, Fábián I. The Chlorination of N-Methyl Amino Acids with Hypochlorous Acid: Kinetics and Mechanisms. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2189-2196. [PMID: 32633499 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The formation and decomposition kinetics of N-chloro-N-methyl amino acids were studied to predict the fate and impact of these compounds in water treatment technologies and biological systems. These compounds form in fast second-order reactions between N-methyl amino acids and hypochlorous acid. The comparison of the activation parameters for the reactions of N-methyl substituted and nonsubstituted branched-chain amino acids reveals the transition-state features less organized structure and stronger bonds between the reactants in the reactions with the N-methyl derivatives. This is due to a combined positive inductive effect of the N-methyl group and the alkyl side chain as well as to the steric effects of the substituents. N-Methyl-N-chloro amino acids decompose much faster than the nonsubstituted compounds. The reaction rates do not depend on the pH, and the same final product is formed in the entire pH range. N-Chlorosarcosine is an exception, as it decomposes via competing paths, kdobs = kd + kdOH[OH-], yielding different final products. This feature is most likely due to the lack of an alkyl substituent on the α-carbon atom. Under physiological pH, aldehydes and methylamine form in these reactions, which are not particularly toxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fruzsina Simon
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Eszter Kiss
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Mária Szabó
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - István Fábián
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary.,MTA-DE Redox and Homogeneous Catalytic Reaction Mechanisms Research Group, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
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