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Hoehn R, Jahl LG, Herkert NJ, Hoffman K, Soehl A, Diamond ML, Blum A, Stapleton HM. Flame Retardant Exposure in Vehicles Is Influenced by Use in Seat Foam and Temperature. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:8825-8834. [PMID: 38712863 PMCID: PMC11112730 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Flame retardants (FRs) are added to vehicles to meet flammability standards, such as US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard FMVSS 302. However, an understanding of which FRs are being used, sources in the vehicle, and implications for human exposure is lacking. US participants (n = 101) owning a vehicle of model year 2015 or newer hung a silicone passive sampler on their rearview mirror for 7 days. Fifty-one of 101 participants collected a foam sample from a vehicle seat. Organophosphate esters (OPEs) were the most frequently detected FR class in the passive samplers. Among these, tris(1-chloro-isopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) had a 99% detection frequency and was measured at levels ranging from 0.2 to 11,600 ng/g of sampler. TCIPP was also the dominant FR detected in the vehicle seat foam. Sampler FR concentrations were significantly correlated with average ambient temperature and were 2-5 times higher in the summer compared to winter. The presence of TCIPP in foam resulted in ∼4 times higher median air sampler concentrations in winter and ∼9 times higher in summer. These results suggest that FRs used in vehicle interiors, such as in seat foam, are a source of OPE exposure, which is increased in warmer temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca
M. Hoehn
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Lydia G. Jahl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Nicholas J. Herkert
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Kate Hoffman
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Miriam L. Diamond
- Department
of Earth Sciences and School of the Environment, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B1, Canada
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Heather M. Stapleton
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
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Balasch A, Moreno T, Eljarrat E. Assessment of Daily Exposure to Organophosphate Esters through PM 2.5 Inhalation, Dust Ingestion, and Dermal Contact. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:20669-20677. [PMID: 38035633 PMCID: PMC10720386 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c06174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Inhalation of airborne fine particulate matter (PM2.5), dust ingestion, and dermal contact with dust are important pathways for human exposure to different contaminants, such as organophosphate esters (OPE), compounds that are widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers. There are limited studies assessing the extent of the contamination of OPE in indoor airborne PM2.5. This study offers a novel approach by examining various indoor environments, such as homes, workplaces, and means of transport, where people typically spend their daily lives. The goal is to provide a comprehensive assessment of daily exposure to these pollutants. Both PM2.5 and dust samples were collected in order to determine the concentration levels of 17 different OPEs. Fifteen OPEs in PM2.5 and 16 in dust samples were detected. Concentration levels in indoor air ranged from 4.37 to 185 ng/m3 (median 24.4 ng/m3) and from 3.02 to 36.9 μg/g for the dust samples (median 10.2 μg/g). Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of OPEs were calculated for adults, yielding median values of 3.97 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIInhalation, 5.89 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIDermal, and 1.75 ng/(kg bw × day) for EDIIngestion. Such levels lie below human health threshold risk limits, although in some cases they could be only 2 times below the threshold for carcinogenic risk, with a main contribution from tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP). Given this threshold proximity, additional exposure to these chemicals from other pathways, such as food ingestion, gas phase exposure, and/or inhalation of coarser particles (PM10-2.5), could therefore lead to health limit exceedances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleix Balasch
- Institute of Environmental Assessment
and Water Research (IDAEA)-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Teresa Moreno
- Institute of Environmental Assessment
and Water Research (IDAEA)-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ethel Eljarrat
- Institute of Environmental Assessment
and Water Research (IDAEA)-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
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Whaley P, Wattam S, Bedford C, Bell N, Harrad S, Jones N, Kirkbride T, Naldzhiev D, Payne E, Wooding EJ, Hull TR. Reconciling chemical flame retardant exposure and fire risk in domestic furniture. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293651. [PMID: 38019785 PMCID: PMC10686510 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Evidence suggests that standards for resistance of furniture to ignition may lead to an increase in use of chemical flame retardants (CFRs). This is motivating the development of new approaches that maintain high levels of fire safety while facilitating a reduction in use of CFRs. However, reconciling potential fire risk with use of CFRs in relation to specific policy objectives is challenging. OBJECTIVES To inform the development of a new policy in the UK for the fire safety of furniture, we developed for domestic furniture quantitative models of fire risk and potential for CFR exposure. We then combined the models to determine if any lower fire risk, higher CFR exposure categories of furniture were identifiable. METHODS We applied a novel mixed-methods approach to modelling furniture fire risk and CFR exposure in a data-poor environment, using literature-based concept mapping, qualitative research, and data visualisation methods to generate fire risk and CFR exposure models and derive furniture product rankings. RESULTS Our analysis suggests there exists a cluster of furniture types including baby and infant products and pillows that have comparable overall properties in terms of lower fire risk and higher potential for CFR exposure. DISCUSSION There are multiple obstacles to reconciling fire risk and CFR use in furniture. In particular, these include a lack of empirical data that would allow absolute fire risk and exposure levels to be quantified. Nonetheless, it seems that our modelling method can potentially yield meaningful product clusters, providing a basis for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Whaley
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
- WhaleyResearch, Leuchars, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Wattam
- W&P Academic Consultancy Limited, Northallerton, United Kingdom
| | - Clare Bedford
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Nia Bell
- Oakdene Hollins, Aylesbury, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Jones
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Elli-Jo Wooding
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - T. Richard Hull
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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Tastet V, Le Vée M, Kerhoas M, Zerdoug A, Jouan E, Bruyère A, Fardel O. Interactions of organophosphate flame retardants with human drug transporters. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 263:115348. [PMID: 37597291 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are environmental pollutants of increasing interest, widely distributed in the environment and exerting possible deleterious effects towards the human health. The present study investigates in vitro their possible interactions with human drug transporters, which are targets for environmental chemicals and actors of their toxicokinetics. Some OPFRs, i.e., tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP), tri-o-cresyl phosphate (TOCP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), were found to inhibit activities of some transporters, such as organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3), organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1, OATP1B3, organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2) or breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP). These effects were concentration-dependent, with IC50 values ranging from 6.1 µM (for TDCPP-mediated inhibition of OCT2) to 51.4 µM (for TOCP-mediated inhibition of BCRP). OPFRs also blocked the transporter-dependent membrane passage of endogenous substrates, notably that of hormones. OAT3 however failed to transport TBOEP and TPHP. OPFRs additionally repressed mRNA expressions of some transporters in cultured human hepatic HepaRG cells, especially those of OAT2 and OCT1 in response to TOCP, with IC50 values of 2.3 µM and 2.5 µM, respectively. These data therefore add OPFRs to the expanding list of pollutants interacting with drug transporters, even if OPFR concentrations required to impact transporters, in the 2-50 µM range, are rather higher than those observed in humans environmentally or dietarily exposed to these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Tastet
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Marc Le Vée
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Marie Kerhoas
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Anna Zerdoug
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Elodie Jouan
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Arnaud Bruyère
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Olivier Fardel
- Univ Rennes, CHU Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé), France.
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Abafe OA, Harrad S, Abdallah MAE. Novel Insights into the Dermal Bioaccessibility and Human Exposure to Brominated Flame Retardant Additives in Microplastics. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37450894 PMCID: PMC10373483 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we optimized and applied an in vitro physiologically based extraction test to investigate the dermal bioaccessibility of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), incorporated as additives in different types of microplastics (MPs), and assess human dermal exposure to these chemicals. The dermal bioaccessibility of PBDEs in polyethylene (PE) MPs was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in polypropylene (PP) MPs. Both log Kow and water solubility influenced the dermal bioaccessibility of PBDEs. For HBCDDs in polystyrene MPs, the dermally bioaccessible fractions were 1.8, 2.0, and 1.6% of the applied dose for α-, β-, and γ-HBCDDs, respectively. MP particle size and the presence of cosmetic formulations (antiperspirant, foundation, moisturizer and sunscreen) influenced the bioaccessibility of PBDEs and HBCDDs in MP matrices at varying degrees of significance. Human exposure to ∑PBDEs and ∑HBCDDs via dermal contact with MPs ranged from 0.02 to 22.2 and 0.01 to 231 ng (kg bw)-1 d-1 and from 0.02 to 6.27 and 0.2 to 65 ng (kg bw)-1 d-1 for adults and toddlers, respectively. Dermal exposure to PBDEs and HBCDDs in MPs is substantial, highlighting for the first time the significance of the dermal pathway as a major route of human exposure to additive chemicals in microplastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ovokeroye A Abafe
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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Rawn DFK, Quade SC, Corrigan C, Ménard C, Sun WF, Breton F, Arbuckle TE, Fraser WD. Differences in mirex [dechlorane] and dechlorane plus [syn- and anti-] concentrations observed in Canadian human milk. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 316:137784. [PMID: 36623597 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
As part of the pan-Canadian Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) study, human milk samples were collected between 2008 and 2011, and analyzed for mirex, an organochlorine insecticide and flame retardant, in addition to dechlorane plus (syn- and anti-DDC-CO), the flame retardant replacement for mirex. Mirex was analyzed separately, using a method for the analysis of existing organochlorine insecticides, while the presence of DDC-CO isomers was determined using a method developed for the detection of emerging flame retardants. Mirex was detected in all samples analyzed (n = 298), while syn- and anti-DDC-CO were present in 61.0% and 79.5% of the samples, respectively (n = 541). Mirex concentrations have declined in human milk since the 1990s. Since this is the first pan-Canadian dataset reporting DDC-CO concentrations in human milk, no temporal comparisons can be made. Maternal age was correlated with concentrations of both compounds although parity did not impact concentrations of either analyte. Given the presence of this relatively recently identified flame retardant (DDC-CO) in human milk from women across Canada, studies to identify dominant sources of this compound are critical. Despite low concentrations of environmental chemicals in human milk from Canadian women, Health Canada supports breastfeeding of infants because of the important health benefits to both the mothers and their infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea F K Rawn
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada.
| | - Sue C Quade
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Catherine Corrigan
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Cathie Ménard
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Wing-Fung Sun
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - François Breton
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Sir Frederick Banting Research Centre, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Address Locator: 2203C, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada; Generic Drugs Division, Bureau of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, 101 Tunney's Pasture Driveway, Address Locator: 0201D, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Tye E Arbuckle
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Environmental and Radiation Health Sciences Directorate, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, 50 Colombine Driveway, Address Locator: 0801A, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - William D Fraser
- CHU Sainte-Justine, Centre de Recherche, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Page J, Whaley P, Bellingham M, Birnbaum LS, Cavoski A, Fetherston Dilke D, Garside R, Harrad S, Kelly F, Kortenkamp A, Martin O, Stec A, Woolley T. A new consensus on reconciling fire safety with environmental & health impacts of chemical flame retardants. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 173:107782. [PMID: 36858883 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Flame retardants are chemical substances that are intended to mitigate fire safety risks posed by a range of goods including furniture, electronics, and building insulation. There are growing concerns about their effectiveness in ensuring fire safety and the potential harms they pose to human health and the environment. In response to these concerns, on 13 June 2022, a roundtable of experts was convened by the UKRI Six Clean Air Strategic Priorities Fund programme 7. The meeting produced a Consensus Statement that summarises the issues around the use of flame retardants, laying out a series of policy recommendations that should lead to more effective fire safety measures and reduce the human and environmental health risks posed by these potentially toxic chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Page
- The Cancer Prevention & Education Society, UK.
| | - Paul Whaley
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, UK.
| | - Michelle Bellingham
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Linda S Birnbaum
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and National Toxicology Program, Scholar in Residence, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, USA
| | | | | | - Ruth Garside
- University of Exeter Medical School, University of Exeter, UK
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK
| | - Frank Kelly
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK
| | | | - Olwenn Martin
- Department of Arts and Sciences, University College London, UK
| | - Anna Stec
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, UK
| | - Tom Woolley
- Ecological Design Association Northern Ireland, NI, UK
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8
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Yao S, Shi Z, Cao P, Zhang L, Tang Y, Zhou P, Liu Z. A global survey of organophosphate esters and their metabolites in milk: Occurrence and dietary intake via milk consumption. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 442:130080. [PMID: 36206713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The first global survey of organophosphate esters (OPEs) and their metabolites (mOPEs) in milk was carried out in this study. Concentrations of 21 OPEs and 9 mOPEs were measured in 178 milk samples collected from 30 countries located on 5 continents, and the ubiquity of both OPEs and mOPEs was observed in milk. Concentrations of ∑21OPEs ranged from 53.3 pg/mL to 4270 pg/mL, with a median level of 367 pg/mL. The median level of ∑9mOPEs was 153 pg/mL, with a range of 15-7440 pg/mL. No difference was observed among the levels of both ∑21OPEs and ∑9mOPEs in milk from the five continents. For the relationship between mOPEs and their parent OPEs, some pairs presented significant and positive correlations, which indicated that they shared similar sources. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of OPEs/mOPEs via milk consumption were calculated. Asian countries presented relatively low EDIs, and European and American countries, especially Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland and Argentina, presented high EDIs. Current daily OPE intake via milk consumption for global adult populations was far lower than the corresponding reference dose; however, considering that human intake of OPEs occurs via multiple sources, it is too early to conclude that the intake of OPEs were unable to cause health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunying Yao
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Zhixiong Shi
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Pei Cao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China
| | - Yu Tang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China
| | - Pingping Zhou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China.
| | - Zhaoping Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China.
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9
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Organophosphorus Flame Retardant TCPP Induces Cellular Senescence in Normal Human Skin Keratinocytes: Implication for Skin Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214306. [PMID: 36430782 PMCID: PMC9698913 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) is one of the most frequently detected organophosphorus flames in the environment. Continuous daily exposure to TCPP may harm human skin. However, little is known about the adverse effects of TCPP on human skin. In this study, we first evaluated the detrimental effects and tried to uncover the underlying mechanisms of TCPP on human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT) after 24 h exposure. We found that TCPP caused a concentration-dependent decrease in HaCaT cell viability after exposure to 1.56-400 μg/mL for 24 h, with an IC50 of 275 μg/mL. TCPP also promoted the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and triggered DNA damage, evidenced by an increase of phosphorylated histone H2A.X (γH2A.X) in the nucleus. Furthermore, the cell cycle was arrested at the G1 phase at 100 μg/mL by upregulation of the mRNA expression of p53 and p21 and downregulation of cyclin D1 and CDK4 expression. Additionally, both the senescence-associated-β-galactosidase activity and related proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β and IL-6 were elevated, indicating that TCPP exposure caused cellular senescence may be through the p53-dependent DNA damage signal pathway in HaCaT cells. Taken together, our data suggest that flame-retardant exposure may be a key precipitating factor for human skin aging.
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