Occurrence of alkylphenolic substances in a Great Lakes coastal marsh, Cootes Paradise, ON, Canada

NP, OP and Derivatives in Freshwater Sediment Downstream of Textile Associated Municipal Wastewater Discharges

Alkylphenol ethoxylates comprise of many anthropogenic chemicals such as nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP) and nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs). The objectives of this study were to assess the frequency and magnitude of detections of 4-NP, OP and NPEOs in Canadian sediment downstream of textile associated municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) to determine if regulatory actions have had a beneficial impact on the receiving environment. Surficial sediments were obtained in four locations in the province of Québec (Canada) and were analyzed for nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylates (NP1EO), nonylphenol diethoxylates (NP2EO) and octylphenol from 2015 to 2018. Individual concentrations of the compounds varied from non detect to 419 ng/g. Of the four compounds analyzed, NP was detected the most frequently with a 75% detection rate while OPs were not detected in any of the samples. Since the Canadian regulatory actions have drastically reduced NP/NPEOs usage in textile mill factories and manufactured products, the potential source of these compounds in sediment for this study could stem from the outfall from the MWWTPs but not related to textile mills as well as from the usage of these compounds as formulants in pesticide products. Lastly, there were no exceedances to the Canadian Sediment Quality guideline toxic equivalency approach (TEQ) of 1400 ng/g or the 1310 ng/g guideline for NP in freshwater sediment from the European Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks. We hypothesize that the significant concentrations of these compounds in sediment may be a relevant and continuous source of 4NP in surface waters due to resuspension of sediment in the water column.

Occurrence of bisphenol A, nonylphenol, octylphenol and heavy metals in groundwater from selected communities in Ibadan, Nigeria

Endocrine disruptors (EDs) such as bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP) and heavy metals in drinking water supply represent a significant threat to human health. In Nigeria, little is known about the presence of EDs in various environmental media. This study was conducted to determine the concentrations of BPA, NP and OP in groundwater samples from selected communities in Ibadan, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from 30 different sites (26 hand-dug wells, 2 boreholes and 2 spring water sources), 15 from each of Ibadan North-West (IbNW) and Ido Local Government Area (LGA). Samples were collected in triplicate from all the sampling points and analysed for BPA, NP, OP and physicochemical parameters (including heavy metals) using a standard procedure. Bisphenol A and octylphenol were not detected in any samples, while NP was detected in spring water and the concentration (0.00279 mg/L) was less than the maximum allowable limit (0.015 mg/L). All (100.0%) boreholes in IbNW and 100.0% of the springs in Ido LGA showed iron concentrations that exceeded the permissible limit. There is a need for public awareness on the health risk of EDs in drinking water supply and appropriate preventive measures to be adopted.

Biomarker-Determined Nonylphenol Exposure and Associated Risks in Children of Thailand, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia

Nonylphenol (NP) is an endocrine disruptor and environmental contaminant. Yet, data on individual body burdens and potential health risks in humans, especially among children, are scarce. We analyzed two specific urinary NP metabolites, hydroxy-NP (OH-NP) and oxo-NP. In contrast to parent NP, OH-NP has a much higher urinary excretion fraction (F_ue), and both are insusceptible to external contamination. We investigated spot urine samples from school children of Thailand (n = 104), Indonesia (n = 89), and Saudi Arabia (n = 108) and could quantify OH-NP in 100% of Indonesian and Saudi children (median concentrations: 8.12 and 8.57 μg/L) and in 76% of Thai children (1.07 μg/L). Median oxo-NP concentrations were 0.95, 1.10, and <0.25 μg/L, respectively, in line with its lower F_ue. Median daily NP intakes (DIs), back-calculated from urinary OH-NP concentrations, were significantly higher in Indonesia and Saudi Arabia [0.47 and 0.36 μg/(kg bw·d), respectively] than in Thailand [0.06 μg/(kg bw·d)]. Maximum DIs were close to the preliminary tolerable DI of 5 μg/(kg bw·d) from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Dominant sources of exposure or relevant exposure pathways could not be readily identified by questionnaire analyses and also potentially varied by region. The novel biomarkers provide long-needed support to the quantitative exposure and risk assessment of NP.

Environmental Water Pollution, Endocrine Interference and Ecotoxicity of 4-tert-Octylphenol: A Review

4-tert-Octylphenol is a degradation product of non-ionic surfactants alkylphenol polyethoxylates as well as raw material for a number of industrial applications. It is a multimedia compound having been detected in all environmental compartments such as indoor air and surface waters. The pollutant is biodegradable, but certain degradation products are more toxic than the parent compound. Newer removal techniques from environmental waters have been presented, but they still require development for large-scale applications. Wastewater treatment by plant enzymes such as peroxidases offers promise in total removal of 4-tert-octylphenol leaving less toxic degradation products. The pollutant's endocrine interference has been well reported but more in oestrogens than in any other signalling pathways through which it is believed to exert toxicity on human and wildlife. In this paper we carried out a review of the activities of this pollutant in environmental waters, endocrine interference and relevance to its toxicities and concluded that inadequate knowledge of its endocrine activities impedes understanding of its toxicity which may frustrate current efforts at ridding the compound from the environment.

Utilization of activated carbon for maximizing the efficiency of zirconium oxide for photodegradation of 4-octylphenol

Utilization of AC/zirconium oxide (ZrO₂) for the removal of 4-octylphenol (4-OP) from aqueous solution has been studied under simulated visible-light as a cost effective technique. To draw complete images for the prepared materials, a series of characterization methods was performed. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) data has proved that AC has high surface area and total pore volumes that are decreased after incorporation of ZrO₂. Morphologically, TEM showed massive quantity of ZrO₂ spherical shape nanoparticles loaded with carbon and EDX showed the uniform distribution of all the prepared materials. The photocatalytic performance has been traced via adopting a matrix effect analysis to correlate the photodegradation of 4-OP in the presence of visible light as a time function, pH, photocatalyst dose and initial concentration of 4-OP. The positive impact of AC content in AC/ZrO₂ composite on the adsorption of 4-OP was strikingly observed with expanding the AC content in AC/ZrO₂ composite up to 33% (wt/wt). Almost 97% of the 4-OP was removed within 180 min under simulated visible light. The optimum reaction conditions for 95% removal of 4-OP were 120 min, 1 g L^-1 catalyst dose at pH 8. The photocatalytic degradation of the 4-OP was well fitted with pseudo first-order L-H kinetic model.

Histological and ultrastructural alterations of the Italian newt (Lissotriton italicus) skin after exposure to ecologically relevant concentrations of nonylphenol ethoxylates

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) are well known endocrine disruptors. Widespread environmental contamination from NPEs is an issue of great concern. Despite amphibians are often exposed to such contaminants, very little attention has been dedicated to this vertebrate group. No information is available on the effects of NPEs onto the amphibian skin and only few reports have been conducted on fish. Here, histological and ultrastructural modifications of the skin have been evaluated in the Italian newt Lissotriton italicus. After a short-term exposure to two ecologically relevant concentrations of NP, severe pathological alterations, both dose and time-dependent, have been observed. The main effects were an increased mucous secretion, the dilation of the endomembrane, the wrinkling of the epidermal surface, the appearance of tubercles, the increased cellular turnover, continuous shedding processes. Some of the described skin alterations can easily interfere with physiological functions, such as osmoregulation and body protection, with detrimental consequences for the amphibian populations.

Bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals and personal care product chemicals in fish exposed to wastewater effluent in an urban wetland

The bioaccumulation of a broad range of pharmaceuticals and personal care product chemicals (PPCPs) was studied in Cootes Paradise Marsh (CPM), an urban wetland that receives tertiary treated municipal waste waters as well as urban storm runoff. We measured PPCPs in caged and wild goldfish, as well as wild carp, and compared observed bioaccumulation factors (BAFP) using concentrations in surface waters and fish blood plasma, with modeled BAFs. Thirty-two PPCPs were detected in water from the central CPM site (CPM3) while 64 PPCPs were found at higher concentrations at a site immediately downstream of the effluent outflow (CPM1). Following a 3-week deployment, 15 PPCPs were detected in the plasma of caged goldfish at CPM1, and 14 at CPM3, compared to only 3 in goldfish caged at a reference site. The highest BAFP in goldfish were for the antidepressant Σfluoxetine averaging 386 L/kg in caged and 906 L/kg in wild goldfish, respectively. In carp, ΣDiazepam (diazepam and oxazepam) had the highest BAFP (927 L/kg). This study identified a broader range of PPCPs in fish and surface waters than previously reported. However, modeled BAFs did not show good agreement with observed whole body or plasma BAFs, demonstrating that more work is needed to better explain bioaccumulation of PPCPs.

The toxicological effects of bisphenol A and octylphenol on the reproductive system of prepubertal male rats

The aim of the present study was to assess and compare the individual adverse effects of bisphenol A (BPA) and octylphenol (OP) on the reproductive system of prepubertal male rats. Rats were exposed to BPA and OP at doses of 125 and 250 mg/kg/day, by gavage, for 90 days. At the end of the study, the testes, epididymis, prostate gland, and seminal vesicle were removed and examined histopathologically. Also, 3-β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase expressions were analyzed and serum testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were measured. Sperm head count of caput epididymis was performed using a hemocytometer. Seminiferous and epididymal round tubules were evaluated for tubule diameter, lumen diameter, and height of tubule epithelium. There were significant increases in relative testes weights in BPA125, OP125, and OP250 groups compared with the control. Atrophic tubules, pyknotic tubules, combined tubules, congestion, vacuolization of Sertoli cell, cell debris in the lumen, tubules without sperm, and degeneration of tubules were noted in the tissue specimens obtained from the treatment groups compared with the control group. Sperm head counts were decreased in all treatment groups except for the low-dose BPA group. Testosterone (T) levels decreased in the BPA and high-dose OP treatment groups. LH levels increased in BPA treatment groups and the low-dose OP treatment group and decreased in the high-dose OP group. Epithelial height of high-dose BPA and OP treatment groups increased compared with the control group. Furthermore tubular height of low-dose BPA and high-dose OP groups increased with respect to control levels. In the OP250 treatment group, thyroxine hormone level was increased compared to other groups. Also, in the OP125 treatment group, triiodothyronine hormone level was increased compared with other groups.

The results of this study showed that BPA and OP affect the steroidogenic enzyme expression and T production in Leydig cells. In conclusion, BPA and OP have adverse effects on the male reproductive system of prepubertal rats.

Occurrence, distribution and bioaccumulation of endocrine disrupting compounds in water, sediment and biota samples from a European river basin

The occurrence, distribution and bioaccumulation of five endocrine disrupting compounds (4-tert-octylphenol, 4-n-octylphenol, 4-n-nonylphenol, nonylphenol and bisphenol A) in water, sediment and biota (Corbicula fluminea) collected along the Minho River estuary (NW Iberian Peninsula) were examined. Samples were collected in two campaigns (May and November, 2012) and analyzed by different extraction procedures followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry determination. The presence of linear isomers (4-n-octylphenol and 4-n-nonylphenol) was scarcely observed whereas branched isomers (4-tert-octylphenol and nonylphenol) were measured in almost all samples. Wastewater treatment plant effluents and nautical, fishing and agricultural activities are considered the primary source of pollution of the river by alkylphenols. The presence of bisphenol A in the river could be mainly associated to punctual sources of contamination from industrial discharges. A decrease in the total concentration of phenolic compounds in water was observed from spring to autumn (from 0.888 μg L(-1) in May to 0.05 μg L(-1) in November), while similar values were shown in C. fluminea samples from the two campaigns (1388 and 1228 ng g(-1) dw in spring and autumn, respectively). In sediments, the total concentration of the target compounds varied between 13 and 4536 ng g(-1) dw (average of 1041 ng g(-1) dw). Sediment-water partition coefficient (Kd), bioaccumulation factor (BAF) and biota-sediment accumulation factor (BSAF) were estimated and highest values were obtained for nonylphenol. Calculated risk quotients showed low and moderate risk for the aquatic environment from the presence of the target compounds at all sampling points. The estimation of the daily intake of the studied compounds via water and biota ingestion indicated no risk for human health.

Analysis of phenolic compounds in the dissolved and suspended phases of Lake Balaton water by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

As a novel approach to characterize the phenolic pollutants of Lake Balaton (Central Europe, western Hungary), 26 endocrine disrupting phenols (chlorophenols, nitrophenols, alkylphenols, triclosan, bisphenol-A) were quantified in dissolved and suspended particulate matter (SPM) phases, alike. Sample collection was performed in the western and eastern basins, at 20 sites in April and October 2014. Solid-phase and ultrasound-assisted extractions to withdraw target phenols from dissolved and suspended phases were employed. Compounds were derivatized with hexamethyldisilazane and trifluoroacetic acid for their quantification as trimethylsilyl derivatives by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In Lake Balaton's dissolved phase, 2-chlorophenol (103-164 ng/L), 4-chlorophenol (407-888 ng/L), 2,4-dichlorophenol (20.2-72.0 ng/L), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (10.4-38.1 ng/L), 2-nitrophenol (31.0-66.5 ng/L), 4-nitrophenol (31.5-94.1 ng/L), and bisphenol-A (20.6-112 ng/L), while in its SPM, 4-chlorophenol (<LOQ-1274 μg/kg, dry matter), 4-nitrophenol (423-714 μg/kg), 4-nonylphenol isomers (1500-2910 μg/kg), and bisphenol-A (250-587 μg/kg) were determined. Since phenolics appear partially or exclusively in the SPM, the analysis of both phases proved to be of primary importance. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Environmental fate and ecological risks of nonylphenols and bisphenol A in the Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong

Nonylphenols (NPs) and bisphenol A (BPA) are the most common endocrine disruptors detected in the coastal waters of Hong Kong. The Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve (CAMR), the only marine reserve in Hong Kong is close to urbanized areas, thus the resident marine organisms are inevitably influenced by partially treated wastewater from adjacent sewage treatment plants (STPs). Elevated levels of NPs and BPA were detected in all seawater, sediment and biota samples collected from the CAMR. Estrogenic activities of seawater from the CAMR, and sludge and sewage from a nearby STP were assessed using yeast estrogen screen assay. We found aromatase, estrogen receptor and vitellogenin genes in the marine medaka fish Oryzias melastigma were significantly up-regulated after exposure to the reserve's seawater. According to a tissue-residue-based probabilistic risk assessment, the marine species living in the CAMR are having 35% and 21% of chance to be at risk due to exposure to NPs and BPA, respectively.

Occurrence and fate of selected endocrine-disrupting chemicals in water and sediment from an urban lake

Occurrence of five endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)-bisphenol-A (BPA), triclosan (TCS), 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2), benzophenone-3, and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor-were monitored in East Lake, the largest urban lake in China. Other than EE2, all selected EDCs were detected at least once in the lake water with concentrations ≤89.1 ng/L. EDCs were detected with greater occurrence in spring than in other seasons. In lake sediment, TCS was detected at the greatest concentration (30.9 ng g(-1)), whereas BPA and EE2 were not detected. Spatial distribution of the EDCs in the lake water and the lake sediment showed similar patterns, and greater EDC residuals were found from those sites with known wastewater input. The linear adsorption coefficients (K d) varied from 17.9 to 1,017 L kg(-1) and were related to the octanol-water partition coefficient (K ow) values of the compounds. Photodegradation was a major process removing the EDCs from the lake water, and the presence of dissolved organic material and NO3 (-) in the lake water can accelerate the photodegradation process. Degradation of the EDCs in the lake sediment was relatively slow and occurred mainly due to the microbial processes. All compounds were found more persistent under anoxic conditions than under oxic conditions.

Distribution of feminizing compounds in the aquatic environment and bioaccumulation in wild tilapia tissues

This study sampled six times of river water, sediment, and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in the Dan-Shui River, Taipei, Taiwan; 10 feminizing compounds were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Bisphenol A (508 ± 634 ng/L, geometric mean (GM) 303 ng/L) and nonylphenol (491 ± 570 ng/L, GM 328 ng/L) were the most abundant among analytes in the river water. Nonylphenol (770 ± 602 ng/g wet weight, GM 617 ng/g wet weight) was also the highest in sediment. Fish may uptake nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates from river water and sediment because there were significant correlations between the concentrations in these matrixes and those in fish tissues (r s ranged from 0.21 to 0.49, p < 0.05). The bioaccumulation of nonylphenol, nonylphenol ethoxylates and bisphenol A in gonad, eggs, and liver was much higher than that in muscle (e.g. mean bioaccumulation factors of nonylphenol were 27,287, 20,971, 9,576 and 967, respectively) and might result in low liver fractions in fish body weights (0.66 % ± 0.39 %, GM 0.55 %) and the skewed sex ratio of fish (male to female = 0.52). This innovative study linked the environmental and internal doses statistically in the globally distributed wild fish by analyzing feminizing compounds in water, sediment, and four fish tissues including gonad and eggs.

Sorption and degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, alkylphenols, bisphenol A and phthalates in landfill leachate using sand, activated carbon and peat filters

Landfill leachates are repeatedly found contaminated with organic pollutants, such as alkylphenols (APs), phthalates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at levels exceeding water quality standards. It has been shown that these pollutants may be present in the colloidal and truly dissolved phase in contaminated water, making particle separation an inefficient removal method. The aim of this study was to investigate sorption and degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs), selected APs, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates and PAHs from landfill leachate using sand, granulated activated carbon (GAC) and peat moss filters. A pilot plant was installed at an inactive landfill with mixed industrial and household waste and samples were collected before and after each filter during two years. Leachate pre-treated in oil separator and sedimentation pond failed to meet water quality standards in most samples and little improvement was seen after the sand filter. These techniques are based on particle removal, whereas the analysed pollutants are found, to varying degrees, bound to colloids or dissolved. However, even highly hydrophobic compounds expected to be particle-bound, such as the PHCs and high-molecular weight PAHs, were poorly removed in the sand filter. The APs and BPA were completely removed by the GAC filter, while mass balance calculations indicate that 50-80% of the investigated phenols were removed in the peat filter. Results suggest possible AP degradation in peat filters. No evidence of phthalate degradation in the landfill, pond or the filters was found. The PHCs were completely removed in 50% and 35% of the measured occasions in the GAC and peat filters, respectively. The opposite trend was seen for removal of PAHs in GAC (50%) and peat (63%). Oxygenated PAHs with high toxicity were found in the leachates but not in the pond sediment. These compounds are likely formed in the pond water, which is alarming because sedimentation ponds are commonly used treatment techniques. The oxy-PAHs were effectively removed in the GAC, and especially the peat filter. It was hypothesized that dissolved compounds would adsorb equally well to the peat and GAC filters. This was not completely supported as the GAC filter was in general more efficient than peat.

Environmental concentration of nonylphenol alters the development of urogenital and visceral organs in avian model

Nonylphenol (NP) is an endocrine disruptor with harmful effects including feminization and carcinogenesis on various organisms. This substance is a degradation product of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEO) that is used in several industrial and agricultural processes. In this paper, we examined the assessment of NP exposure on chick embryo development, using a concentration consistent with the environmental concentrations of NP. With this aim, NP (between 0.1 and 50 μg/egg) was injected into the yolk of egg through a small needle hole in the shell. We report the effect of NP on chick reproductive system development although the effect we observed is lower than those observed by exposition to other endocrine disruptors. However, histological analysis highlighted a decrease of intraluminal seminiferous surface area in 64.12% of case (P=0.0086) and an heterogeneous organization of the renal tubules when 10 μg/egg were injected. Moreover, an impairment of liver development with an abnormal bile spillage was observed when higher concentration of NP was injected (50 μg/egg).

Sources, fluxes and risk of organic micropollutants to the Cantabrian Sea (Spain)

The sources, distribution and risk of 51 organic micropollutants (OMPs) in the Cantabrian coastal environment (NW Spain) were evaluated. Gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was used to determine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorinated pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, phthalates esters, bisphenol A and alkylphenols. 45 OMPs were detected in coastal/estuarine waters. Wastewater treatment plant effluents and emissary discharges were identified as the main sources of contamination. The accumulation of OMPs in sediments and the bioaccumulation in 21 days caged mussels were also assessed. Chemical results were combined with the "Combined Monitoring-based and Modeling-based Priority Setting Scheme" COMMPS procedure for risk assessment analysis. Finally, the chemical status of the different sampling locations was estimated using site risk indexes. Those indexes can be conveniently displayed in quality geographical maps and are considered a valuable tool for the environmental management and risk assessment of the region under study.

Concentrations of Endocrine Disrupting Alkylphenols and Their Mono- and Diethoxylates in Sediments and Water from Artificial Lake Malta in Poland

In the present paper analysis of alkylphenols and their short-chained ethoxylates was presented. The analytes were determined in sediments from Lake Malta as well as in water incoming to and outgoing from the lake. Sonication-assisted extraction was used for isolation of the analytes from the sediment samples. Solid-phase extraction with polytetrafluoroethylene sorbent was used for both clean-up of extracts and isolation of analytes from the water samples. Alkylphenols and their ethoxylates were quantitatively analysed with the use of HPLC with fluorescence detection. The analytes were determined in the sediment samples at relatively low concentrations with the maximum concentration of 168 μg kg−1 for nonylphenol monoethoxylate, which can be ascribed to periodic removal of sediments from Lake Malta. Maximum concentration in water samples was noted for nonylphenol at 0.56 μg L−1. No octylphenol nor its ethoxylates were found in the water samples.

Meta-analysis of environmental contamination by alkylphenols

Alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates (APE) are toxics classified as endocrine-disrupting compounds; they are used in detergents, paints, herbicides, pesticides, emulsifiers, wetting and dispersing agents, antistatic agents, demulsifiers, and solubilizers. Many studies have reported the occurrence of alkylphenols in different environmental matrices, though none of these studies have yet to establish a comprehensive overview of such compounds in the water cycle within an urban environment. This review summarizes APE concentrations for all environmental media throughout the water cycle, from the atmosphere to receiving waters. Once the occurrence of compounds has been assessed for each environmental compartment (urban wastewater, wastewater treatment plants [WWTP], atmosphere, and the natural environment), data are examined in order to understand the fate of APE in the environment and establish their geographical and historical trends. From this database, it is clear that the environment in Europe is much more contaminated by APE compared to North America and developing countries, although these APE levels have been decreasing in the last decade. APE concentrations in the WWTP effluent of developed countries have decreased by a factor of 100 over the past 30 years. This study is aimed at identifying both the correlations existing between environmental compartments and the processes that influence the fate and transport of these contaminants in the environment. In industrial countries, the concentrations observed in waterways now represent the background level of contamination, which provides evidence of a past diffuse pollution in these countries, whereas sediment analyses conducted in developing countries show an increase in APE content over the last several years. Finally, similar trends have been observed in samples drawn from Europe and North America.

Fate, distribution, and contrasting temporal trends of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in Lake Ontario, Canada

Lake Ontario water and sediment collected from tributary, nearshore, and open lake sites were analyzed for perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), namely perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs, F(CF(2))(n)CO(2)(-); n=6-11,13) and perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs, F(CF(2))(n)SO(3)(-); n=6,8,10). Survey results of surface sediment and water indicated that shorter chained PFASs were predominant in and near urban/industrial area watersheds, while longer chained PFASs were predominant in fine-grained sediment from major depositional basins. Niagara River suspended solids (1981-2006) demonstrated temporal trends that may have been influenced by recent changes in North American production and use of PFASs. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) reached a peak concentration in 2001 of 1.1 ng/g, followed by a decrease from 2001 to 2006 (half-life=9 years). Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) increased from 2001 to 2006 (doubling time= 2 years) reaching a peak concentration of 0.80 ng/g. In contrast, three sediment cores from western, central, and eastern Lake Ontario showed increasing temporal trends to surface sediment for all PFASs. PFOA and PFOS concentrations increased from 1988 to 2004 (doubling time= ~ 4 years) in the western Lake Ontario core. The observed variations in temporal trends from different environmental compartments may be a result of the physico-chemical properties of PFASs, ongoing emissions, and the environmental transformation and degradation of PFAS precursor compounds.

HPLC-FLD determination of 4-nonylphenol and 4-tert-octylphenol in surface water samples

A simple, sensitive and reliable HPLC-FLD method for the routine determination of 4-nonylphenol, 4-NP and 4-tert-octylphenol, 4-t-OP content in water samples was developed. The method consists in a liquid-liquid extraction of the target analytes with dichloromethane at pH  3.0-3.5 followed by the HPLC-FLD analysis of the organic extract using a Zorbax Eclipse XDB C8 column, isocratic elution with a mixed solvent acetonitrile/water 65:35, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min and applying a column temperature of 40°C. The method was validated and then applied with good results for the determination of 4-NP and 4-t-OP in Ialomiţa River water samples collected each month during 2006. The concentration levels of 4-NP and 4-t-OP vary between 0.08-0.17 μg/L with higher values of 0.24-0.37 μg/L in the summer months for 4-NP, and frequently <0.05 μg/L but also between 0.06-0.09 μg/L with higher values of 0.12-0.16 μg/L in July and August for 4-t-OP and were strongly influenced by sesonial and anthropic factors. The method was also applied on samples collected over 2 years 2007 and 2008 from urban wastewaters discharged into sewage or directly into the rivers by economic agents located in 30 Romanian towns. Good results were obtained when the method was used for analysis of effluents discharged into surface waters by 16 municipal wastewater treatment plants, during the year 2008.

The distribution of 4-nonylphenol in marine organisms of North American Pacific Coast estuaries

One of the chemical breakdown products of nonylphenol ethoxylates, 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), accumulates in organisms and is of concern as an environmental pollutant due to its endocrine disrupting effects. We measured 4-NP levels in the seawater, sediment, and twelve organisms within the California estuary, Morro Bay, and examined biomagnification of 4-NP using stable isotope abundances (δ(15)N and δ(13)C) to quantify trophic position. 4-NP concentrations in organisms from Morro Bay included 25000±8600 ng g(-1) lw in liver of California sea lion, 14000±5600 ng g(-1) lw in liver of harbor porpoise, 138000±55000 ng g(-1) lw in liver of sea otters, 15700±3600 ng g(-1) lw in liver of seabirds, 36100±6100 ng g(-1) lw in arrow goby fish, 62800±28400 ng g(-1) lw in oysters, and 12700±1300 ng g(-1) lw in mussels. 4-NP levels generally showed a pattern of trophic dilution among organisms in Morro Bay, with exceptions of biomagnification observed between three trophic links: mussel to sea otter (BMF 10.9), oyster to sea otter (BMF 2.2), and arrow goby to staghorn sculpin (BMF 2.7). Our examination of other west coast estuaries of USA and Canada revealed that mean 4-NP concentrations in gobies and mussels from Morro Bay were significantly higher than those from a more urbanized estuary, San Francisco Bay (goby: 11100±3800 ng g(-1) lw) and from a remote estuary, Bamfield Inlet, Canada (goby: 9000±900 ng g(-1) lw, mussel: 6100±700 ng g(-1) lw). Relative to other estuaries worldwide, 4-NP levels in seawater (0.42±0.16 μg L(-1)) and sediment (53±14 ng g(-1) dw) of Morro Bay are low, but gobies and oysters have higher 4-NP levels than comparable fauna.

Seasonal distribution, source investigation and vertical profile of phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds in Dianchi Lake, China

Phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds, including nonylphenol-di-ethoxylate (NP2EO), nonylphenol-mono-ethoxylate (NP1EO), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), bisphenol A (BPA), 4-cumylphenol (4-CP) and 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), were investigated in water, surface sediment and sediment cores in Dianchi Lake to track their seasonal distributions, pollution sources and historical trends. The concentrations of NP2EO, NP1EO, 4-NP, BPA, 4-CP and 4-t-OP were up to 295.14, 448.48, 45.28, 530.33, 8.96 and 21.37 ng L(-1) in water, and up to 297.11, 809.63, 4.58, 166.87, 3.62 and 40.69 ng g(-1) dry weight in surface sediment, respectively. Except BPA in water, concentrations of all the other phenolic compounds in both of the matrices were higher in January than in July, 2011. The concentrations decreased significantly with an increase in distance from the sampling locations which were adjacent to the urban areas (Kunming City, Chenggong City and Jinning City). The pollution of phenolic EDCs came mainly from industry, agriculture and daily life. The relationships between the concentrations of target compounds and the six water quality parameters were evaluated. There were significant positive correlations between concentrations of phenolic compounds in water and in surface sediment. For sediment cores, three clearly separated maxima occurred in segments 0-5 cm (the late 2000s), 5-10 cm (the early and mid of 2000s) and 20-25 cm (the mid of 1980s), respectively. NP2EO, NP1EO and BPA were the three dominant compounds in the lake.

Occurrence and biodegradation of nonylphenol in the environment

Nonylphenol (NP) is an ultimate degradation product of nonylphenol polyethoxylates (NPE) that is primarily used in cleaning and industrial processes. Its widespread use has led to the wide existence of NP in various environmental matrices, such as water, sediment, air and soil. NP can be decreased by biodegradation through the action of microorganisms under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Half-lives of biodegradation ranged from a few days to almost one hundred days. The degradation rate for NP was influenced by temperature, pH and additions of yeast extracts, surfactants, aluminum sulfate, acetate, pyruvate, lactate, manganese dioxide, ferric chloride, sodium chloride, hydrogen peroxide, heavy metals, and phthalic acid esters. Although NP is present at low concentrations in the environment, as an endocrine disruptor the risks of long-term exposure to low concentrations remain largely unknown. This paper reviews the occurrence of NP in the environment and its aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation in natural environments and sewage treatment plants, which is essential for assessing the potential risk associated with low level exposure to NP and other endocrine disruptors.

Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry determination of feminizing chemicals in river water, sediment and tissue pretreated using disk-type solid-phase extraction and matrix solid-phase dispersion

This study developed and validated a method of measuring the feminizing chemicals 4-tert-octylphenol, 4-nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxycarboxylate (NP(1)EC), nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP(1)EO), nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP(2)EO), estrone, 17β-estradiol, estriol, 17α-ethinyl estradiol and bisphenol A in river water, sediment, and tissue using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/MS/MS) and isotope-dilution techniques. Water samples were pretreated using disk-type automated solid-phase extraction (SPE). Solid samples of sediment, fish, and clams were treated with matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) using C(8) adsorbent. Eluents were directly passed following alumina cartridges for cleanup. The signal intensity of analytes on electrospray ionization (ESI) was compared with that of atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI). The analytes were separated on a UHPLC C(18) column with aqueous 10-mM ammonium acetate for NPEOs and aqueous 10-mM N-methylmorpholine for the other compounds. On-line cleanup was evaluated using two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2-D LC). ESI could provide satisfactory response for all of the analytes. Though APPI did not offer suitable response for NP(1)EO, NP(2)EO and NP(1)EC, it provided better signal intensities for the steroid estrogens (1.0-2.4 times) and the phenols (3.2-4.4 times) than ESI. UHPLC shortened chromatographic time to less than 10 min. Disk-type automated SPE and MSPD dramatically increased the throughput of sample preparation. The extraction efficiency on surface water samples ranged from 10% to 91%. The extraction efficiency of MSPD on sediment, fish, and clams was 51-101%, 36-109%, and 30-111%, respectively. Acidic alumina cleanup was essential for the analysis of the tissue sample, and reduced matrix effects better than 2-D LC on-line cleanup. The limits of detection (LODs) in water ranged from 0.81 ng/L to 89.9 ng/L. The LODs in sediment and tissue ranged from tens of pg/g wet weight to only a few ng/g wet weight. This method proved to be accurate and reproducible, as both quantitative biases and relative deviations remained smaller than 20% at three spiked levels.

Contamination of nonylphenolic compounds in creek water, wastewater treatment plant effluents, and sediments from Lake Shihwa and vicinity, Korea: comparison with fecal pollution

Nonylphenolic compounds (NPs), coprostanol (COP), and cholestanol, major contaminants in industrial and domestic wastewaters, were analyzed in creek water, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, and sediment samples from artificial Lake Shihwa and its vicinity, one of the most industrialized regions in Korea. We also determined mass discharge of NPs and COP, a fecal sterol, into the lake, to understand the linkage between discharge and sediment contamination. Total NP (the sum of nonylphenol, and nonylphenol mono- and di-ethoxylates) were 0.32-875 μg L(-1) in creeks, 0.61-87.0 μg L(-1) in WWTP effluents, and 29.3-230 μg g(-1) TOC in sediments. Concentrations of COP were 0.09-19.0 μg L(-1) in creeks, 0.11-44.0 μg L(-1) in WWTP effluents, and 2.51-438 μg g(-1) TOC in sediments. The spatial distributions of NPs in creeks and sediments from the inshore region were different from those of COP, suggesting that Lake Shihwa contamination patterns from industrial effluents differ from those from domestic effluents. The mass discharge from the combined outfall of the WWTPs, located in the offshore region, was 2.27 kg d(-1) for NPs and 1.00 kg d(-1) for COP, accounting for 91% and 95% of the total discharge into Lake Shihwa, respectively. The highest concentrations of NPs and COP in sediments were found in samples at sites near the submarine outfall of the WWTPs, indicating that the submarine outfall is an important point source of wastewater pollution in Lake Shihwa.

Occurrence of nonylphenol ethoxylates and their metabolites in municipal wastewater treatment plants and receiving waters

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) are surfactants often used in applications that result in their disposal and treatment in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, three municipal activated sludge WWTPs, receiving primarily residential wastewater, were monitored, with their receiving waters, to determine the occurrence of NPEs and their biodegradation metabolites, including nonylphenol (NP), low-mole and higher-mole nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE1, NPE2-8, and NPE > or =9), and nonylphenol ether carboxylates (NPECs). The facilities were moderately sized and operating normally when influent and effluent samples were taken. Treatment efficiencies, taking into account concentrations of the parent ethoxylate and metabolites, ranged from 97.2 to 99.8%. Samples of receiving stream water, sediment, and pore water were collected upstream, downstream at the end of the mixing zones, and farther downstream from the WWTP discharges, to determine the occurrence of NPE and their metabolites and to assess the potential effect on the receiving stream ecosystems. Concentrations of nonylphenol or total nonylphenol equivalents measured upstream (<0.02 to 1.29 microg/L), at the end of the mixing zone (0.2 to 3.15 microg/L), and farther downstream (<0.02 to 1.84 microg/L) were compared with the recently established national ambient water quality chronic criteria of 6.6 mcirog/L. On the basis of this analysis, the likelihood of adverse effects on aquatic species within the three receiving streams is low.

Chemicals of emerging concern in the Great Lakes Basin: an analysis of environmental exposures

This review and statistical analysis was conducted to better understand the nature and significance of environmental exposures in the Great Lakes Basin and watershed to a variety of environmental contaminants. These contaminants of interest included current-use pesticides, pharmaceuticals, organic wastewater contaminants, alkylphenol ethoxylates, perfluorinated surfactants, flame retardants, and chlorinated paraffins. The available literature was critically reviewed and used to develop a database containing 19,611 residue values for 326 substances. In many papers, sampling locations were characterized as being downstream from municipal wastewater discharges, receiving waters for industrial facilities, areas susceptible to agricultural or urban contamination, or harbors and ports. To develop an initial assessment of their potential ecological significance, the contamination levels found were compared with currently available regulatory standards, guidelines, or criteria. This review was prepared for the IJC multi-board work group, and served as background material for an expert consultation, held in March, 2009, in which the significance of the contaminants found was discussed. Moreover, the consultation attempted to identify and assess opportunities for strengthening future actions that will protect the Great Lakes. Based on the findings and conclusions of the expert consultation, it is apparent that a wide variety of chemicals of emerging concern have been detected in environmental media (air, water, sediment, biota) from the Great Lakes Basin, although many are present at only trace levels. Although the presence of these contaminants raises concerns in the public and among the scientific community, the findings must be placed in context. Significant scientific interpretation is required to understand the extent to which these chemicals may pose a threat to the ecosystem and to human health. The ability to detect chemicals in environmental media greatly surpasses our ability to understand the implications of such findings. As advances in analytical technologies occur, it is probable that substances previously found to be non-detectable will be detected. However, their presence in environmental media should not be construed to mean that they are necessarily toxic or hazardous. Current-use pesticides are tightly regulated and extensive efforts have been made to analyze for their presence in surface waters from the Great Lakes Basin. The concentrations found in surface waters for many of the pesticides are below current regulatory criteria. However, the concentrations of certain pesticides exceeded current criteria in 6-32% of the samples analyzed. Detectable concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds were present in 34% of the surface water samples. Various prescription and non-prescription drugs were detected, most frequently at locations that were proximate to the point of discharge from wastewater treatment plants or agricultural operations. At present, there are no standards, guidelines, or criteria with which to compare these contaminant concentrations. Concentrations of alkylphenol ethoxylates and their metabolites have been well studied. All surface water nonylphenol concentrations were below US ambient water quality criteria. However, the concentrations reported for some locations exceeded Canadian guidelines for water or sediment. Only limited data were available for a wide variety of organic wastewater contaminants. Measured concentrations in Great Lakes waters were generally low. Where criteria exist for comparison, the concentrations found were generally below the associated regulatory standards. However, exceedences were noted for some classes of compounds, including phthalates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The highest environmental concentrations were reported in biota for a number of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic compounds (e.g., polybrominated diphenyl ethers, perfluorinated surfactants). Various stewardship as well as government risk assessment and risk management programs have been implemented over the past years for many of these compounds. Because risk management strategies for some of these contaminants have been implemented only recently, their impact on environmental concentrations, to date, remains unclear. Current evidence suggests that the concentrations of some brominated flame retardants are trending downward, while the concentrations of others appear to be increasing. Regulatory criteria are not available for many of the chemicals of emerging concern that were detected in the Great Lakes Basin. When criteria do exist, it is important to recognize that they were developed based on the best available science at the time. As the science evolves, regulatory criteria must be reassessed in light of new findings (e.g., consideration of new endpoints and mechanisms of action). Further, there are significant scientific gaps in our ability to interpret environmental monitoring data, including the need for: (a) improving the understanding of the effects of mixtures, (b) information on use of, and the commercial life cycle of chemicals and products that contain them, (c) information on source contributions and exposure pathways, and (d) the need for thoughtful additional regulatory,environmental, and health criteria. Discharges from wastewater treatment plants were identified as an important source of contaminants to surface waters in the Great Lakes Basin. Combined sewer overflows and agricultural operations were also found to be important contributors to concentrations in surface waters. Concentrations of many of the chemicals were generally the highest in the vicinity of these sources, decline with increasing distance from sources, and were generally low or non-detectable in the open waters of the Great Lakes.

Occurrence and behaviour of selected hydrophobic alkylphenolic compounds in the Danube River

Six hydrophobic alkylphenolic compounds were investigated for the first time simultaneously in four different matrices in the Danube River. Maximum sediment concentrations were 2.83, 2.10, 0.28, and 0.035 mg kg(-1) for nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, nonylphenol diethoxylate and octylphenol. Maximum levels in suspended particulate matter (SPM) were 0.18, 0.12, 0.10, and 0.003 mg kg(-1). No correlation between concentrations in SPM and sediments was found. Octylphenol monoethoxylate and octylphenol diethoxylate were recorded only in sediment at one location. In mussels and water only nonylphenol and octylphenol were found. Nonylphenol concentrations in mussels (up to 0.34 mg kg(-1)) correlate with concentrations found in SPM and indicate a slight bioaccumulation. Concentrations in water were close to the limit of quantification. We assume in situ formation of nonylphenol monoethoxylate and nonylphenol in sediments at some locations. In some cases nonylphenol in sediments exceeded the provisional EU environmental quality standards.

Nonylphenol ethoxylates and their metabolites in sewage treatment plants and rivers of Tianjin, China

Nonylphenol polyethoxylates (NPnEO) and nonylphenol (NP) have provoked much environmental concern because of their weak estrogenic activities. We monitored NPnEO and their metabolites in rivers in Tianjin and in a sewage treatment plant of Tianjin monthly for 1 year. The total concentrations of NPnEO and NP in influent, up to 47.2 microgL(-1) in August, were higher in summer than in other seasons. During the 12 months survey, NP was accumulated in most effluent samples with a mean value of 2.92 microgL(-1). The average concentrations of nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP1EO), nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO) and nonylphenol triethoxylate (NP3EO) in effluents were 1.26, 1.53 and 1.06 microgL(-1), which corresponds to percent removals of 75%, 60% and 62%, respectively. In rivers of Tianjin, NP2EO and nonylphenoxyethoxy acetic acid (NP2EC) exhibited the highest concentrations in the surface water, up to 1.38 and 9.59 microgL(-1), respectively. The pollution of nonylphenolic substances in sediments of Haihe River belongs to moderate or severe level in the world, with the total concentration between 4.1 and 9.9 microgg(-1), dry weight.

Phthalates and nonylphenols in urban runoff: Occurrence, distribution and area emission factors

The urban water system is believed to be an important sink for the nonpoint-source pollutants nonylphenols and phthalates. The presence of nonylphenols (NPs), nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs), and eight phthalates was analyzed in urban stormwater and sediment from three catchment areas in Sweden. Emission loads for these substances were then calculated for a specific urban catchment area. In addition, substance distribution in road runoff passing through a sedimentation facility was modeled using a modified QWASI-model for chemical fate. High concentrations of DEHP, DIDP and DINP (<or=48, 66 and 200 microg/g dw, respectively) as well as nonylphenol mono- and di-ethoxylate (6.6 and 20 microg/g dw, respectively) were found in the sediment. Aqueous concentrations of the pollutants varied considerably; branched NP was detected in concentrations up to 1.2 microg/L, whereas di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) were the most frequently detected phthalates in concentrations up to 5.0, 17 and 85 microg/L, respectively. The fate modeling demonstrated that predicted substance levels in water agreed well with measured levels, whereas the modeled sediment levels were underestimated. Calculation of catchment area emission factors from an urban highway environment revealed that as much as 2.1 kg of total phthalates and 200 g of NP and NPEOs may be emitted per hectare and year. The results indicate that all monitored phthalates, branched NPs and lower NPEOs are present in Swedish urban water systems. The long-chain phthalates DIDP and DINP are believed to occur at higher concentrations than other phthalates because of their higher environmental persistence and their increasing use in Sweden.

Distribution characteristics of nonylphenolic chemicals in Masan Bay environments, Korea

To understand the distribution characteristics of nonylphenolics and sterols, samples such as in creek water, sea surface water, waste water treatment plant (WWTP) effluent water, sediment and mussel were collected and analyzed. The principal analytes are nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP1EO), nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO), coprostanol (5beta) and cholestanol (5alpha). All these target pollutants showed 100% detection frequency in all of the samples analyzed. Total concentration of nonylphenolic compounds ranged from 334 to 3628ngl(-1) (average: 1331ngl(-1)) in creek water, from 15 to 36400ngl(-1) (average: 1013ngl(-1)) in sea surface water, from 131 to 2811ngg(-1) dry weight (average: 581ngg(-1) dry weight) in sediment and from 50.5 to 289ngg(-1) dry weight (average: 139ngg(-1) dry weight) in mussel. For water samples, levels of nonylphenolics determined in summer season were higher than those in spring season. Among them, nonylphenol and NP1EO was dominant in creek water and seawater, respectively. The highest concentration was recorded in sediment near a WWTP effluent outlet. And high levels of nonylphenolics and sterols were found in about 3km area surrounding WWTP effluent outlet. Coefficient of linear regression (R(2)) for NP in mussel and in sediment was 0.90. Similarly good correlation (R(2)=0.98) was obtained between concentration in water and in mussel indicating that a steady state has been reached in this bay. The calculated bio concentration factor (BCF=2990) for NP in Masan Bay agrees well with reported values in the literature.