Lycopene prevents DEHP-induced hepatic oxidative stress damage by crosstalk between AHR-Nrf2 pathway

Inhibition of the p62-Nrf2-GPX4 Pathway Confers Sensitivity to Butachlor-Induced Splenic Macrophage Ferroptosis

Butachlor is widely used in agriculture around the world and therefore poses environmental and public health hazards due to persistent and poor biodegradability. Ferroptosis is a type of iron-mediated cell death controlled by glutathione (GSH) and GPX4 inhibition. P62 is an essential autophagy adaptor that regulates Keap1 to activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), which effectively suppresses lipid peroxidation, thereby relieving ferroptosis. Here, we found that butachlor caused changes in splenic macrophage structure, especially impaired mitochondrial morphology with disordered structure, which is suggestive of the occurrence of ferroptosis. This was further confirmed by the detection of iron metabolism, the GSH system, and lipid peroxidation. Mechanistically, butachlor suppressed the protein level of p62 and promoted Keap1-mediated degradation of Nrf2, which results in decreased GPX4 expression and accelerated splenic macrophage ferroptosis. These findings suggest that targeting the p62-Nrf2-GPX4 signaling axis may be a promising strategy for treating inflammatory diseases.

AQP1 Deficiency Drives Phthalate-Induced Epithelial Barrier Disruption through Intestinal Inflammation

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is frequently used as a plasticizer to enhance the plasticity and durability of agricultural products, which pose adverse effects to human health and the environment. Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) is a main water transport channel protein and is involved in the maintenance of intestinal integrity. However, the impact of DEHP exposure on gut health and its potential mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we determined that DEHP exposure induced a compromised duodenum structure, which was concomitant with mitochondrial structural injury of epithelial cells. Importantly, DEHP exposure caused duodenum inflammatory epithelial cell damage and strong inflammatory response accompanied by activating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Mechanistically, DEHP exposure directly inhibits the expression of AQP1 and thus leads to an inflammatory response, ultimately disrupting duodenum integrity and barrier function. Collectively, our findings uncover the role of AQP1 in phthalate-induced intestinal disorders, and AQP1 could be a promising therapeutic approach for treating patients with intestinal disorders or inflammatory diseases.

Lycopene Regulates Macrophage Immune Response through the Autophagy Pathway Mediated by RIPK1

The effects of lycopene (LP) on macrophage immune responses were evaluated in this study. Compared with the control treatment, LP treatment significantly increased cell vitality, phagocytic activity, and chemokine production in RAW264.7 cells. Additionally, compared with the control treatment, 4 μM LP treatment significantly activated autophagy, enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential, and upregulated receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), while necrostatin-1 significantly reversed these effects of LP. Furthermore, compared with that in the control group, RIPK1 was significantly upregulated in the 4 μM LP and 4 μM LP + spautin-1 groups, whereas p-mTOR levels were reduced. More importantly, compared with that in the control group, p62 was significantly downregulated, and Beclin1, LC3-II, and Atg7 were upregulated in the 4 μM LP group, while spautin-1 significantly reversed these effects of LP. These results confirm that LP activates the mTOR/Beclin1/LC3/p62 autophagy signaling pathway through RIPK1, thereby enhancing the immune response of macrophages.

Morin hydrate ameliorates Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) induced hepatotoxicity in a mouse model via TNF-α and NF-κβ signaling

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalic acid (DEHP) pollutes the environment, and posing a significant risk to human and animal health. Consequently, a successful preventative strategy against DEHP-induced liver toxicity needs to be investigated. Morin hydrate (MH), a flavanol compound, possesses toxic preventive attributes against various environmental pollutants. However, the effects of MH have not been investigated against DEHP-induced liver toxicity. Female Swiss albino mice were divided into four groups: control, DEHP (orally administered with 500 mg/kg, DEHP plus MH 10 mg/kg, and DEHP plus MH 100 mg/kg for 14 days. The results showed that the MH treatment ameliorated the DEHP-induced liver dysfunctions by decreasing the alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin, liver histoarchitecture, fibrosis, and markers of oxidative stress. Furthermore, DEHP increased apoptosis, increased active caspase 3 and decreased B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) expression. However, the MH treatment showed a differential effect on these proteins; a lower dose increased, and a higher dose decreased the expression. Thus, a lower dose of MH could be involved in the disposal of damaged hepatocytes. Expression of Estrogen receptors alpha (ERα) also showed a similar trend with active caspase 3. Furthermore, the expression of Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and Nuclear factor-κβ (NF-κβ) were up-regulated by DEHP treatment, and MH treatment down-regulated the expression of these two inflammatory markers. Since this down-regulation of TNF-α and NF-κβ coincides with improved liver functions against DEHP-induced toxicity, it can be concluded that MH-mediated liver function involves the singling of TNF-α and NF-κβ.

SLC7A11 as a therapeutic target to attenuate phthalates-driven testosterone level decline in mice

INTRODUCTION

Phthalates exposure is a major public health concern due to the accumulation in the environment and associated with levels of testosterone reduction, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, the relationship between phthalate-induced testosterone level decline and ferroptosis remains poorly defined.

OBJECTIVES

Herein, we aimed to explore the mechanisms of phthalates-induced testosterone synthesis disorder and its relationship to ferroptosis.

METHODS

We conducted validated experiments in vivo male mice model and in vitro mouse Leydig TM3 cell line, followed by RNA sequencing and metabolomic analysis. We evaluated the levels of testosterone synthesis-associated enzymes and ferroptosis-related indicators by using qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Then, we analyzed the lipid peroxidation, ROS, Fe2+ levels and glutathione system to confirm the occurrence of ferroptosis.

RESULTS

In the present study, we used di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) to identify ferroptosis as the critical contributor to phthalate-induced testosterone level decline. It was demonstrated that DEHP caused glutathione metabolism and steroid synthesis disorders in Leydig cells. As the primary metabolite of DEHP, mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) triggered testosterone synthesis disorder accompanied by a decrease in the expression of solute carri1er family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11) protein. Furthermore, MEHP synergistically induced ferroptosis with Erastin through the increase of intracellular and mitochondrial ROS, and lipid peroxidation production. Mechanistically, overexpression of SLC7A11 counteracts the synergistic effect of co-exposure to MEHP-Erastin.

CONCLUSION

Our research results suggest that MEHP does not induce ferroptosis but synergizes Erastin-induced ferroptosis. These findings provide evidence for the role of ferroptosis in phthalates-induced testosterone synthesis disorder and point to SLC7A11 as a potential target for male reproductive diseases. This study established a correlation between ferroptosis and phthalates cytotoxicity, providing a novel view point for mitigating the issue of male reproductive disease and "The Global Plastic Toxicity Debt".

Hepatotoxic effects of chronic exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on crucian carp: Insights from multi-omics analyses

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an extensively used phthalate esters (PAEs) that raise growing ecotoxicological concerns due to detrimental effects on living organisms and ecosystems. This study performed hepatotoxic investigations on crucian carp under chronic low-dosage (CLD) exposure to DEHP at environmentally relevant concentrations (20-500 μg/L). The results demonstrated that the CLD exposure induced irreversible damage to the liver tissue. Multi-omics (transcriptomics and metabolomics) analyses revealed the predominant toxicological mechanisms underlying DEHP-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting energy production pathways and the up-regulation of the purine metabolism. Disruption of metabolic pathways led to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and subsequent oxidative stress. The adverse metabolic effects were exacerbated by an interplay between oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress. This study not only provides new mechanistic insights into the ecotoxicological effects of DEHP under chronic low-dosage exposure, but also suggests a potential strategy for further ecological risk assessment of PAEs.

MAPK/NF-κB signaling mediates atrazine-induced cardiorenal syndrome and antagonism of lycopene

Atrazine (ATZ) is the most prevalent herbicide that has been widely used in agriculture to control broadleaf weeds and improve crop yield and quality. The heavy use of ATZ has caused serious environmental pollution and toxicity to human health. Lycopene (LYC), is a carotenoid that exhibits numerous health benefits, such as prevention of cardiovascular diseases and nephropathy. However, it remains unclear that whether ATZ causes cardiorenal injury or even cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) and the beneficial role of LYC on it. To test this hypothesis, mice were treated with LYC and/or ATZ for 21 days by oral gavage. This study demonstrated that ATZ exposure caused cardiorenal morphological alterations, and several inflammatory cell infiltrations mediated by activating NF-κB signaling pathways. Interestingly, dysregulation of MAPK signaling pathways and MAPK phosphorylation caused by ATZ have been implicated in cardiorenal diseases. ATZ exposure up-regulated cardiac and renal injury associated biomarkers levels that suggested the occurrence of CRS. However, these all changes were reverted, and the phenomenon of CAR was disappeared by LYC co-treatment. Based on our findings, we postulated a novel mechanism to elucidate pesticide-induced CRS and indicated that LYC can be a preventive and therapeutic agent for treating CRS by targeting MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Lycopene as a Therapeutic Agent against Aflatoxin B1-Related Toxicity: Mechanistic Insights and Future Directions

Aflatoxin (AFT) contamination poses a significant global public health and safety concern, prompting widespread apprehension. Of the various AFTs, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) stands out for its pronounced toxicity and its association with a spectrum of chronic ailments, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Lycopene, a lipid-soluble natural carotenoid, has emerged as a potential mitigator of the deleterious effects induced by AFB1 exposure, spanning cardiac injury, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, intestinal damage, and reproductive impairment. This protective mechanism operates by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and lipid peroxidation, and activating the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, facilitating the activation of mitochondrial biogenesis, the endogenous antioxidant system, and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1 (PGC-1) pathways, as well as regulating the activities of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes. This review provides an overview of the protective effects of lycopene against AFB1 exposure-induced toxicity and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Furthermore, it explores the safety profile and potential clinical applications of lycopene. The present review underscores lycopene's potential as a promising detoxification agent against AFB1 exposure, with the intent to stimulate further research and practical utilization in this domain.

Phthalates Induce Neurotoxicity by Disrupting the Mfn2-PERK Axis-Mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Interaction

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), as the most common phthalate, has been extensively used as a plasticizer to improve the plasticity of agricultural products, which pose severe harm to human health. Mitochondrial dynamics and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis are indispensable for maintaining mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM) integrity. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of DEHP on the nervous system and its association with the ER-mitochondria interaction. Here, we showed that DEHP caused morphological changes, motor deficits, cognitive impairments, and blood-brain barrier disruption in the brain. DEHP triggered ER stress, which is mainly mediated by protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) signaling. Moreover, DEHP-induced mitofusin-2 (Mfn2) downregulation results in imbalance of the mitochondrial dynamics. Interestingly, DEHP exposure impaired MAMs by inhibiting the Mfn2-PERK interaction. Above all, this study elucidates the disruption of the Mfn2-PERK axis-mediated ER-mitochondria interaction as a phthalate-induced neurotoxicity that could be potentially developed as a novel therapy for neurological diseases.

Phthalate drives splenic inflammatory response via activating HSP60/TLR4/NLRP3 signaling axis-dependent pyroptosis

As the most produced phthalate, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely environmental pollutant primarily used as a plasticizer, which cause the harmful effects on human health. However, the impact of DEHP on spleen and its underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Pyroptosis is a novel form of cell death induced by activating NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes and implicated in pathogenesis of numerous inflammatory diseases. The current study aimed to explore the impact of DEHP on immune inflammatory response in mouse spleen. In this study, the male ICR mice were treated with DEHP (200 mg/kg) for 28 days. Here, DEHP exposure caused abnormal pathohistological and ultrastructural changes, accompanied by inflammatory cells infiltration in mouse spleen. DEHP exposure arouse heat shock response that involves increase of heat shock proteins 60 (HSP60) expression. DEHP also elevated the expressions of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and myeloid differentiation protein 88 (MyD88) proteins, as well as the activation of NF-κB pathway. Moreover, DEHP promoted NLRP3 inflammasome activation and triggered NLRP3 inflammasome-induced pyroptosis. Mechanistically, DEHP drives splenic inflammatory response via activating HSP60/TLR4/NLRP3 signaling axis-dependent pyroptosis. Our findings reveal that targeting HSP60-mediated TLR4/NLRP3 signaling axis may be a promising strategy for inflammatory diseases treatment.

Prenatal cadmium exposure impairs neural tube closure via inducing excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium

Birth defects have become a public health concern. The hazardous environmental factors exposure to embryos could increase the risk of birth defects. Cadmium, a toxic environmental factor, can cross the placental barrier during pregnancy. Pregnant woman may be subjected to cadmium before taking precautionary protective actions. However, the link between birth defects and cadmium remains obscure. Cadmium exposure can induce excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium during embryonic development progresses. Cadmium exposure activated the p53 via enhancing the adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and reactive oxygen species' (ROS) level. And cadmium decreases the level of Paired box 3 (Pax3) and murine double minute 2 (Mdm2), disrupting the process of p53 ubiquitylation. And p53 accumulation induced excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium during embryonic development progresses. Excessive apoptosis led to the failure of neural tube closure. The study emphasizes that environmental materials may increase the health risk for embryos. Cadmium caused the failure of neural tube closure during early embryotic day. Pregnant women may be exposed by cadmium before taking precautionary protective actions, because of cadmium concentration-containing foods and environmental tobacco smoking. This suggests that prenatal cadmium exposure is a threatening risk factor for birth defects.

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate disrupts hepatic lipid metabolism in obese mice by activating the LXR/SREBP-1c and PPAR-α signaling pathways

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), a widely utilized plasticizer, has been described as a potential obesogen based on in vivo disruption of hepatic lipid homeostasis and in vitro promotion of lipid accumulation. However, limited literature exists regarding the specific ramifications of DEHP exposure on obese individuals, and the precise mechanisms underlying the adverse effects of DEHP exposure remain unclear. This study aimed to assess the impact of DEHP on hepatic lipid metabolism in obese mice by comparing them to normal mice. Following a 10-week DEHP exposure period, the obese mice exhibited higher blood lipid levels, more severe hepatic steatosis, and more infiltrations of inflammatory cells in liver tissue than normal mice. Interestingly, the body weight of the mice exhibited no significant alteration. In addition, transcriptomic analyses revealed that both lipogenesis and fatty acid oxidation contributed to hepatic lipid metabolism dysregulation following DEHP exposure. More specifically, alterations in the transcription of genes associated with hepatic lipid metabolism were linked to the different responses to DEHP exposure observed in normal and obese mice. Additionally, the outcomes of in vitro experiments validated the in vivo findings and demonstrated that DEHP exposure could modify hepatic lipid metabolism in normal mice by activating the LXR/SREBP-1c signaling pathway to promote lipogenesis. At the same time, DEHP exposure led to inhibition of the Camkkβ/AMPK pathway to suppress β-fatty acid oxidation. Conversely, in obese mice, DEHP exposure was found to be associated with the stimulation of both lipogenesis and fatty acid oxidation via activation of the LXR/SREBP-1c and PPAR-α signaling pathways, respectively. The findings presented in this study first elucidate the contrasting mechanisms underlying DEHP-induced liver damage in obese and normal mice, thereby offering valuable insights into the pathogenesis of DEHP-induced liver damage in individuals with obesity.

Short-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate may disrupt hepatic lipid metabolism through modulating the oxidative stress in male adolescent rats

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is commonly used to increase the flexibility of plastics. In our previous study, DEHP may increase hepatic lipid accumulation through modulating of acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) expression. Nevertheless, it is hard to understand the association between DEHP and DGAT1 in the liver because only one dosage of DEHP was used. Thus, this study performed to investigate the role of DGAT1 on hepatic lipid metabolism after various dosages of DEHP exposure. Four-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 5/group) were administered corn oil (vehicle) or DEHP (0.75, 7.5, 15, or 150 mg/kg/day) once daily for seven days. DEHP 150 mg/kg/day treated group increased body weight gain and relative liver weight compared to the control (P = 0.044 and P = 0.049, respectively). In histological observation, elevation of hepatic lipid accumulation was observed in all DEHP-treated groups, except DEHP 150 mg/kg/day, compared to that in the control (all P < 0.001). Portal inflammatory infiltration and acidophilic bodies were observed in the liver at DEHP 7.5 mg/kg/day and above treated groups. In addition, malondiadehyde levels, a marker of lipid peroxidation, in the liver were increased in DEHP 7.5, 15 and 150 mg/kg/day compared to the control (P = 0.017, P = 0.001, and P = 0.002, respectively). The expression of Dgat1 in the liver was significantly increased in DEHP 7.5, 15 and 150 mg/kg/day compared to the control group (P = 0.019, P = 0.002, and P < 0.001, respectively); however, there were no significant changes in the protein levels. Therefore, excessive oxidative stress caused by DEHP may induce liver damage such as inflammation rather than hepatic lipid accumulation by regulating DGAT1 transcription.

Melatonin inhibits atrazine-induced mitochondrial impairment in cerebellum of mice: Modulation of cGAS-STING-NLRP3 axis-dependent cell pyroptosis

The global prevalence of Neurological disorders has increased alarmingly in response to environmental and lifestyle changes. Atrazine (ATZ) is a difficult to degrade soil and water pollutant with well-known neurotoxicity. Melatonin (MT), an antioxidant with chemoprotective properties, has a potential therapeutic effect on cerebellar damage caused by ATZ exposure. The aim of this study was to explore the effects and underlying mechanisms of MT on the cerebellar inflammatory response and pyroptosis induced by ATZ exposure. In this study, C57BL/6J mice were treated with ATZ (170 mg/kg BW/day) and MT (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Our results revealed that MT alleviated the histopathological changes, ultrastructural damage, oxidative stress and decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) in the cerebellum induced by ATZ exposure. ATZ exposure damaged the mitochondria leading to release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to the cytoplasm, MT activated the cyclic GMP-AMP synthetase interferon gene stimulator (cGAS-STING) axis to alleviate inflammation and pyroptosis caused by ATZ exposure. In general, our study provided new evidence that the cGAS-STING-NLRP3 axis plays an important role in the treatment of ATZ-induced cerebellar injury by MT.

Evaluation of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate toxicity on the third instar larvae of transgenic Drosophila melanogaster (hsp70-lacZ) Bg9

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, generally known as DEHP is a synthetic compound mainly used as a plasticizer to make polyvinyl chloride products flexible and soft. The present work aimed to study the toxicity of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on the third instar larvae of transgenic Drosophila melanogaster(hsp70-lacZ) Bg9. The hsp70 gene is associated with the β-galactosidase in our present transgenic strain therefore, the more activity of β-galactosidase will indirectly correspond to hsp70 expression. The third instar larvae were allowed to feed on the diet for 24 h having 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, and 0.02 M of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at the final concentration. After the exposure of 24hrs, the larvae were subjected to ONPG assay, X-gal staining, trypan blue exclusion test, oxidative stress markers assays, and comet assay. A dose-dependent increase in hsp70 expression, tissue damage, Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity, lipid peroxidation, monoamine oxidase, caspase-9 & 3, protein carbonyl content (PCC), DNA damage and decrease in the glutathione (GSH) content, delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydrogenase (ẟ-ALD-D) and acetylcholinesterase activity were observed in the larvae exposed to 0.005, 0.01, 0.02 M of Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. The dose of 0.001 M of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate did not showed any toxic effects and hence can be considered as No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) for Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. The study supports the use of Drosophila for the evaluation of possible toxic effects associated with synthetic compounds.

Crosstalk between aryl hydrocarbon receptor and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway: Possible culprit of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-mediated cardiotoxicity in zebrafish larvae

Typical plasticizer di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has been demonstrated to induce cardiotoxicity in zebrafish, but the potential molecular mechanisms involved have not been fully elucidated. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), an essential protein for inducing developmental abnormalities, has been demonstrated to be activated by DEHP in other species, but whether the AhR signaling pathway also contributes to DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental toxicity in zebrafish remains unclear. Firstly, molecular docking simulations initially confirmed the possibility that DEHP has AhR agonistic activity. To further confirm this conjecture, this work analyzed the changes of cardiac-related indexes in zebrafish stressed by DEHP at individual, protein, and gene levels. The results showed that DEHP mediated cardiac phenotypic developmental defects, increased CYP1A1 activity, and oxidative stress as well as significant changes in the expression levels of key proteins and genes of AhR, Wnt/β-catenin, and Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathways. Notably, the addition of AhR inhibitors effectively alleviated the above negative effects, indicating that the AhR signaling pathway and its crosstalk with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is an essential pathway for DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental toxicity. Overall, this work enriches the molecular mechanism of DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental defects in zebrafish and provides a reliable biomarker for future environmental risk assessment of DEHP.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress exacerbates microplastics-induced toxicity in animal cells

Human and animal exposure to microplastics (MPs) contained in food is inevitable because of their widespread existence in the environment. Nevertheless, MPs toxicity studies in ruminants often lack attention. Here, we assessed the cytotoxicity of polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs) on goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs). Compared to controls, PS MPs treatment significantly reduced cell viability, altered cell morphology and disrupted organelle integrity. Detection of membrane potential and reactive oxygen species (ROS) suggested that PS MPs induced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Further transcriptome analysis also confirmed alterations in these pathways. In addition, several genes related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis were significantly regulated in the transcriptional profile. Subsequent experiments confirmed that PS MPs induce ER stress via the PERK/eIF2α/CHOP pathway, accompanied by intracellular Ca2+ overload. Meanwhile, downstream activation of the Bax/Bcl-2 pathway and caspase cascade released apoptotic signals, which led to apoptosis in GMECs. Interestingly, the addition of PERK inhibitor (ISRIB) attenuated PS MPs-induced ER stress and apoptosis, which suggests that ER stress may exacerbate PS MPs-induced cytotoxicity. This work reveals the impact of MPs on mammalian cytotoxicity, enriches the mechanisms for the toxicity of MPs, and provides insight for further assessment of the risk of MPs in food.

MEHP activates JNK to inhibit the migration of human foreskin fibroblasts

This study aimed to investigate the impact of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on the proliferation, apoptosis, and migration of human foreskin fibroblast cells (HFF-1) and the role of the JNK signaling pathway in cell migration. HFF-1 cells were randomly assigned to the control group with 0 MEHP exposure (M0) or the experimental groups with 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μmol/L MEHP exposure (M25, M50, M100, M200, and M400, respectively). After 24 and 48 h of MEHP exposure, the proliferation of HFF-1 cells in any group had no significant change. However, compared with the M0 group, the M200 and M400 groups presented substantially increased apoptosis of HFF-1 cells. Moreover, cell migration ability significantly decreased in all groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, the transcription and phosphorylated protein activation of JNK kinase in HFF-1 cells were substantially upregulated with the increase in MEHP exposure. Subsequently, HFF-1 cells were randomly divided into three groups: the DMSO blank control group, the 100 μM MEHP experimental group (M100), and the 100 μM MEHP plus 10 μM SP600125 (specific JNK inhibitor) experimental group (S10). The activation of JNK protein in HFF-1 cells was substantially downregulated in the S10 group. HFF-1 cells were also divided into the blank control group (M0). They were treated with 100 μM MEHP and varying concentrations of SP600125 (5, 10, and 15 μM for S5, S10, and S15, respectively). As the concentration of the antagonist increased, the migration ability of HFF-1 cells was returned to normal. Finally, the ROS in HFF-1 cells increased under MEHP exposure. This finding indicates that the regulation of cell migration by the JNK signaling pathway may be important in the occurrence of hypospadias.

Quercetin alleviates DEHP exposure-induced pyroptosis and cytokine expression changes in grass carp L8824 cell line by inhibiting ROS/MAPK/NF-κB pathway

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is not only a widely used plasticizer but also a common endocrine disruptor that frequently lingers in water, posing a threat to the health of aquatic organisms. Quercetin (Que) is a common flavonol found in the plant kingdom known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. However, it is still unclear whether DEHP can cause pyroptosis and affect the expression of cytokines of grass carp L8824 cells and whether Que has antagonistic effect in this process. In our study, grass carp L8824 cells were treated into four groups after 24 h, namely NC group, DEHP group (1000 μM DEHP), Que group (5 μM Que), and DEHP + Que group (1000 μM DEHP + 5 μM Que). Our results indicate a significant increase in the level of ROS in L8824 cells after exposure to DEHP. DEHP upregulated oxidative stress markers (H2O2 and MDA) and downregulated antioxidant markers (CAT, GSH, SOD, and T-AOC). DEHP also upregulated MAPK and NF-κB signal pathway-related proteins and mRNA expressions (p-p38, p-JNK, p-EPK, and p65). As for cell pyroptosis and its related pathways, DEHP upregulated pyroptosis-related protein and mRNA expressions (GSDMD, IL-1β, NLRP3, Caspase-1, LDH, pro-IL-18, IL-18, and ASC). Finally, DEHP can up-regulated cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) expression, down-regulated cytokines (IL-2 and IFN-γ) expression, and antimicrobial peptides (β-defensin, LEAP2, and HEPC). The co-treatment of L8824 cells with DEHP and Que inhibited the activation of the ROS/MAPK/NF-κB axis, alleviated pyroptosis, and restored expression of immune-related indicators. Finally, NAC was applied to reverse intervention of oxidative stress. In summary, Que inhibited DEHP-induced pyroptosis and the influence on cytokine and antimicrobial peptide expression in L8824 cells by regulating the ROS/MAPK/NF-κB pathway. Our results demonstrate the threat to fish health from DEHP exposure and confirmed the harm of DEHP to the aquatic ecological environment and the detoxification effect of Que to DEHP, which provides a theoretical basis for environmental toxicology.

Lycopene Prevents Phthalate-Induced Cognitive Impairment via Modulating Ferroptosis

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is frequently used as a plasticizer in industrial and agricultural products. DEHP can cause severe neurotoxicity, such as impaired learning and memory function. Lycopene (LYC) as a carotenoid exerts excellent antioxidant capacity and therapeutic effects in neurodegenerative diseases. However, whether LYC can prevent the cognitive impairment induced by DEHP and the specific mechanisms are unclear. In the present study, the behavioral test results suggested that LYC alleviated the learning and memory impairment induced by DEHP. The histopathological data revealed that LYC attenuated DEHP-induced disordered arrangement of the neurons in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus tissue. Moreover, LYC inhibited the occurrence of DEHP-induced ferroptosis via regulating iron metabolism, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, and activating the cysteine transporter and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 (NrF2/HO-1) signaling pathway. Overall, the study contributes novel perspectives into the potential mechanisms of LYC preventing phthalate-induced cognitive impairment in the hippocampus.

Phthalates (PAEs) and reproductive toxicity: Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis aspects

Phthalates (PAEs) are widely used for their excellent ability to improve plastic products. As an essential endocrine axis that regulates the reproductive system, whether dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is involved in reproductive toxicity mediated by environmental endocrine disruptors PAEs has become a hot topic of widespread concern. This study systematically reviewed the adverse effects of multiple PAEs on the HPG axis in different models and objectively discussed the possible underlying mechanisms. The abnormal release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropin, dysfunction of sex hormone receptors and steroid hormone synthesis, and general damage, including cell proliferation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy have been confirmed to be involved in this process. Although it is widely established that PAEs induce HPG axis dysfunction, the specific mechanisms involved remain unclear. From a systematic review of relevant publications, it appears that the abnormal expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated, aryl hydrocarbon, and insulin receptors mediated by PAEs is key upstream event that induces these adverse outcomes; however, this inference needs to be further verified. Overall, this study aimed to provide reliable potential biomarkers for future environmental risk assessment and epidemiological investigation of PAEs.

Co-occurrence of Mycotoxin-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice Inhibited by Lycopene: Mitochondrial Impairment and Early Hepatic Fibrosis

SCOPE

Mycotoxins co-contamination of agricultural products poses a serious threat to human and animal health, especially hepatic dysfunction. Zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are three commonly co-occurring mycotoxins. This study is to determine whether lycopene (LYC) can alleviate hepatic toxicity induced by the co-occurrence of ZEN, DON, and AFB1 in mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eighty 6-week-old male ICR mice are divided into four groups: CON group (solvent control), LYC group (10 mg kg-1 LYC), Co-M group (10 mg kg-1 ZEN + 1 mg kg-1 DON + 0.5 mg kg-1 AFB1), and LYC+Co-M group (10 mg kg-1 LYC + 10 mg kg-1 ZEN + 1 mg kg-1 DON + 0.5 mg kg-1 AFB1). The results show that LYC can suppress the co-occurrence of mycotoxin-induced mitochondrial swelling and vacuolization accompanied by dysregulation of indices of mitochondrial dynamics (Mitofusin 1 (Mfn1), Mfn2, Optic atrophy 1 (Opa1), Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), Fission 1 (Fis1) at the mRNA level; DRP1 and FIS1 at the protein level). LYC effectively inhibits co-occurrence of mycotoxin-induced activation of Cytochrome P450 2E1, and early fibrosis, as determined by staining with Masson's trichrome and α-SMA protein.

CONCLUSION

LYC successfully attenuates early hepatic fibrosis mainly through antioxidant activities and prevented mitochondrial injury.

Evodiamine alleviates DEHP-induced hepatocyte pyroptosis, necroptosis and immunosuppression in grass carp through ROS-regulated TLR4 / MyD88 / NF-κB pathway

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a neuroendocrine disruptor that can cause multi-tissue organ damage by inducing oxidative stress. Evodiamine (EVO) is an indole alkaloid with anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant pharmacological activity. In this manuscript, the effects of DEHP and EVO on the pyroptosis, necroptosis and immunology of grass carp hepatocytes (L8824) were investigated using DCFH-DA staining, PI staining, IF staining, AO/EB staining, LDH kit, qRT-PCR and protein Western blot. The results showed that DEHP exposure upregulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, promoted the expression of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway, increased the expression of genes involved in cell pyroptosis pathway (LDH, NLRP3, ASC, caspase1, IL-1β, IL-18 and GSDMD) and necroptosis-related genes (RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL). The expression of DEHP can also affect immune function, which can be demonstrated by variationsin the activation of antimicrobial peptides (LEAP2, HEPC, and β-defensin) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10). EVO regulates cellular antioxidant capacity by inhibiting ROS burst, reduces DEHP-induced cell pyroptosis and necroptosis to some extent, and restores cellular immune function, after co-exposure with EVO. The TLR4 pathway was inhibited by the co-treatment of TLR4 inhibitor TLR-IN-C34 and DEHP, which attenuated the expression of cell pyroptosis, necroptosis, and immunosuppression. Thus, DEHP induced pyroptosis, necroptosis and abnormal immune function in L8824 cells by activating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. In addition, EVO has a therapeutic effect on DEHP-induced toxic injury. This study further provides a theoretical basis for the risk assessment of plasticizer DEHP on aquatic organisms.

Association between Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among US adults: Mediation analysis of body mass index and waist circumference in the NHANES

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most commonly used plasticizer and is ubiquitous in the environment and food. As a result, diet is the most significant source of exposure to DEHP in the general population. However, there is little research about the impact of DEHP on the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or significant fibrosis in human beings. A cross-sectional analysis was performed using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017-2018 data. Controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) and median liver stiffness measurement (LSM) were acquired by vibration-controlled transient elastography for diagnosis of NAFLD and significant fibrosis. The concentration of DEHP (∑DEHP) was calculated by each metabolite and split into quartiles for analysis. Results of logistic regression models showed that the risk of NAFLD was increased in those with higher concentration of urinary DEHP [ΣDEHP (OR = 1.22, 95%CI = 1.09-1.36)]. However, no significant association was found between urinary DEHP and significant fibrosis in the fully adjusted model. Mediation analyses suggested that the total effect of urinary DEHP on NAFLD risk mediated by BMI was 46.28% and by WC was 65.89%.

Di (2-ethyl) hexyl phthalate induces liver injury in chickens by regulating PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway via reactive oxygen species

Di (2-ethyl) hexyl phthalate (DEHP) is a common environmental endocrine disruptor that induces oxidative stress, posing a significant threat to human and animal health. Oxidative stress can activate the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway, which is closely related to cell apoptosis. However, it is unclear whether DEHP induces apoptosis of chicken liver cells by regulating the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway through oxidative stress. In this experiment, male laying hens were continuously exposed to 400 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg, and 1600 mg/kg DEHP for 14 d, 28 d, and 42 d. The results showed that liver injury was aggravated with the dose of DEHP gavage, and the ROS/MDA levels in L, M, and H DEHP exposure groups were significantly increased, while the T-AOC/T-SOD/GSH-PX levels were decreased. Meanwhile, DEHP exposure up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of PTEN/Bax/Caspase-9/Caspase-3 and down-regulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of PI3K/AKT/BCL-2, indicating that DEHP may lead to hepatocyte apoptosis through ROS regulation of PTEN/PI3K/AKT axis. In order to further clarify the relationship between oxidative stress and liver injury, we treated chicken hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (LMH) with 2.5 mM N-acetylcysteine (NAC). NAC attenuated these phenomena. In summary, our study suggests that DEHP can induce apoptosis of chicken liver through ROS activation of the PTEN/PI3K/AKT axis.

Molecular Docking of Natural Compounds for Potential Inhibition of AhR

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a highly conserved environmental sensor, historically known for mediating the toxicity of xenobiotics. It is involved in numerous cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, immunity, inflammation, homeostasis, and metabolism. It exerts a central role in several conditions such as cancer, inflammation, and aging, acting as a transcription factor belonging to the basic helix-loop-helix/Per-ARNT-Sim (bHLH-PAS) protein family. A key step in the canonical AhR activation is AhR-ARNT heterodimerization followed by the binding to the xenobiotic-responsive elements (XREs). The present work aims to investigate the potential AhR inhibitory activity of selected natural compounds. Due to the absence of a complete structure of human AhRs, a model consisting of the bHLH, the PAS A, and the PAS B domains was constructed. Blind and focused docking simulations revealed the presence of further binding pockets, different from the canonical one presented in the PAS B domain, which could be important for AhR inhibition due to the possibility to impede AhR:ARNT heterodimerization, either preventing conformational changes or masking crucial sites necessary for protein-protein interaction. Two of the compounds retrieved from the docking simulations, i.e., β-carotene and ellagic acid, confirmed their capacity of inhibiting benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)-induced AhR activation in in vitro tests on the human hepatoma cell line HepG2, validating the efficacy of the computational approach.

Dose-dependent toxic effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in male rats: Focus on behavioral alterations and inducing TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Di -(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used phthalate that possesses a public health concern. Different concentrations of DEHP, including 50, 300, and 750 mg/kg, were administrated orally for 28 days in male rats. Body weight and vital organs weight were measured as well as anxiety-like behavior, short and long-term memory were investigated. Brain inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, TLR4, NF-κB, TNF-α, and IL1-6, were assessed. Brain caspase-3, neuropeptide-Y (NPY), and brain histopathology were also evaluated. DEHP triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines via inducing the nuclear translocation of the signaling pathway; TLR 4/ NF-κB leads to cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration, which is confirmed by the impaired brain architecture. Also, DEHP upgrades the expression levels of brain caspase-3 and NPY. In conclusion, exposure to high doses of DEHP persuades great toxicity visualized by behavioral, biochemical, and histological impairments when compared to the low dose.

Lycopene ameliorates atrazine-induced spatial learning and memory impairments by inhibiting ferroptosis in the hippocampus of mice

Atrazine (ATR) is a commercially available herbicide that is used worldwide. The intensive use of ATR poses potential risks to animals' and humans' health. Lycopene (LYC) is an anti-oxidative phytochemical that normalizes health hazards triggered by environmental factors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the toxic effects of ATR on the hippocampus and its amelioration by LYC. Male mice were exposed to ATR (50 mg/kg/day or 200 mg/kg/d) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg/d) for 21 days. The results showed that ATR exposure induced hippocampus-dependent learning and memory impairments. ATR-induced ferroptosis in hippocampal cells affects the homeostasis of lipid metabolism, whereas LYC ameliorates the neurotoxic effects of ATR in the hippocampus. LYC inhibited ATR-induced ferroptosis by increasing the expression of HO-1, Nrf2 and SLC7A11. Therefore, this study established that LYC ameliorates ATR-induced spatial learning and memory impairments by inhibiting ferroptosis in the hippocampus and also provides a novel approach for the treatment in contradiction of environmental pollutants.

Comprehensive investigation of hepatotoxicity of the mixture containing phthalates and bisphenol A

Connections between the mixture containing bis(2- ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and bisphenol A (BPA) and liver injury were explored through in silico investigation and 2 in vivo models. Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), ShinyGO, ToppCluster and Cytoscape were used for bioinformatic analysis. In vivo subacute study was performed on rats - five groups (n = 6): (1) Control: corn oil, (2) DEHP: 50 mg/kg b.w./day, (3) DBP: 50 mg/kg b.w./day, (4) BPA: 25 mg/kg b.w./day, (5) MIX: DEHP + DBP + BPA. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to the investigated substances in different doses, singularly and combined (binary and ternary mixtures). Liver injury was linked to 75 DEHP, DBP, and BPA genes, mostly connected to inflammation/oxidative stress. In rats, significant alterations in redox status/bioelements and pathohistology were most notable or exclusively present in MIX (probable additive effects). BPA decreased liver area (LA) index in dose-dependent manner. DEHP (< 2 µg/mL) and DBP (≤ 5 µg/mL) reduced LA values, while their higher doses increased LA index. The effect of DBP in binary mixtures led to a lethal outcome at the two highest concentrations, while the hepatotoxicity of DEHP/DBP/BPA mixture was dictated by BPA (confirmed by the benchmark dose analysis).

Lycopene ameliorates DEHP exposure-induced renal pyroptosis through the Nrf2/Keap-1/NLRP3/Caspase-1 axis

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is commonly used as a plasticizer in plastic products, and due to its unique chemical composition, it frequently dissolves and enters the environment. Lycopene as a natural carotenoid has been shown to have powerful antioxidant capacity and strong kidney protection. This study aimed to investigate the role of the interplay between oxidative stress and the classical pyroptosis pathway in LYC alleviating DEHP-induced renal injury. ICR mice were given DEHP (500 mg/kg/d or 1000 mg/kg/d) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg/d) for 28 days to explore the underlying mechanisms of this hypothesis. Our results indicated that DEHP caused the shedding of renal tubular epithelial cells, increased the content of kidney injury molecule-1 (Kim-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in the tissue, the decrease of antioxidant activity markers and the increase of oxidative stress indexes. It is gratifying that LYC alleviates DEHP-induced renal injury. The expression of nuclear factor erythrocyte 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream target genes is improved in DEHP induced renal injury through LYC mediated protection. Meanwhile, LYC supplementation can inhibit DEHP-induced Caspase-1/NLRP3-dependent pyroptosis and inflammatory responses. Taken together, DEHP administration resulted in nephrotoxicity, but these changes ameliorated by LYC may through crosstalk between the Nrf2/Keap-1/NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway. Our study provides new evidence that LYC protects against kidney injury caused by DEHP.

DEHP mediates drug resistance by metabolic reprogramming in colorectal cancer cells

Long-term exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDCs) and plasticizer widely used in consumer products, has been reported to be significantly positively correlated with increased risks of different human diseases, including various cancers, while the potential effect of DEHP on colorectal cancer progression was little studied. In the present study, we showed that DEHP could trigger the metabolic reprogramming of colorectal cancer cells, promote cell growth and decrease fluorouracil (5-FU) sensitivity. Mechanistic studies indicated that DEHP could reduce glycolysis activity and increase oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in SW620 cells. In addition, in vivo experiments showed that DEHP promoted tumorigenic progression and decreased survival time in mice. Collectively, our findings suggest that DEHP may be a potent risk factor for colorectal cancer development.

Cerebellar injury induced by cadmium via disrupting the heat-shock response

Cadmium (Cd) is a food contaminant that poses serious threats to animal health, including birds. It is also an air pollutant with well-known neurotoxic effects on humans. However, knowledge on the neurotoxic effects of chronic Cd exposure on chicken is limited. Thus, this study assessed the neurotoxic effects of chronic Cd on chicken cerebellum. Chicks were exposed to 0 (control), 35 (low), and 70 (high) mg/kg of Cd for 90 days, and the expression of genes related to the heat-shock response was investigated. The chickens showed clinical symptoms of ataxia, and histopathology revealed that Cd exposure decreased the number of Purkinje cells and induced degeneration of Purkinje cells with pyknosis, and some dendrites were missing. Moreover, Cd exposure increased the expression of heat-shock factors, HSF1, HSF2, and HSF3, and heat-shock proteins, HSP60, HSP70, HSP90, and HSP110. These changes indicate that HSPs improve the tolerance of the cerebellum to Cd. Conversely, the expressions of HSP10, HSP25, and HSP40 were decreased significantly, which indicated that Cd inhibits the expression of small heat-shock proteins. However, HSP27 and HSP47 were upregulated following low-dose Cd exposure, but downregulated under high-dose Cd exposure. This work sheds light on the toxic effects of Cd on the cerebellum, and it may provide evidence for health risks posed by Cd. Additionally, this work also identified a novel target of Cd exposure in that Cd induces cerebellar injury by disrupting the heat-shock response. Cd can be absorbed into chicken's cerebellum through the food chain, which eventually caused cerebellar injury. This study provided a new insight that chronic Cd-induced neurotoxicity in the cerebellum is associated with alterations in heat-shock response-related genes, which indicated that Cd through disturbing heat-shock response induced cerebellar injury.

Protective efficacy of dietary natural antioxidants on microplastic particles-induced histopathological lesions in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Microplastic particles (MPs) are a common environmental pollutant easily ingested by fish in aquaculture. The current study evaluated the protective efficacies of some antioxidant, e.g., lycopene, citric acid, and chlorella, against the toxic effects of MP ingestion by Clarias gariepinus using histopathological biomarkers. Five experimental groups were established, a control group receiving only a standard diet, a group exposed to 500 mg/kg MP concomitant with the standard diet, and three antioxidant groups exposed to MPs plus either lycopene (500 mg/kg), citric acid (30 g/kg), or chlorella (50 g/kg) in the standard diet. After 15 days, fish were sacrificed for histological and histochemical examinations. Histological analysis of the kidney for group 2 (fed 500 mg/kg MPs alone) revealed distributed tissue dissociation, regional glomerular hypertrophy or shrinkage, melanomacrophage accumulation, and expansion of Bowman's space, while liver tissue exhibited dilation and rupture of the central vein wall, hemorrhage, cytoplasmic vacuolation, and cellular necrosis or apoptosis. Fish exposed to MPs also exhibited connective tissue fiber accumulation around renal blood vessels, renal tubules, the central hepatic vein, hepatic blood sinusoids, and serosal, muscle, and submucosal layers of the intestine. In addition, MP exposure reduced carbohydrate (mainly glycogen) contents in the brush borders and basement membranes of renal tubules, glomeruli, and intestinal tissues as well as in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. These signs of renal, hepatic, and intestinal histopathology were fully or partially reversed by dietary lycopene, chlorella, or citric acid. Enhancing dietary antioxidants is an effective strategy for preventing MP toxicity in Clarias gariepinus in aquaculture.

Heme-oxygenase-1 as a target for phthalate-induced cardiomyocytes ferroptosis

Phthalates as a large group of environmental pollutants are used primarily as plasticizers and solvents, which have become a growing problem worldwide. Epidemiological results show that severity of heart disease is related to degree of environmental contamination. As the most usually used phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has toxic effects on organism health and is also a major cause of heart damage. Ingestion of food, liquid, or dust contaminated with DEHP are major routes of exposure. The purpose of the present research was to determine the mechanism of cardiotoxicity in mice after exposure to DEHP. Here, male mice were treated by gavage with three different doses of (50, 200 and 500 mg/kg b.w.) DEHP for 28 days. Our research showed that DEHP brought about histopathological changes involving cardiomyocyte lysis and rupture, and ultrastructural damage such as dissolution and loss of mitochondrial cristae. Furthermore, DEHP induced oxidative stress and a significant decline in the antioxidant function, which activates nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme-oxygense-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways. Interestingly, DEHP resulted in lipid peroxidation and increased ferrous ion content, suggesting that ferroptosis occurred in mouse hearts. Therefore, our findings demonstrated that DEHP could induce cardiac ferroptosis via upregulation of HO-1. The present study provides novel evidence of HO-1 as a target for DEHP-induced cardiotoxicity.

Xenobiotic-sensing nuclear receptors as targets for phthalates-induced lung injury and antagonism of lycopene

Phthalates are extensively used in the production of plastics products and have been verified to induce lung injury. Lycopene (LYC) has proved an effective preventive and can be utilized to prevent phthalates-induced toxicity. However, the role of phthalate in pathogenesis of lung injury remain poorly researched, and little work has been devoted whether LYC could alleviate phthalate-induced lung toxicity via modulating nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) response. Here, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used as the representative of phthalates for further studies on toxicity of phthalates and the antagonistic role of LYC in phthalates-induced lung injury. We found that DEHP exposure caused alveoli destruction and alveolar epithelial cells type II damage. Mechanistically, DEHP exposure increased nuclear accumulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and its downstream genes level, including cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase (CYP) 1A1 and CYP1B1. Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and their downstream gene level, including CYP2E1 are also increased after phthalates exposure. Significantly, LYC supplementation relieves lung injury from DEHP exposure by inhibiting the activation of NXRs. We confirm that NXRs plays a key role in phthalates-induced lung injury. Our study showed that LYC may have a positive role in alleviating the toxicity effects of phthalates, which provides an effective strategy for revising phthalates-induced injury.

Disrupted microbiota-barrier-immune interaction in phthalates-mediated barrier defect in the duodenum

As one of the most used phthalates, Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widespread environmental contaminant. Extremely persistent plastic can enter the food chain of animals through the aquatic environment, affect metabolic pathways and cause damage to the digestive system. But the molecular mechanism of its toxic effects on the duodenum in birds has not been elucidated. To investigate the toxicity of phthalates in the duodenum, quails were gavaged with 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg doses of DEHP for 45 days, and water and oil control groups were retained. This study revealed that subchronic exposure to DEHP could lead to duodenal barrier defect in quail. The damage to duodenum was reflected in a reduction in V/C and tight junction proteins. Moreover, DEHP also led to a breakdown of antimicrobial defenses through the flora derangement, which acted as a biological barrier. The massive presence of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) led to the activation of TLR4 receptors. In addition, DEHP activated oxidative stress, which synergized the inflammatory response induced by the TLR4-NFκB pathway, and further promoted duodenum damage. This study provides a base for the further effect of phthalates on the microbiota-barrier-immune interaction.

Nano-selenium alleviates cadmium-induced cerebellar injury by activating metal regulatory transcription factor 1 mediated metal response

This study aims to investigate the role of metal regulatory transcription factor 1 (MTF1)-mediated metal response in cadmium (Cd)-induced cerebellar injury, and to evaluate the antagonistic effects of nano-selenium (Nano-Se) against Cd toxicity. A total of 80 chicks (1 d old, male, Hy-Line Variety White) were randomly allocated to 4 treatment groups for 3 months: the control group (fed with a basic diet, n = 20), the Nano-Se group (basic diet with 1 mg/kg nano-Se 1 mg/kg Nano-Se in basic diet, n = 20), the Nano-Se + Cd group (basic diet with 1 mg/kg Nano-Se and 140 mg/kg CdCl₂, n = 20) and the Cd group (basic diet with 140 mg/kg CdCl₂ , n = 20). The results of the experiment showed that the Purkinje cells were significantly decreased with their degradation and indistinct nucleoli after Cd exposure. Moreover, exposure to Cd caused a significant accumulation of Cd and cupper. However, the contents of Se, iron, and zinc were decreased, thereby disturbing the metal homeostasis in the cerebellum. The Cd exposure also resulted in high levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and down regulation of selenoprotein transcriptome. Furthermore, the expressions of MTF1, metallothionein 1 (MT1), MT2, zinc transporter 3 (ZNT3), ZNT5, ZNT10, zrt, irt-like protein 8 (ZIP8), ZIP10, transferrin (TF), ferroportin 1 (FPN1), ATPase copper transporting beta (ATP7B), and copper uptake protein 1 (CTR1) were inhibited by Cd exposure. However, all these changes were significantly alleviated by the supplementation of Nano-Se. This study proved that Cd could disorder metal homeostasis and induce oxidative stress, whereas Nano-Se could relieve all these negative effects caused by Cd via activating the MTF1-mediated metal response in the cerebellum of chicken.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induced thyroid toxicity via endoplasmic reticulum stress: In vivo and in vitro study

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) could induce thyroid injury but the mechanism was unclear. This study combined in vivo and in vitro experiments to clarify the mechanism. In vivo, the offspring of Sprague Dawley rats were gavaged with different doses of DEHP (5, 50, and 250 mg/[kg⋅d]) from in utero to 12 weeks-old. Transcriptome sequencing was used to detect the mRNA expression profile of the offspring's thyroids. Differentially expressed genes were identified, followed by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis. In vitro, Nthy-ori 3-1 cells were exposed to DEHP's metabolite mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) to verify the pathway we found by KEGG analysis. The results indicated that DEHP could disorder the thyroid hormones. Compared with the offspring in control group, the mRNA levels of 656 genes were upregulated in the offspring exposed to 50 mg/(kg⋅d) DEHP. The upregulated genes were enriched in the pathway of "protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)." It indicated that the ER stress might play significant role in the thyroid toxicity induced by DEHP. In vitro, the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) level of cells was decreased while the reactive oxygen species level was increased after MEHP exposure. MEHP increased the intracellular Ca²⁺ level and induced ER stress. After ER stress was inhibited by the 4-phenylbutyric acid, the thyroid toxicity caused by MEHP was alleviated. Taken together, our results indicated that DEHP could induce thyroid toxicity by activating ER stress.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate exposure induces liver injury by promoting ferroptosis via downregulation of GPX4 in pregnant mice

As one kind of endocrine disrupting chemical, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has been reported to cause liver dysfunction in epidemiological and experimental studies. Abnormal liver function in pregnancy is associated with adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes. Few studies have investigated the potential effect of gestational DEHP exposure on the liver in pregnant mice, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, pregnant ICR mice were exposed to doses (0, 500, 1,000 mg/kg/day) of DEHP in the presence or absence of 5 mg/kg/day ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1, ferroptosis inhibitor) by oral gavage from gestation day 4 to day 18. HepG2 cells were exposed to different doses of monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP, a major metabolite of DEHP) in vitro. Hepatic function and pathologic changes were observed. Oxidative stress, iron metabolism, and ferroptosis-related indicators and genes were evaluated both in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that gestational DEHP exposure induced disordered liver function and hepatocyte morphology changes in pregnant mice, along with increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and Fe2+ content and decreased glutathione (GSH) levels. The expression levels of the selected ferroptosis-related genes Slc7a11, Gpx4, and Nfr2 were significantly decreased, and Ptgs2 and Lpcat3 were significantly increased. Notably, Fer-1 attenuated DEHP-induced liver injury and ferroptosis. Furthermore, MEHP exhibited a synergistic effect with RSL3 (a GPX4 inhibitor) in promoting ferroptosis in vitro. Taken together, the results demonstrated that DEHP induced liver injury and ferroptosis in pregnant mice, probably by inhibiting the GPX4 pathway through lipid peroxidation and iron accumulation.

DEHP triggers a damage severity grade increase in the jejunum in quail (Coturnix japonica) by disturbing nuclear xenobiotic receptors and the Nrf2-mediated defense response

As a plasticizer, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) has been listed as a potential endocrine disruptor by The World Health Organization. The toxicity of DEHP has been widely studied, but its toxicity on the digestive tract of birds has not been clarified. Female quail were treated by gavage with DEHP (250, 500, 750 mg/kg), with the blank and vehicle control groups reserved. The result showed that DEHP raised the damage severity grade, and decreased the ratio of villus length to crypt depth. The content and activity of cytochrome P450 system (CYP450s) were increased by DEHP. DEHP interfered with the transcription of nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs), CYP isoforms, and the nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway. This study revealed DEHP could cause the imbalance in CYP450s mediated by NXRs, and then promote Nrf2 mediated antioxidant defense. This study provided new evidence about the mechanisms of DEHP-induced toxic effects on digestive tract.

Multi-omics profiling and biochemical assays reveal the acute toxicity of environmental related concentrations of Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the gill of crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is one of the most extensively utilized plasticizers in the plastic manufacturing process. It is widely used in various fields due to its low cost and excellent effect. Although there is evidence that DEHP is harmful to animal and human health, DEHP-induced gill toxicity in aquatic organisms is inconclusive, and its mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Here, we investigated the effects of DEHP acute exposure on crucian carp gills at environmentally relevant concentrations of 20, 100, and 500 μg/L. Multi-omics profiling and biochemical assays were employed to characterize the potential toxicological mechanisms. The results showed that acute exposure to 100 and 500 μg/L of DEHP leads to oxidative stress in gills, as evidenced by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased antioxidant enzyme activity, and the transformation of glutathione from reduced to oxidized form, resulting in lipid peroxidation. Integrative analysis of transcriptomics and metabolomics indicated that increased purine metabolism was the potential source of increased ROS. Moreover, lipid metabolism disorder, including arachidonic acid metabolism, induces inflammation. Further, DEHP causes the imbalance of the CYP enzyme system in the gill, and DEHP-induced gill toxicity in crucian carp was associated with interference with CYP450 homeostasis. Taken together, this study broadens the molecular understanding of the DEHP-induced gill toxicity in aquatic organisms and provides novel perspectives for assessing the effects of DEHP on target and non-target aquatic organisms in the environment.

Lycopene attenuates the inflammation and apoptosis in aristolochic acid nephropathy by targeting the Nrf2 antioxidant system

Lycopene (LYC) is a carotenoid, has antioxidant properties. This study investigated whether lycopene attenuates aristolochic acids (AAs) -induced chronic kidney disease. In this experiment, lycopene was used to intervene C57BL/6 mice with renal injury induced by aristolochic acid exposure. The histomorphological changes and serological parameters of the kidney were measured in order to assess the alleviating effect of lycopene on renal injury in aristolochic acid nephropathy. In vitro and in vivo experiments were carried out to verify the main mechanism of action and drug targets of lycopene in improving aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) and by various experimental methods such as ELISA, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, Western-blot and qRT-PCR. The results showed that oxidative stress injury was induced in the kidney of mice after AAI exposure, resulting in inflammatory response and tubular epithelial cell apoptosis. The results showed that the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant signaling pathway was inhibited after AAI exposure. AAI induces oxidative stress injury in the kidney, which ultimately leads to inflammation and tubular epithelial cell apoptosis. After LYC intervened in the body, it activated Nrf2 nuclear translocation and its downstream HO-1 and NQO1 antioxidant signaling pathways. LYC inhibited ROS production by renal tubular epithelial cells, and alleviated mitochondrial damage. LYC further modulated the TNF-α/NF-κB signaling cascade, thereby reduced the accumulation of inflammatory factors in the renal interstitium. Moreover, LYC was able to up-regulate the expression of Bcl-2, down-regulate Bax expression and inhibit the activation of cleaved forms of Caspase-9 and Caspase-3, which finally attenuated the apoptosis of the mitochondrial pathway induced by AAI exposure. It was concluded that lycopene was able to activate the Nrf2 antioxidant signaling pathway to maintain the homeostasis of renal oxidative stress and ultimately attenuated renal inflammatory response and apoptosis. These results suggested that lycopene can be used as a drug to relieve AAN.

Phthalate-induced testosterone/androgen receptor pathway disorder on spermatogenesis and antagonism of lycopene

Male infertility is an attracting growing concern owing to decline in sperm quality of men worldwide. Phthalates, in particular to di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) or its main metabolite mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), affect male reproductive development and function, which mainly accounts for reduction in male fertility. Lycopene (LYC) is a natural antioxidant agent that has been recognized as a possible therapeutic option for treating male infertility. Testosterone (T)/androgen receptor (AR) signaling pathway is involved in maintaining spermatogenesis and male fertility. How DEHP causes spermatogenesis disturbance and whether LYC could prevent DEHP-induced male reproductive toxicity have remained unclear. Using in vivo and vitro approaches, we demonstrated that DEHP caused T biosynthesis reduction in Leydig cell and secretory function disorder in Sertoli cell, and thereby resulted in spermatogenic impairment. Results also showed that MEHP caused mitochondrial damage and oxidative damage, which imposes a serious threat to the progress of spermatogenesis. However, LYC supplement reversed these changes. Mechanistically, DEHP contributed to male infertility via perturbing T/AR signaling pathway during spermatogenesis. Overall, our study reveals critical role for T/AR signal transduction in male fertility and provides promising insights into the protective role of LYC in phthalate-induced male reproductive disorders.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate disturbs cholesterol metabolism through oxidative stress in rat liver

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is widely used and has been implicated in hepatotoxicity, although the mechanism is unclear. Here, we investigated the effect of DEHP on hepatic cholesterol metabolism in SD rats exposed to 0 and 300 mg/kg/day DEHP for 12 weeks. An RNA-Seq analysis was performed to describe the hepatic responses to long-term DEHP exposure in combination with serological and oxidative stress parameter measurements. DEHP increased the serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and alanine transaminase (ALT). Moreover, DEHP increased the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and decreased antioxidant enzyme activities in the liver. Transcriptomic results revealed that DEHP dramatically changed the cholesterol metabolism pathway and oxidation-reduction process and depressed gene expression involved in cholesterol efflux and monooxygenase activity. Total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) positively correlated with Abcg5 and Abcg8. Overall, this study showed the mechanisms underlying hepatotoxicity caused by DEHP, providing new insights into understanding DEHP poisoning.

Polystyrene nanoparticles aggravate the adverse effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on different segments of intestine in mice

Emerging evidence indicates that nanoplastics (NPs) can transport organic pollutants such as di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) into organisms and induce adverse health effects. Nevertheless, the toxic effects of NPs combined with DEHP on mammalian intestine are still unclear. In this study, the C57BL6J mice were exposed to polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNPs), DEHP or them both for 30 days to determine their effects on different segments of intestine and the gut microbiota. As a result, DEHP alone or co-exposure to DEHP and PSNPs induced histological damages in all intestinal parts, mainly manifested as the decreased villus lengths, increased crypt depths in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum and decreased villus counts accompanied with decreased epithelial area in the colon. Moreover, decreased mucus coverage, down-regulated Muc2 expression levels as well as the broken tight junctions were observed in intestinal epithelium of mice, particularly obvious in the co-treatment groups. In general, as manifested by greater alterations in most of the parameters mentioned above, simultaneously exposed to PSNPs and DEHP seemed to induce enhanced toxic effects on intestine of mouse when compared with DEHP alone. Furthermore, the altered community composition of gut microbiota might at least partially contribute to these abnormalities. Overall, our results highlight the aggravated toxicity on different segments of intestine in mammalians due to co-exposure of PSNPs and DEHP, and these findings will provide valuable insights into the health risk of NPs and plastic additives.

Connexin-43 is a promising target for lycopene preventing phthalate-induced spermatogenic disorders

INTRODUCTION

Male infertility is a multifactorial pathological condition and may be a harbinger of future health. Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that have been implicated in the global decline in male fertility. Among them, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most prevalently used. Lycopene (LYC) is a possible preventive and therapeutic agent for male infertility owing to its antioxidant properties. The blood-testis barrier (BTB) is formed between Sertoli cells where it creates a unique microenvironment for spermatogenesis.

OBJECTIVES

We hypothesize that phthalate caused male infertility and LYC plays an important role in phthalate-induced male fertility disorders.

METHODS

Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, ultrastructure observation, and fluorescence microscopy were used to examine the morphological changes. RNA-Seq, and western blotting were conducted to detect gene and protein levels. Routine testing for sperm morphology and sperm-egg binding assay were conducted to examine the morphological structure and function of sperm. Cell scratch assay and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) were used to detect cell migration capacity and barrier integrity.

RESULTS

In vivo experiments, we showed that LYC prevented DEHP-induced impairment of BTB integrity, which provided a guarantee for the smooth progress of spermatogenesis. LYC improved DEHP-induced change in sperm parameters and fertilization ability. Subsequent in vitro experiments, LYC alleviated MEHP-induced disruption of intercellular junctions in mouse Spermatogonia cells (GC-1 cells) and mouse Sertoli cells (TM4 cells). In MEHP-induced BTB impairment models of Sertoli cells, treatment with LYC or overexpressing connexin-43 (Cx43) promoted cell migration capacity and normalized BTB integrity. Cx43 knockdown inhibited cell migration capacity and perturbed BTB reassembly in LYC preventing DEHP-induced BTB impairment.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides evidence for the role of LYC in phthalates-induced spermatogenic disorders and points to Cx43 as a potential target for male fertility.

Role of Toll-like Receptor/MyD88 Signaling in Lycopene Alleviated Di-2-ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP)-Induced Inflammatory Response

Lycopene (Lyc) has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant biological functions. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is an extremely harmful and persistent environmental pollutant and is a threat to animal health. The toll-like receptor (TLR)/MyD88 pathway is an important pathway in the inflammatory response. To illustrate the potential antagonistic action of Lyc against DEHP by the TLR/MyD88 pathway, 140 ICR mice were randomly assigned groups and continuously gavaged with corn oil, distilled water, different DEHP concentrations (500 or 1000 mg/kg BW/day), and/or Lyc (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. The data show that Lyc effectively attenuates the DEHP-induced activation of the TLR/MyD88 pathway, the upregulation of JNK expression, the content of IL-6 and TNF-α, and the downregulation of the IL-10 content, which eventually inhibit the inflammatory response and mitochondrial injuries. These findings underline the TLR/MyD88 pathway as a potential therapeutic target in DEHP and Lyc as a new therapeutic method to inhibit DEHP toxicity.

Lycopene alleviates di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced splenic injury by activating P62-Keap1-NRF2 signaling

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an omnipresent environmental pollutant. It has been determined that DEHP is involved in multiple health disorders. Lycopene (Lyc) is a natural carotenoid pigment, with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, it is not clear whether Lyc can protect the spleen from DEHP-induced oxidative damage. A total of 140 mice were randomly divided into seven groups (n = 20) and continuously gavaged with corn oil, distilled water, DEHP (500 or 1000 mg/kg BW/day) and/or Lyc (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Histopathological and ultrastructural results showed a DEHP-induced inflammatory response and mitochondrial injuries. Moreover, DEHP exposure induced redox imbalance, which resulted in the up-regulation of ROS activity and MDA content, and the down-regulation of T-AOC, T-SOD and CAT in the DEHP groups. Simultaneously, our results also demonstrated that DEHP-induced kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) expression was downregulated, and the expression levels of P62, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2) and their downstream target genes were up-regulated. However, the supplementary Lyc reverted these changes to normal levels. Together, Lyc prevented DEHP-induced splenic injuries by regulating the P62-Keap1-NRF2 signaling pathway. Hence, the protective effects of Lyc might be a therapeutic strategy to ameliorate DEHP-induced splenic damage.