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Long L, Wang S, Gao Z, You S, Wei L. Electro-oxidation and UV irradiation coupled method for in-site removing pollutants from human body fluids in swimming pool. J Hazard Mater 2024; 464:132963. [PMID: 37976850 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive study was conducted to investigate how ultraviolet (UV) irradiation combined with electrochemistry (EC) can efficiently remove human body fluids (HBFs) related pollutants, such as urea/creatinine/hippuric acid, from swimming pool water (SPW). In comparison with the chlorination, UV, EC, and UV/chlorine treatments, the EC/UV treatment exhibited the highest removal rates for these typical pollutants (TPs) from HBFs in synthetic SPW. Specifically, increasing the operating current of the EC/UV process from 20 to 60 mA, as well as NaCl content from 0.5 to 3.0 g/L, improved urea and creatinine degradation while having no influence on hippuric acid. In contrast, EC/UV process was resilient to changes in water parameters (pH, HCO3-, and actual water matrix). Urea removal was primarily attributable to reactive chlorine species (RCS), whereas creatinine and hippuric acid removal were primarily related to hydroxyl radical, UV photolysis, and RCS. In addition, the EC/UV procedure can lessen the propensity for creatinine and hippuric acid to generate disinfection by-products. We can therefore draw the conclusion that the EC/UV process is a green and efficient in-situ technology for removing HBFs related TPs from SPW with the benefits of needless chlorine-based chemical additive, easy operation, continuous disinfection efficiency, and fewer byproducts production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shutao Wang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Zhelu Gao
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shijie You
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Liangliang Wei
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
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Lu X, Chen Y, Chi H, Zhao C, Qiu W, Ma J, Ong SL, Hu J. Cu(II) assisted peroxymonosulfate for antibiotic resistant bacteria inactivation: A potential disinfection technology in swimming pool. Sci Total Environ 2023; 876:162755. [PMID: 36907423 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Alternative disinfection technology to chlorination is required to control the risk of antibiotic resistance in swimming pools. In this study, copper ions (Cu(II)), which often exist in swimming pools as algicides, were used to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for the inactivation of ampicillin-resistant E. coli. Cu(II) and PMS showed synergistic effects on E. coli inactivation in weak alkaline conditions, obtaining 3.4 log inactivation in 20 min with 10 μM Cu(II) and 100 μM PMS at pH 8.0. Quenching experiments indicated that radicals (i.e., OH and SO4-) were not the main disinfectors for E. coli inactivation. Based on the structure of Cu(II) and density functional theory calculations, the Cu(II)-PMS complex (Cu(H2O)5SO5) was recommended as the active species for E. coli inactivation. Under the experimental conditions, the PMS concentration had a greater influence on E. coli inactivation than the Cu(II) concentration, possibly because increasing PMS concentration accelerates ligand exchange reaction and facilitates active species generation. By forming hypohalous acids, halogen ions could improve the disinfection efficiency of Cu(II)/PMS. The addition of HCO3- concentration (from 0 to 1.0 mM) and humic acid (0.5 and 1.5 mg/l) did not significantly inhibit the E. coli inactivation. The feasibility of adding PMS to waters containing Cu(II) for the inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria was validated in actual swimming pool waters, where 4.7 log inactivation of E. coli was achieved in 60 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; College of Environmental Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yiwei Chen
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore
| | - Huiyuan Chi
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Chendong Zhao
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore; College of Environmental and Resource Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Say Leong Ong
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Jiangyong Hu
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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Zhang D, Dong S, Chen L, Xiao R, Chu W. Disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool water: Detection and human lifetime health risk assessment. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 126:378-386. [PMID: 36503764 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Quantification of regulated and emerging disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool water, as well as the assessment of their lifetime health risk are limited in China. In this study, the occurrence of regulated DBPs (e.g., trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids) and emerging DBPs (e.g., haloacetonitriles, haloacetaldehydes) in indoor swimming pool water and the corresponding source water at a city in Eastern China were determined. The concentrations of DBPs in swimming pool water were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than that in source water. Lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks of DBPs stemming from swimming pool water were also estimated. Inhalation and dermal exposure were the most significant exposure routes related to swimming pool DBP cancer and non-cancer risks. For the first time, buccal and aural exposure were considered, and were proven to be important routes of DBP exposure (accounting for 17.9%-38.9% of total risk). The cancer risks of DBPs for all swimmers were higher than 10-6 of lifetime exposure risk recommended by United States Environmental Protection Agency, and the competitive adult swimmers experienced the highest cancer risk (7.82 × 10-5). These findings provide important information and perspectives for future efforts to lower the health risks associated with exposure to DBPs in swimming pool water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Rong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
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4
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Martinez B, Robey NM, Da Silva BF, Ditz H, Sobczak WJ, Deliz Quiñones KY, Bowden JA. Swimming with PFAS in public and private pools. Chemosphere 2023; 310:136765. [PMID: 36241119 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of anthropogenic chemicals used to provide water and stain resistance in many consumer products. Their widespread use, nearly ubiquitous presence across multiple environments, and growing list of adverse health effects has raised concerns among communities. PFAS have been frequently detected and quantified globally in wastewater, groundwater, surface and drinking water; however, the presence of PFAS in swimming pool water - a unique matrix in which constituents may concentrate through evaporation and which also may present a high risk of direct human exposure - has not been reported. Here, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to monitor 92 PFAS in 54 water samples collected from city, apartment, hotel, and personal swimming pools in six Florida cities. In total, 14 PFAS were detected with six perfluoroalkyl acids - perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) - detected in every sample. PFHxA accounted for 49% of all PFAS quantified in this study. PFAS profiles were compared between sites as a function of pool type, rate of use, and geographic location. Total ΣPFAS concentrations were similar across pool types, with both the highest (633 ng/L) and lowest (1.9 ng/L) measurements found in public city pools. Between sites, higher PFAS levels were observed in city pools in Miami, Melbourne and Tampa compared to Naples, Orlando and Gainesville. Our findings highlight the potential exposure of PFAS in an underexplored and yet important exposure pathway in communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Martinez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Nicole M Robey
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Bianca F Da Silva
- Department of Physiological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Heather Ditz
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - William J Sobczak
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - John A Bowden
- Department of Physiological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Zhang D, Chen L, Dong S, Luo J, Xu Z, Chu W. Dramatically increased disinfection byproducts in swimming pool water caused by commonly used urea degradants. Water Res 2022; 223:118987. [PMID: 36029699 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In China, urea degradants are often used in combination with chlorine in swimming pool water to remove urea. Here we report the first study about the impacts of urea degradants on urea degradation, disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation and estimated DBP-associated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Firstly, four groups of typical DBPs from six real indoor swimming pools were analyzed. The concentration of DBPs in swimming pool waters was about 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than that source tap water. Notably, a rapid increase in DBPs was observed after urea degradant treatment. Simulated processes of urea removal using three commonly used urea degradants were therefore conducted in laboratory. Neither urea degradant nor chlorine alone removed urea effectively within 48 h. When applied in combination, urea degradant with sufficient chlorine rapidly removed urea by 100% within 3 h, and anti-chlorourea oligomer in urea degradants was the main contributor. Meanwhile, a remarkable increase in DBPs, especially brominated DBPs, was observed due to bromide introduction by urea degradants. For this reason, bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of DBPs dramatically increased. For instance, the BIF of dihaloacetic acids increased by 2665%-4025% after applying three urea degradants. As the highly toxic brominated DBPs were generated, attention should be paid into the potential DBP-related health risks from the use of urea degradants together with chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Jiayi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Zuxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
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6
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Röhl C, Batke M, Damm G, Freyberger A, Gebel T, Gundert-Remy U, Hengstler JG, Mangerich A, Matthiessen A, Partosch F, Schupp T, Wollin KM, Foth H. New aspects in deriving health-based guidance values for bromate in swimming pool water. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1623-1659. [PMID: 35386057 PMCID: PMC9095538 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03255-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Bromate, classified as a EU CLP 1B carcinogen, is a typical by-product of the disinfection of drinking and swimming pool water. The aim of this study was (a) to provide data on the occurrence of bromate in pool water, (b) to re-evaluate the carcinogenic MOA of bromate in the light of existing data, (c) to assess the possible exposure to bromate via swimming pool water and (d) to inform the derivation of cancer risk-related bromate concentrations in swimming pool water. Measurements from monitoring analysis of 229 samples showed bromate concentrations in seawater pools up to 34 mg/L. A comprehensive non-systematic literature search was done and the quality of the studies on genotoxicity and carcinogenicity was assessed by Klimisch criteria (Klimisch et al., Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 25:1–5, 1997) and SciRAP tool (Beronius et al., J Appl Toxicol, 38:1460–1470, 2018) respectively. Benchmark dose (BMD) modeling was performed using the modeling average mode in BMDS 3.1 and PROAST 66.40, 67 and 69 (human cancer BMDL10; EFSA 2017). For exposure assessment, data from a wide range of sources were evaluated for their reliability. Different target groups (infants/toddlers, children and adults) and exposure scenarios (recreational, sport-active swimmers, top athletes) were considered for oral, inhalation and dermal exposure. Exposure was calculated according to the frequency of swimming events and duration in water. For illustration, cancer risk-related bromate concentrations in pool water were calculated for different target groups, taking into account their exposure using the hBMDL10 and a cancer risk of 1 in 100,000. Convincing evidence was obtained from a multitude of studies that bromate induces oxidative DNA damage and acts as a clastogen in vitro and in vivo. Since statistical modeling of the available genotoxicity data is compatible with both linear as well as non-linear dose–response relationships, bromate should be conservatively considered to be a non-threshold carcinogen. BMD modeling with model averaging for renal cancer studies (Kurokawa et al., J Natl. Cancer Inst, 1983 and 1986a; DeAngelo et al., Toxicol Pathol 26:587–594, 1998) resulted in a median hBMDL10 of 0.65 mg bromate/kg body weight (bw) per day. Evaluation of different age and activity groups revealed that top athletes had the highest exposure, followed by sport-active children, sport-active adults, infants and toddlers, children and adults. The predominant route of exposure was oral (73–98%) by swallowing water, followed by the dermal route (2–27%), while the inhalation route was insignificant (< 0.5%). Accepting the same risk level for all population groups resulted in different guidance values due to the large variation in exposure. For example, for an additional risk of 1 in 100,000, the bromate concentrations would range between 0.011 for top athletes, 0.015 for sport-active children and 2.1 mg/L for adults. In conclusion, the present study shows that health risks due to bromate exposure by swimming pool water cannot be excluded and that large differences in risk exist depending on the individual swimming habits and water concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Röhl
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, Christiana Albertina University Kiel, Kiel, Germany. .,Department of Environmental Health Protection, State Agency for social Services (LAsD) Schleswig-Holstein, Neumünster, Germany.
| | - M Batke
- University Emden/Leer, Emden, Germany
| | - G Damm
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery and Visceral Transplantation, University Hospital, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - A Freyberger
- Research and Development, Pharmaceuticals, RED-PCD-TOX-P&PC Clinical Pathology, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - T Gebel
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Dortmund, Germany
| | - U Gundert-Remy
- Institute for Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité Berlin, Germany
| | - J G Hengstler
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - A Mangerich
- Molecular Toxicology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - A Matthiessen
- Central Unit for Environmental Hygiene, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein (UKSH), Kiel, Germany
| | - F Partosch
- Department of Toxicology, Fraunhofer-Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Hannover, Germany
| | - T Schupp
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Applied Science Muenster, Steinfurt, Germany
| | - K M Wollin
- Formerly Public Health Agency of Lower Saxony, Hannover, Germany
| | - H Foth
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, University of Halle, Halle/Saale, Germany
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Wyczarska-Kokot J, Lempart-Rapacewicz A, Dudziak M, Łaskawiec E. Impact of swimming pool water treatment system factors on the content of selected disinfection by-products. Environ Monit Assess 2020; 192:722. [PMID: 33089340 PMCID: PMC7577915 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08683-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Recommendations regarding disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool waters consider the content of trihalomethanes (THMs) and combined chlorine (CC) as indicators of DBPs based on which the health risk for swimmers and staff of pool facility can be determined. However, the content of DBPs in swimming pools depends on many factors. In this paper, the influence of selected factors (physicochemical parameters of water and technological parameters) on the content of THMs and CC in pool water was determined. During the 6-month period, 9 pools of various functions were analyzed. The water in pools was subjected to the same method of treatment. The content of THMs and CC was compared against the content of organic matter, free chlorine and nitrates, pH, temperature, redox potential and turbidity, technological, and operational parameters. The THM content did not exceed the limit value of 0.1 mg/L. The content of CC varied significantly, from 0.05 to 1.13 mg Cl2/L. It was found that a very large water volume per person, in comparison to a very small one, contributed to the low content of CC and THMs. The high load expressed as m3 of water per person or m2 of water per person and the specific function of hot tubs (HT1 and HT2) led to the average concentration of CC in these pools exceeding 0.3 mg Cl2/L. The THM concentrations in hot tubs (especially in HT1) were also among the largest (0.038-0.058 mg/L). In terms of the analyzed microbiological indicators, the quality of the tested pool water samples was not in doubt. It was found that the purpose of the pool, its volume, and number of swimmers should be the key parameters that determine the choice of methods of water treatment. The research on the pool water quality in the actual working conditions of swimming pool facilities is necessary due to the need to preserve the health safety of swimmers and staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Anna Lempart-Rapacewicz
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Mariusz Dudziak
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Edyta Łaskawiec
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
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Li Y, Chen L, Li H, Peng F, Zhou X, Yang Z. Occurrence, distribution, and health risk assessment of 20 personal care products in indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Chemosphere 2020; 254:126872. [PMID: 32957284 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of 20 personal care products (PCPs), including seven preservatives, six UV filters, five anticorrosion agents, and two antimicrobials, were determined in 40 swimming pools using solid phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Among 14 targets detected, 1H-benzotriazole and triclocarban were observed in all samples. The detected concentrations of preservatives, UV filters, anticorrosion agents, and antimicrobials were in the ranges of not detected (nd)-179 ng L-1, nd-289 ng L-1, nd-58.4 ng L-1, and nd-56.9 ng L-1, respectively. The presence of preservatives, UV filters and antimicrobials in pool waters might be mainly brought in by human activities while anticorrosion agents were mainly from the source water. Furthermore, the concentrations of methylparaben, ethylparaben, 1H-benzotriazole, 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole, 5-chloro-1H-benzotriazole, and 5,6-dimethyl-1H-benzotriazole in indoor pools were found higher than those in outdoor pools. The longer opening time and weaker light intensity for indoor pools might cause the difference. The redundancy analysis showed significantly negative correlations between the concentrations of parabens and the contents of residual chlorine in the pool waters. A higher chlorine residue may promote the decomposition of parabens. Health risk assessment showed that skin penetration would be the main approach for the intake of PCPs by swimmers while swimming. Compared with the non-athletic swimmers, the athletic swimmers might be more sensitive, but the health risks for both groups of swimmers could be negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Leilei Chen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China.
| | - Fangyuan Peng
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Xinyi Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Center for Environment and Water Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha, 410083, PR China.
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Esboei BR, Fakhar M, Saberi R, Barati M, Moslemi M, Hassannia H, Dadimoghadam Y, Jalallou N. Genotyping and phylogenic study of Acanthamoeba isolates from human keratitis and swimming pool water samples in Iran. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2020; 11:e00164. [PMID: 32671234 PMCID: PMC7341446 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2020.e00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Acanthamoeba keratitis cause severe corneal infection and lead to poor vision and blindness. This disease is caused by a unicellular amphizoic protozoon called Acanthamoeba spp. that present in different environments. This study aimed to represent the existence and genotyping of Acanthamoeba spp. in patients with keratitis and swimming pool water (SPW) in Tehran Province, Central Iran. Methods In this descriptive study, 56 clinical samples were collected from patients with keratitis and 30 water samples were collected from different swimming pools in Tehran Province. All samples were examined based on the morphological and molecular techniques. The genotypes were determined by sequencing the partial of 18S rRNA gene. Results Of 56 clinical (corneal) and 30 environmental (SPW) samples, 30.3% and 40.0% were positive for Acanthamoeba spp., respectively. According to sequencing analysis, 94.1% of amoebic keratitis isolates were belonged to T4 genotype and only one (5.8%) isolate was belonged to T11 genotype. All genotypes were detected from SPW samples were identified as T4 genotype. Conclusion According to our results, use of contact lens and swimming in pool poses the major risk factor for amoebic keratitis in the studied area (Tehran). Moreover, T4 genotype was the predominant genotype of human keratitis and swimming pool samples there. Consequently, essential and practical measures are urgently needed to prevent subjects against this ocular seriously disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahman Rahimi Esboei
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon Branch, Tonekabon, Iran.,Toxoplasma Research Center, Department of Parasitology, Iranian National Registry Center for Toxoplasmosis (INRCT), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mahdi Fakhar
- Toxoplasma Research Center, Department of Parasitology, Iranian National Registry Center for Toxoplasmosis (INRCT), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis (INRCL), Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Reza Saberi
- Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Science, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasma Research Center, Department of Parasitology, Iranian National Registry Center for Toxoplasmosis (INRCT), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mohammad Barati
- Infectious Diseases Research Center, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Moslemi
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Hadi Hassannia
- Immunogenetic Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and Amol Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Yousef Dadimoghadam
- Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Science, Sari, Iran
| | - Nahid Jalallou
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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10
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Wang J, Gong T, Xian Q. Formation of haloacetic acids from different organic precursors in swimming pool water during chlorination. Chemosphere 2020; 247:125793. [PMID: 31931310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetic acids (HAAs) were reported to be the most abundant category of DBPs in swimming pool water. In this study, the formation of HAAs from different organic precursors in swimming pool water, including UV filters, human body fluids, and natural organic matter (NOM), during chlorination was examined, and the effects of chlorine dose and halide concentrations on the formation of HAAs were evaluated. The results show that the total HAA yields from benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) were the highest among the nine organic precursors, and the yields of dichloroacetic acid and bromochloroacetic acid were higher than that of the other HAA species. In all the chlorinated samples of different organic precursors, longer chlorination time enhanced HAA formation. Both chlorine dose and bromide concentration significantly affected the formation of HAAs from BP-3 and SRHA during chlorination. With the increasing chlorine dose, the total HAA yields from SRHA and BP-3 significantly increased. Besides, the proportion of trihaloacetic acids (THAAs) rose while that of dihaloacetic acids (DHAAs) and monohaloacetic acids (MHAAs) declined with the increasing chlorine dose. With the increasing bromide concentration, HAA formation from SRHA increased while that of BP-3 decreased. The bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of the formed MHAAs, DHAAs and THAAs from SRHA and BP-3 both increased with the increasing bromide concentration in the following order: BIFDHAAs > BIFTHAAs > BIFMHAAs, indicating that bromine was easier to be incorporated into DHAAs rather than MHAAs or THAAs. Moreover, bromide promoted the formation of Br-HAAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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11
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Shi Y, Ma W, Han F, Geng Y, Yu X, Wang H, Kimura SY, Wei X, Kauffman A, Xiao S, Zheng W, Jia X. Precise exposure assessment revealed the cancer risk and disease burden caused by trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in Shanghai indoor swimming pool water. J Hazard Mater 2020; 388:121810. [PMID: 31831286 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Swimming pool disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are becoming increasingly common worldwide. Precise exposure and health risk assessment for DBPs in swimming pool water with optimized parameters for local and specific population is more urgently needed. This study aimed to determine the levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in 16 public indoor swimming pools in Shanghai, China. Swimming habits were also investigated to obtain more accurate exposure assessment parameters. Precise exposure assessment through multiple pathways, resulting cancer risk, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were assessed. Results indicated that the highest total level of THMs and HAAs occurred in autumn. The surveyed swimmers 9-17 years of age had higher average daily dose (ADD) of DBPs than swimmers ≥18 years of age. The total lifetime cancer risk (LCR) attributable to THMs and HAAs exceeded 10-6, which represents a negligible risk level (NRL). The cancer risk from inhalation exposure predominantly by THMs contributed more than 99% of the total risk. Annual disease burden was 19.0 person-years attributed to exposure of DBPs in swimming pool water in Shanghai. This study provides a paradigm and strategic reference of precise exposure assessments, risk assessments, and disease burden estimation of hazards in swimming pool water for other regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yewen Shi
- Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China
| | - Wuren Ma
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Key Laboratory of Health Technology Assessment, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Fengchan Han
- Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China
| | - Yan Geng
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Xia Yu
- Department of Dermatology, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Haiyin Wang
- Department of Health Technology Assessment, Shanghai Health Development Research Center, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Xiao Wei
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi 530021, China
| | - Alexandra Kauffman
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Shuo Xiao
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Weiwei Zheng
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Center for Water and Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Xiaodong Jia
- Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China.
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12
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Long L, Bu Y, Chen B, Sadiq R. Removal of urea from swimming pool water by UV/VUV: The roles of additives, mechanisms, influencing factors, and reaction products. Water Res 2019; 161:89-97. [PMID: 31181450 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To discover an applicable technology for urea abatement from swimming pool water (SPW), this study compared the performances of seven ultraviolet (UV)-based technologies on urea removal, including UV alone, UV coupled with hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2), sulfite (UV/Na2SO3), potassium persulfate (UV/K2S2O8), a combination of UV and vacuum UV (UV/VUV), and UV/VUV in tandem with either H2O2 (VUV/H2O2) or potassium persulfate (VUV/K2S2O8). Among them, UV and UV/Na2SO3 showed little removal ability, and UV/H2O2 removed only 12.8% of urea within 3-h experiments, while UV/VUV degraded 71.7% of urea without introducing substantial total dissolved solids (TDS). Therefore, UV/VUV was considered as a promising technology for further exploration. In comparison, although UV/K2S2O8 exhibited higher urea removal than UV/VUV, it caused dramatic increases of TDS, which made the regulatory threshold for the TDS increment difficult to maintain. Within UV/VUV studies, some common components in SPW (e.g., cyanuric acid, humic acid, nitrate, and bicarbonate) inhibited the removal process, whereas chloride and sulfate facilitated it, while free chlorine at doses ≤ 3 mg-Cl2/L and pH levels from 6.8 to 8.0 imposed little impact on urea degradation. Overall, UV/VUV degraded 40.0% and 22.2% of urea from tap water and SPW, respectively; both were lower than the efficiency observed in ultrapure water. As for reaction byproducts, urea phototransformation via UV/VUV yielded nitrate and ammonia as the key products with the mass balance of nitrogen element being met. However, the contents of organic carbon decreased at a rate slightly lower than urea degradation, suggesting that urea was mostly mineralized and slightly converted to unknown organic compounds. The results hence demonstrate that UV/VUV is an effective alternative for urea removal from SPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yinan Bu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V1V7, Canada
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13
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Skibinski B, Worch E, Uhl W. N 2 yields from monochloramine conversion by granular activated carbons are decisive for effective swimming pool water treatment. Water Res 2019; 152:74-86. [PMID: 30660903 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic chloramines (mono-, di- and trichloramine) are formed in swimming pool water from the unintended reaction of free chlorine with ammonia that is introduced by bathers. Monochloramine is of particular interest as it is known to react further in pool water forming harmful DBPs, such carcinogenic N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). During pool water treatment with granular activated carbon (GAC) filters, monochloramine is transformed by chemical reactions on the carbon surface to N2 and ammonia. As ammonia is led back into the pool where it is chlorinated again under the renewed formation of inorganic chloramines, it is recommended to use GACs with a high N2 yield for monochloramine transformation in pool water treatment. In this study, yields of N2 and ammonia from monochloramine conversion by commercially available GACs were determined using a fixed-bed reactor system under conditions that are typical for swimming pool water treatment. The N2 yields remained constant with on-going exposure of the GAC to monochloramine and ranged from 0.5% to 21.3%, depending on the type of GAC used. Correlation analyses were conducted to identify carbon properties that can determine the N2 yield for monochloramine conversion, such as the amount of oxygen groups, the elemental composition and the trace metal content. It was found that the N2 yield significantly correlates with the copper content of the tested carbons. Model calculations combining pool hydraulics with formation/abatement of inorganic chloramines and NDMA as well as chloramine transformations in GAC filters showed that the concentration of inorganic chloramines and carcinogenic NDMA can be decreased by a factor of ∼2, if the tested GACs could be modified to convert up to ∼50% of the monochloramine to N2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertram Skibinski
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Water Supply Engineering, 01062, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Eckhard Worch
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Hydrochemistry, 01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Uhl
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Water Supply Engineering, 01062, Dresden, Germany; Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), 0349, Oslo, Norway; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Institute of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 7491, Trondheim, Norway.
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14
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Fantuzzi G, Aggazzotti G, Righi E, Predieri G, Castiglioni S, Riva F, Zuccato E. Illicit drugs and pharmaceuticals in swimming pool waters. Sci Total Environ 2018; 635:956-963. [PMID: 29710617 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of illicit drugs (cocaine, opioids, amphetamines and cannabis derivatives), some of their metabolites and 48 pharmaceuticals, was investigated in pool and source waters in ten Italian indoor swimming pools. The samples were analyzed by highperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), after solid phase extraction (SPE). Cocaine and its metabolites were found in nine swimming pools, at concentrations from 0.3 to 4.2 ng/L for cocaine, 1.1 to 48.7 ng/L for norcocaine, 0.7 to 21.4 ng/L for benzoylecgonine and 0.1 to 7.3 ng/L for norbenzoylecgonine. Opioids, amphetamines and cannabis derivatives were never detected. The most frequent pharmaceuticals were anti-inflammatory drugs: ibuprofen was found in all the pool waters, with a maximum 197 ng/L and ketoprofen was detected in 9/10 samples (maximum 127 ng/L). Among anticonvulsants, carbamazepine and its metabolite, 10,11-dihydro-10,11dihydroxycarbamazepine, were frequent in swimming pool water (8/10 samples) at concentrations up to 62 ng/L. The cardiovascular drug valsartan was also found frequently (8/10 samples), but at lower concentrations (up to 9 ng/L). Other pharmaceuticals were detected occasionally and at lower concentrations (atenolol, enalapril, paracetamol, hydroclorothiazide, irbesartan and dehydro-erythromycin). Carbamazepine, irbesartan and dehydroerythromycin were detected at very low levels (up to 5 ng/L) in only one of the four source water samples. A quantitative risk assessment showed that the health risk for humans to these substance in swimming pool waters was generally negligible, even for vulnerable subpopulations such as children and adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Fantuzzi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G Campi, 287, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - G Aggazzotti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G Campi, 287, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - E Righi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G Campi, 287, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - G Predieri
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G Campi, 287, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - S Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, "Mario Negri" Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - F Riva
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, "Mario Negri" Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - E Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, "Mario Negri" Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
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15
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Skibinski B, Götze C, Worch E, Uhl W. Pore diffusion limits removal of monochloramine in treatment of swimming pool water using granular activated carbon. Water Res 2018; 132:270-281. [PMID: 29331914 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Overall apparent reaction rates for the removal of monochloramine (MCA) in granular activated carbon (GAC) beds were determined using a fixed-bed reactor system and under conditions typical for swimming pool water treatment. Reaction rates dropped and quasi-stationary conditions were reached quickly. Diffusional mass transport in the pores was shown to be limiting the overall reaction rate. This was reflected consistently in the Thiele modulus, in the effect of temperature, pore size distribution and of grain size on the reaction rates. Pores <2.5 times the diameter of the monochloramine molecule were shown to be barely accessible for the monochloramine conversion reaction. GACs with a significant proportion of large mesopores were found to have the highest overall reactivity for monochloramine removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertram Skibinski
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Water Supply Engineering, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Christoph Götze
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Water Supply Engineering, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Eckhard Worch
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Hydrochemistry, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Uhl
- Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Water Supply Engineering, 01062 Dresden, Germany; Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), 0349 Oslo, Norway.
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16
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Yang L, She Q, Wan MP, Wang R, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Removal of haloacetic acids from swimming pool water by reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. Water Res 2017; 116:116-125. [PMID: 28324708 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies report high concentrations of haloacetic acids (HAAs), a prevalent class of toxic disinfection by-products, in swimming pool water (SPW). We investigated the removal of 9 HAAs by four commercial reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes. Under typical SPW conditions (pH 7.5 and 50 mM ionic strength), HAA rejections were >60% for NF270 with molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) equal to 266 Da and equal or higher than 90% for XLE, NF90 and SB50 with MWCOs of 96, 118 and 152 Da, respectively, as a result of the combined effects of size exclusion and charge repulsion. We further included 7 neutral hydrophilic surrogates as molecular probes to resolve the rejection mechanisms. In the absence of strong electrostatic interaction (e.g., pH 3.5), the rejection data of HAAs and surrogates by various membranes fall onto an identical size-exclusion (SE) curve when plotted against the relative-size parameter, i.e., the ratio of molecular radius over membrane pore radius. The independence of this SE curve on molecular structures and membrane properties reveals that the relative-size parameter is a more fundamental SE descriptor compared to molecular weight. An effective molecular size with the Stokes radius accounting for size exclusion and the Debye length accounting for electrostatic interaction was further used to evaluate the rejection. The current study provides valuable insights on the rejection of trace contaminants by RO/NF membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Qianhong She
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Man Pun Wan
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Rong Wang
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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17
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Yang L, Zhou J, She Q, Wan MP, Wang R, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Role of calcium ions on the removal of haloacetic acids from swimming pool water by nanofiltration: mechanisms and implications. Water Res 2017; 110:332-341. [PMID: 28063295 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the removal of haloacetic acids (HAAs) from swimming pool waters (SPWs) by two nanofiltration membranes NF270 and NF90. The strong matrix effect (particularly by Ca2+) on membrane rejection prompts us to systematically investigate the mechanistic role of Ca2+ in HAA rejection. At typical SPW pH of 7.5, NF90 maintained consistently high rejection of HAAs (>95%) with little influence by Ca2+, thanks to the dominance of size exclusion effect for this tight membrane (pore radius ∼ 0.31 nm). In contrast, the rejections of both inorganic ions (e.g., Na+ and Cl-) and HAA anions were decreased at higher Ca2+ concentration for NF270 (pore radius ∼ 0.40 nm). Further tests show that the rejection of neutral hydrophilic molecular probes and the membrane pore size were not affected by Ca2+. Although Ca2+ is unable to form strong complex with HAAs, we observed the binding of Ca2+ to NF270 together with a reduction in its surface charge. Therefore, the formation of membrane-Ca2+ complex, which weakens charge interaction effect, was responsible for the reduced HAA rejection. The current study reveals important mechanistic insights of the matrix effect on trace contaminant rejection, which is critical for a better understanding of their fate and removal in membrane-based treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Jin Zhou
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Singapore-Berkeley Building Efficiency and Sustainability in the Tropics (SinBerBEST) Program, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore (BEARS) Center, Singapore
| | - Qianhong She
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Man Pun Wan
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Rong Wang
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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18
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Tang HL, Xie YF. Biologically active carbon filtration for haloacetic acid removal from swimming pool water. Sci Total Environ 2016; 541:58-64. [PMID: 26398451 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A biologically activate carbon (BAC) filter was continuously operated on site for the treatment of haloacetic acids (HAAs) in an outdoor swimming pool at an average empty bed contact time (EBCT) of 5.8 min. Results showed that BAC filtration was a viable technology for direct removal of HAAs from the pool water with a nominal efficiency of 57.7% by the filter while the chlorine residuals were 1.71 ± 0.90 mg/L during the study. THMs and TOC were not removed and thus were not considered as indicators of the effectiveness of BAC filtration. Increased EBCT in the range of 4.5 and 6.4 min led to improved HAA removal performance, which could be best fit by a logarithmic regression model. BAC filtration also affected the HAA speciation by removing more dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) than trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), resulting in a lower ratio of DCAA/TCAA in the filtered effluent. However, the observation of an overall constant ratio could be attributable to a complex formation and degradation mechanism occurring in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao L Tang
- Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China; Minn Water LLC, Minneapolis, MN 55441, USA.
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA 17057, USA
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19
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Lee M, Lee Y, Soltermann F, von Gunten U. Analysis of N-nitrosamines and other nitro(so) compounds in water by high-performance liquid chromatography with post-column UV photolysis/Griess reaction. Water Res 2013; 47:4893-4903. [PMID: 23891540 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Despite their potential carcinogenicity and probable formation during water disinfection processes, little is known about the occurrence of other nitro(so) compounds than a few specific N-nitroso compounds such as N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). An analytical method was developed to monitor various nitro(so) compounds including N-nitrosamines based on the Griess colorimetric determination of nitrite generated by UV-254 nm photolysis of nitro(so) compounds after separation by HPLC (HPLC-Post Column UV photolysis/Griess reaction (HPLC-PCUV)). To differentiate N-nitro(so) compounds (i.e. UV-labile) from other nitro(so) and N-containing compounds (i.e. UV-resistant), a pre-treatment was established by photolyzing solid-phase extracted samples at 254 nm (1000 mJ/cm(2)) and thus removing N-nitro(so) compounds selectively. Considering a 1000-fold concentration factor and extraction efficiencies (57-83%) during solid phase extraction, the method detection limits ranged from 4 to 28 ng/L for dimethylnitramine and eight N-nitrosamines (EPA 8270 nine nitrosamines mixture except for N-nitrosodiphenylamine). For four pool waters, the UV-resistant groups accounted for more than 78% of the estimated total concentration of nitro(so) and other N-containing compounds (6.1-48.6 nM). Only one unknown UV-labile compound was detected in one pool water (2.0-7.9 nM). NDMA was most frequently detected and N-nitrosodipropylamine (NDPA) and N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA) were additionally detected in one pool water. Chloramination of a secondary wastewater effluent with NDMA (0.2 nM) and UV-resistant compounds (7.9 nM) from a pilot-scale municipal wastewater treatment plant led to a significant formation of not only unidentified UV-resistant compounds (67.8 nM) and UV-labile compounds (14.6 nM), but also identified nitrosamines such as NDMA (4.3 nM), N-nitrosopiperidine (1.8 nM), NDPA (0.5 nM), and NDBA (0.5 nM). Overall, the novel HPLC-PCUV system is a powerful screening tool for the detection of (un)known N-nitro(so) as well as other nitro(so) and UV-induced nitrite-producing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minju Lee
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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