1
|
Abideen ZU, Arifeen WU, Bandara YMNDY. Emerging trends in metal oxide-based electronic noses for healthcare applications: a review. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:9259-9283. [PMID: 38680123 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr00073k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
An electronic nose (E-nose) is a technology fundamentally inspired by the human nose, designed to detect, recognize, and differentiate specific odors or volatile components in complex and chaotic environments. Comprising an array of sensors with meticulously designed nanostructured architectures, E-noses translate the chemical information captured by these sensors into useful metrics using complex pattern recognition algorithms. E-noses can significantly enhance the quality of life by offering preventive point-of-care devices for medical diagnostics through breath analysis, and by monitoring and tracking hazardous and toxic gases in the environment. They are increasingly being used in defense and surveillance, medical diagnostics, agriculture, environmental monitoring, and product validation and authentication. The major challenge in developing a reliable E-nose involves miniaturization and low power consumption. Various sensing materials are employed to address these issues. This review presents the key advancements over the last decade in E-nose technology, specifically focusing on chemiresistive metal oxide sensing materials. It discusses their sensing mechanisms, integration into portable E-noses, and various data analysis techniques. Additionally, we review the primary metal oxide-based E-noses for disease detection through breath analysis. Finally, we address the major challenges and issues in developing and implementing a portable metal oxide-based E-nose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zain Ul Abideen
- Nanotechnology Research Laboratory, Research School of Chemistry, College of Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Waqas Ul Arifeen
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongbuk-do, 38541, South Korea
| | - Y M Nuwan D Y Bandara
- Nanotechnology Research Laboratory, Research School of Chemistry, College of Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gaye O, Fall CB, Jalloh M, Faye B, Jobin M, Cussenot O. Detection of urological cancers by the signature of organic volatile compounds in urine, from dogs to electronic noses. Curr Opin Urol 2023; 33:437-444. [PMID: 37678152 DOI: 10.1097/mou.0000000000001128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Urine volatile organic compound (VOC) testing for early detection of urological cancers is a minimally invasive and promising method. The objective of this review was to present the results of recently published work on this subject. RECENT FINDINGS Organic volatile compounds are produced through oxidative stress and peroxidation of cell membranes, and they are eliminated through feces, urine, and sweat. Studies looking for VOCs in urine for the diagnosis of urological cancers have mostly focused on bladder and prostate cancers. However, the number of patients included in the studies was small. The electronic nose was the most widely used means of detecting VOCs in urine for the detection of urological cancers. MOS sensors and pattern recognition machine learning were more used for the composition of electronic noses. Early detection of urological cancers by detection of VOCs in urine is a method with encouraging results with sensitivities ranging from 27 to 100% and specificities ranging from 72 to 94%. SUMMARY The olfactory signature of urine from patients with urological cancers is a promising biomarker for the early diagnosis of urological cancers. The electronic nose with its ability to recognize complex odors is an excellent alterative to canine diagnosis and analytical techniques. Nevertheless, additional research improving the technology of Enoses and the methodology of the studies is necessary for its implementation in daily clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oumar Gaye
- Urology Department, Dalal Jamm Hospital
- University Cheikh Anta Diop
| | | | - Mohamed Jalloh
- Urology Department, Idrissa Pouye General Hospital, Dakar, Senegal
| | | | - Marc Jobin
- HEPIA, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Genève, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Cussenot
- Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- CeRePP, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cho S, Park TH. Advances in the Production of Olfactory Receptors for Industrial Use. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2023; 7:e2200251. [PMID: 36593488 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202200251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In biological olfactory systems, olfactory receptors (ORs) can recognize and discriminate between thousands of volatile organic compounds with very high sensitivity and specificity. The superior properties of ORs have led to the development of OR-based biosensors that have shown promising potential in many applications over the past two decades. In particular, newly designed technologies in gene synthesis, protein expression, solubilization, purification, and membrane mimetics for membrane proteins have greatly opened up the previously inaccessible industrial potential of ORs. In this review, gene design, expression and solubilization strategies, and purification and reconstitution methods available for modern industrial applications are examined, with a focus on ORs. The limitations of current OR production technology are also estimated, and future directions for further progress are suggested.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seongyeon Cho
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Tai Hyun Park
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ozen M, Aghaeepour N, Marić I, Wong RJ, Stevenson DK, Jantzie LL. Omics approaches: interactions at the maternal-fetal interface and origins of child health and disease. Pediatr Res 2023; 93:366-375. [PMID: 36216868 PMCID: PMC9549444 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-022-02335-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Immunoperinatology is an emerging field. Transdisciplinary efforts by physicians, physician-scientists, basic science researchers, and computational biologists have made substantial advancements by identifying unique immunologic signatures of specific diseases, discovering innovative preventative or treatment strategies, and establishing foundations for individualized neonatal intensive care of the most vulnerable neonates. In this review, we summarize the immunobiology and immunopathology of pregnancy, highlight omics approaches to study the maternal-fetal interface, and their contributions to pregnancy health. We examined the importance of transdisciplinary, multiomic (such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and immunomics) and machine-learning strategies in unraveling the mechanisms of adverse pregnancy, neonatal, and childhood outcomes and how they can guide the development of novel therapies to improve maternal and neonatal health. IMPACT: Discuss immunoperinatology research from the lens of omics and machine-learning approaches. Identify opportunities for omics-based approaches to delineate infection/inflammation-associated maternal, neonatal, and later life adverse outcomes (e.g., histologic chorioamnionitis [HCA]).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maide Ozen
- Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Nima Aghaeepour
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ivana Marić
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ronald J Wong
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David K Stevenson
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lauren L Jantzie
- Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Reiner-Rozman C, Pichler B, Madi V, Weißenböck P, Hegedüs T, Aspermair P, Bintinger J. Optimization of Printed Polyaniline Composites for Gas Sensing Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:5379. [PMID: 35891059 PMCID: PMC9319473 DOI: 10.3390/s22145379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Polyaniline (PANI) films are promising candidates for electronic nose-based IoT applications, but device performances are influenced by fabrication parameters and ambient conditions. Affinities of different PANI composites to analytes for gas sensing applications remain elusive. In this study, we investigate the material properties in detail for two different dopant systems: F4TCNQ and carbon black. Using a reproducibility-driven approach, we investigate different dopant concentrations in regard to their sensitivity and specificity towards five relevant markers for breath cancer diagnosis. We benchmark the system using ammonia measurements and evaluate limits of detection. Furthermore, we provide statistical analysis on reproducibility and pave the way towards machine learning discrimination via principal component analysis. The influence of relative humidity on sensor hysteresis is also investigated. We find that F4TCNQ-doped PANI films show improved reproducibility compared to carbon black-doped films. We establish and quantify a tradeoff between sensitivity, reproducibility, and environmental stability by the choice of dopant and concentrations ratios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ciril Reiner-Rozman
- Department of Physics and Chemistry of Materials, Danube Private University, 3500 Krems, Austria
| | - Bernhard Pichler
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
| | - Vivien Madi
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
| | - Petra Weißenböck
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Thomas Hegedüs
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
| | - Patrik Aspermair
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
| | - Johannes Bintinger
- Department of Physics and Chemistry of Materials, Danube Private University, 3500 Krems, Austria
- Biosensor Technologies, Austrian Institute of Technology, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.P.); (V.M.); (T.H.); (P.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cheema JA, Carraher C, Plank NOV, Travas-Sejdic J, Kralicek A. Insect odorant receptor-based biosensors: Current status and prospects. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 53:107840. [PMID: 34606949 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Whilst the senses of vision and hearing have been successfully automated and miniaturized in portable formats (e.g. smart phone), this is yet to be achieved with the sense of smell. This is because the sensing challenge is not trivial as it involves navigating a chemosensory space comprising thousands of volatile organic compounds. Distinct aroma recognition is based on detecting unique combinations of volatile organic compounds. In natural olfactory systems this is accomplished by employing odorant receptors (ORs) with varying specificities, together with combinatorial neural coding mechanisms. Attempts to mimic the remarkable sensitivity and accuracy of natural olfactory systems has therefore been challenging. Current portable chemical sensors for odorant detection are neither sensitive nor selective, prompting research exploring artificial olfactory devices that use natural OR proteins for sensing. Much research activity to develop OR based biosensors has concentrated on mammalian ORs, however, insect ORs have not been explored as extensively. Insects possess an extraordinary sense of smell due to a repertoire of odorant receptors evolved to interpret olfactory cues vital to the insects' survival. The potential of insect ORs as sensing elements is only now being unlocked through recent research efforts to understand their structure, ligand binding mechanisms and development of odorant biosensors. Like their mammalian counterparts, there are many challenges with working with insect ORs. These include expression, purification and presentation of the insect OR in a stable display format compatible with an effective transduction methodology while maintaining OR structure and function. Despite these challenges, significant progress has been demonstrated in developing OR-based biosensors which exploit insect ORs in cells, lipid bilayers, liposomes and nanodisc formats. Ultrasensitive and highly selective detection of volatile organic compounds has been validated by coupling these insect OR display formats with transduction methodologies spanning optical (fluorescence) and electrical (field effect transistors, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) techniques. This review summarizes the current status of insect OR based biosensors and their future outlook.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Ahmed Cheema
- Polymer Biointerface Centre, School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand; MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand; The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Private Bag 92169, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Colm Carraher
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Private Bag 92169, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Natalie O V Plank
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand; School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - Jadranka Travas-Sejdic
- Polymer Biointerface Centre, School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand; MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew Kralicek
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Private Bag 92169, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; Scentian Bio Limited, 1c Goring Road, Sandringham, Auckland 1025, New Zealand.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bakiler H, Güney S. Estimation of Concentration Values of Different Gases Based on Long Short-Term Memory by Using Electronic Nose. Biomed Signal Process Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2021.102908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
8
|
Investigating Bacterial Volatilome for the Classification and Identification of Mycobacterial Species by HS-SPME-GC-MS and Machine Learning. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154600. [PMID: 34361751 PMCID: PMC8348828 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Species of Mycobacteriaceae cause disease in animals and humans, including tuberculosis and leprosy. Individuals infected with organisms in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) or non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) may present identical symptoms, however the treatment for each can be different. Although the NTM infection is considered less vital due to the chronicity of the disease and the infrequency of occurrence in healthy populations, diagnosis and differentiation among Mycobacterium species currently require culture isolation, which can take several weeks. The use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is a promising approach for species identification and in recent years has shown promise for use in the rapid analysis of both in vitro cultures as well as ex vivo diagnosis using breath or sputum. The aim of this contribution is to analyze VOCs in the culture headspace of seven different species of mycobacteria and to define the volatilome profiles that are discriminant for each species. For the pre-concentration of VOCs, solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) was employed and samples were subsequently analyzed using gas chromatography–quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-qMS). A machine learning approach was applied for the selection of the 13 discriminatory features, which might represent clinically translatable bacterial biomarkers.
Collapse
|
9
|
Maho P, Herrier C, Livache T, Rolland G, Comon P, Barthelmé S. Reliable chiral recognition with an optoelectronic nose. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 159:112183. [PMID: 32364938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chiral discrimination is a key problem in analytical chemistry. It is generally performed using expensive instruments or highly-specific miniaturized sensors. An electronic nose is a bio-inspired instrument capable after training of discriminating a wide variety of analytes. However, generality is achieved at the cost of specificity which makes chiral recognition a challenging task for this kind of device. Recently, a peptide-based optoelectronic nose which can board up to hundreds of different sensing materials has shown promising results, especially in terms of specificity. In line with these results, we describe here its use for chiral recognition. This challenging task requires care, especially in terms of statistical reliability and experimental confounds. For these reasons, we set up an automatic gas sampling system and recorded data over two long sessions, taking care to exclude possible confounds. Two couples of chiral molecules, namely (R) and (S) Limonene and (R) and (S) Carvone, were tested and several statistical analyses indicate the almost perfect discrimination of their two enantiomers. A method to highlight discriminative sensing materials is also proposed and shows that successful discrimination is likely achieved using just a few peptides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Maho
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-lab, 38000 Grenoble, France.
| | | | | | | | - Pierre Comon
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-lab, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Simon Barthelmé
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-lab, 38000 Grenoble, France
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Multisensor arrays employing various sensing principles are a rapidly developing field of research as they allow simple and inexpensive quantification of various parameters in complex samples. Quantitative analysis with such systems is based on multivariate regression techniques, and deriving of traditional analytical figures of merit (e.g., sensitivity, selectivity, limit of detection, and limit of quantitation) for such systems is not obvious and straightforward. Nevertheless, it is absolutely needed for further development of the multisensor research field and for introducing these instruments into the general context of analytical chemistry. Here, we report on the protocol for calculation of sensitivity, selectivity, and detection limits for multisensor arrays. The results are provided and discussed in detail for several real-world data sets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Parastar
- Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, P.O. Box 11155-3516, Tehran 1458889694, Iran
| | - Dmitry Kirsanov
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg 199034, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kimball BA, Volker SF, Griffin DL, Johnson SR, Gilbert AT. Volatile metabolomic signatures of rabies immunization in two mesocarnivore species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007911. [PMID: 31790413 PMCID: PMC6907841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic disease caused by infection with rabies virus, which circulates naturally in several wild carnivore and bat reservoirs in the United States (US). The most important reservoir in the US from an animal and public health perspective is the raccoon (Procyon lotor). To prevent the westward expansion of a significant raccoon rabies epizootic along the eastern seaboard, an operational control program implementing oral rabies vaccination (ORV) has existed in the US since the 1990s. Recently, two vaccine efficacy studies conducted with raccoons and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) provided the opportunity to determine if volatile fecal metabolites might be used to non-invasively monitor ORV programs and/or predict virus protection for these species. The volatile metabolome is a rich source of information that may significantly contribute to our understanding of disease and infection. Fecal samples were collected at multiple time points from raccoons and striped skunks subjected to oral treatment with rabies vaccine (or sham). Intramuscular challenge with a lethal dose of rabies virus was used to determine protection status at six (raccoons) and 11 (skunks) months post-vaccination. In addition to fecal samples, blood was collected at various time points to permit quantitative assessment of rabies antibody responses arising from immunization. Feces were analyzed by headspace gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection and the chromatographic responses were grouped according to cluster analysis. Cluster scores were subjected to multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) to determine if fecal volatiles may hold a signal of immunization status. Multiple regression was then used to build models of the measured immune responses based on the metabolomic data. MANOVA results identified one cluster associated with protective status of skunks and one cluster associated with protective status of raccoons. Regression models demonstrated considerably greater success in predicting rabies antibody responses in both species. This is the first study to link volatile compounds with measures of adaptive immunity and provides further evidence that the volatile metabolome holds great promise for contributing to our understanding of disease and infections. The volatile metabolome may be an important resource for monitoring rabies immunization in raccoons and striped skunks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Kimball
- USDA-APHIS-WS-NWRC, Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Steven F Volker
- USDA-APHIS-WS-NWRC, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Doreen L Griffin
- USDA-APHIS-WS-NWRC, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Shylo R Johnson
- USDA-APHIS-WS-NWRC, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amy T Gilbert
- USDA-APHIS-WS-NWRC, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Broza YY, Zhou X, Yuan M, Qu D, Zheng Y, Vishinkin R, Khatib M, Wu W, Haick H. Disease Detection with Molecular Biomarkers: From Chemistry of Body Fluids to Nature-Inspired Chemical Sensors. Chem Rev 2019; 119:11761-11817. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Y. Broza
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Xi Zhou
- School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, P.R. China
| | - Miaomiao Yuan
- The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518033, P.R. China
| | - Danyao Qu
- School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Smart Sensors, Xidian University, Shaanxi 710126, P.R. China
| | - Youbing Zheng
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Rotem Vishinkin
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Muhammad Khatib
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Weiwei Wu
- School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Smart Sensors, Xidian University, Shaanxi 710126, P.R. China
| | - Hossam Haick
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
- School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Smart Sensors, Xidian University, Shaanxi 710126, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Zhu S, Corsetti S, Wang Q, Li C, Huang Z, Nabi G. Optical sensory arrays for the detection of urinary bladder cancer-related volatile organic compounds. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2019; 12:e201800165. [PMID: 30168296 PMCID: PMC7065633 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201800165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Non-invasive detection of urinary bladder cancer remains a significant challenge. Urinary volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a promising alternative to cell-based biomarkers. Herein, we demonstrate a novel diagnosis system based on an optic fluorescence sensor array for detecting urinary bladder cancer VOCs biomarkers. This study describes a fluorescence-based VOCs sensor array detecting system in detail. The choice of VOCs for the initial part was based on an extensive systematic search of the literature and then followed up using urinary samples from patients with urinary bladder transitional cell carcinoma. Canonical discriminant analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were employed and correctly detected 31/48 urinary bladder cancer VOC biomarkers and achieved an overall 77.75% sensitivity and 93.25% specificity by PLS-DA modelling. All five urine samples from bladder cancer patients, and five healthy controls were successfully identified with the same sensor arrays. Overall, the experiments in this study describe a real-time platform for non-invasive bladder cancer diagnosis using fluorescence-based gas-sensor arrays. Pure VOCs and urine samples from the patients proved such a system to be promising; however, further research is required using a larger population sample.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simian Zhu
- Cancer Research DivisionSchool of Medicine, University of DundeeDundeeUK
- Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of DundeeDundeeUK
| | | | - Qifan Wang
- Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of DundeeDundeeUK
| | - Chunhui Li
- Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of DundeeDundeeUK
| | - Zhihong Huang
- Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of DundeeDundeeUK
| | - Ghulam Nabi
- Cancer Research DivisionSchool of Medicine, University of DundeeDundeeUK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Fitzgerald JE, Shen J, Fenniri H. A Barcoded Polymer-Based Cross-Reactive Spectroscopic Sensor Array for Organic Volatiles. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E3683. [PMID: 31450628 PMCID: PMC6749357 DOI: 10.3390/s19173683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The development of cross-reactive sensor arrays for volatile organics (electronic noses, e-noses) is an active area of research. In this manuscript, we present a new format for barcoded polymer sensor arrays based on porous polymer beads. An array of nine self-encoded polymers was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy before and after exposure to a series of volatile organic compounds, and the changes in the vibrational fingerprints of their polymers was recorded before and after exposure. Our results show that the spectroscopic changes experienced by the porous spectroscopically encoded beads after exposure to an analyte can be used to identify and classify the target analytes. To expedite this analysis, analyte-specific changes induced in the sensor arrays were transformed into a response pattern using multivariate data analysis. These studies established the barcoded bead array format as a potentially effective sensing element in e-nose devices. Devices such as these have the potential to advance personalized medicine, providing a platform for non-invasive, real-time volatile metabolite detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jianliang Shen
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Hicham Fenniri
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Critical review of electronic nose and tongue instruments prospects in pharmaceutical analysis. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1077:14-29. [PMID: 31307702 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Electronic nose (enose, EN) and electronic tongue (etongue, ET) have been designed to simulate human senses of smell and taste in the best possible way. The signals acquired from a sensor array, combined with suitable data analysis system, are the basis for holistic analysis of samples. The efficiency of these instruments, regarding classification, discrimination, detection, monitoring and analytics of samples in different types of matrices, is utilized in many fields of science and industry, offering numerous practical applications. Popularity of both types of devices significantly increased during the last decade, mainly due to improvement of their sensitivity and selectivity. The electronic senses have been employed in pharmaceutical sciences for, among others, formulation development and quality assurance. This paper contains a review of some particular applications of EN and ET based instruments in pharmaceutical industry. In addition, development prospects and a critical summary of the state of art in the field were also surveyed.
Collapse
|
16
|
Wojnowski W, Dymerski T, Gębicki J, Namieśnik J. Electronic Noses in Medical Diagnostics. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:197-215. [PMID: 28982314 DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666171004164636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Electronic nose technology is being developed in order to analyse complex mixtures of volatiles in a way parallel to biologic olfaction. When applied in the field of medicine, the use of such devices should enable the identification and discrimination between different diseases. In this review, a comprehensive summary of research in medical diagnostics using electronic noses is presented. A special attention has been paid to the application of these devices and sensor technologies, in response to current trends in medicine. METHODS Peer-reviewed research literature pertaining to the subject matter was identified based on a search of bibliographic databases. The quality and relevance of retrieved papers was assessed using standard tools. Their content was critically reviewed and certain information contained therein was compiled in tabularized form. RESULTS The majority of reviewed studies show promising results, often surpassing the accuracy and sensitivity of established diagnostic methods. However, only a relatively small number of devices have been field tested. The methods used for sample collection and data processing in various studies were listed in a table, together with electronic nose models used in these investigations. CONCLUSION Despite the fact that devices equipped with arrays of chemical sensors are not routinely used in everyday medical practice, their prospective use would solve some established issues in medical diagnostics, as well as lead to developments in prophylactics by facilitating a widespread use of non-invasive screening tests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Wojnowski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Dymerski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jacek Gębicki
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jacek Namieśnik
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Soleja N, Manzoor O, Nandal P, Mohsin M. FRET-based nanosensors for monitoring and quantification of alcohols in living cells. Org Biomol Chem 2019; 17:2413-2422. [PMID: 30735222 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob03208d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Odorants constitute a small and chemically diverse group of molecules with ethanol functioning as a key odorant that induces reproductive toxicity and adverse chronic effects on the liver. Analytical tools designed so far for the detection of odorant molecules are relatively invasive. Therefore, a tool that can measure the corresponding rate changes of ethanol concentration in real-time is highly desirable. Here in this work, we report a genetically encoded fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based nanosensor for in vivo quantification of ethanol at the cellular level with high spatial and temporal resolution. A human odorant-binding protein (hOBPIIa) was flanked by fluorescent proteins ECFP (Enhanced Cyan Fluorescent Protein) and Venus at the N- and C-terminus respectively. The constructed FRET nanosensor was named the fluorescent indicator protein for odorants (FLIPO). FLIPO allows in vitro and in vivo determination of FRET changes in a concentration-dependent manner. The developed nanosensor is highly specific to ethanol, stable to pH changes and provides rapid detection rate response. FLIPO-42 is the most efficient nanosensor created that measures ethanol with an apparent affinity (Kd) of 4.16 μM and covers the physiological range of 500 nM to 12 μM ethanol measurement. FLIPO-42 can measure ethanol dynamics in bacterial, yeast and mammalian cells non-invasively in real time which proves its efficacy as a sensing device in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Taken together, a prototype for a set of nanosensors was established, potentially enabling the monitoring of dynamic changes of ethanol and investigate its uptake and metabolism with subcellular resolution in vivo and ex vivo. Furthermore, the advent of a set of novel nanosensors will provide us with the tools for numerous medical, scientific, industrial and environmental applications which would help to illuminate their role in biological systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neha Soleja
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025, India.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Affiliation(s)
- Pengju Sha
- College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 P.R. China
| | - Xiaojin Luo
- College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 P.R. China
| | - Weihua Shi
- College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 P.R. China
| | - Yiqun Liu
- College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 P.R. China
| | - Yue Cui
- College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kwon OS, Song HS, Park TH, Jang J. Conducting Nanomaterial Sensor Using Natural Receptors. Chem Rev 2018; 119:36-93. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oh Seok Kwon
- Bionanotechnology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioinformatics (Major), University of Science & Technology (UST), Daejon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Seok Song
- Sensor System Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Division of Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea
- Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Tai Hyun Park
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jyongsik Jang
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Tonacci A, Sansone F, Pala AP, Conte R. Exhaled breath analysis in evaluation of psychological stress: A short literature review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 54:589-597. [PMID: 29761475 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Physiological stress is pervasive in today's society. Its detection is normally performed through several unobtrusive methods, driving both caregivers and patients to take measures to reduce the burden of this condition on human health. Among the methods for assessing stress, exhaled breath analysis represents a non-invasive, real-time alternative to classic laboratory tests. Therefore, a literature review was performed to assess the presence of altered parameters, related to psychological stress, in exhaled breath. Most studies in our review measured nitric oxide (NO), whose concentration was often correlated, either positively or negatively, with psychological stress, with reasonable scientific support. Other compounds (isoprene, terpene and so on) were rarely studied and with mixed evidence. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the involvement and the pathophysiological role of NO in stress, possibly including a greater number of individuals, as sample size actually represents the main limitation of the work published to date.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Tonacci
- Clinical Physiology Institute, National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Francesco Sansone
- Clinical Physiology Institute, National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Anna Paola Pala
- Clinical Physiology Institute, National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Raffaele Conte
- Clinical Physiology Institute, National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Bax C, Taverna G, Eusebio L, Sironi S, Grizzi F, Guazzoni G, Capelli L. Innovative Diagnostic Methods for Early Prostate Cancer Detection through Urine Analysis: A Review. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10040123. [PMID: 29670060 PMCID: PMC5923378 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10040123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death among men. It is an asymptomatic and slow growing tumour, which starts occurring in young men, but can be detected only around the age of 40–50. Although its long latency period and potential curability make prostate cancer a perfect candidate for screening programs, the current procedure lacks in specificity. Researchers are rising to the challenge of developing innovative tools able of detecting the disease during its early stage that is the most curable. In recent years, the interest in characterisation of biological fluids aimed at the identification of tumour-specific compounds has increased significantly, since cell neoplastic transformation causes metabolic alterations leading to volatile organic compounds release. In the scientific literature, different approaches have been proposed. Many studies focus on the identification of a cancer-characteristic “odour fingerprint” emanated from biological samples through the application of sensorial or senso-instrumental analyses, others suggest a chemical characterisation of biological fluids with the aim of identifying prostate cancer (PCa)-specific biomarkers. This paper focuses on the review of literary studies in the field of prostate cancer diagnosis, in order to provide an overview of innovative methods based on the analysis of urine, thereby comparing them with the traditional diagnostic procedures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Bax
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Urology, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Lidia Eusebio
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Selena Sironi
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Guazzoni
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Urology, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Applications and Advances in Bioelectronic Noses for Odour Sensing. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18010103. [PMID: 29301263 PMCID: PMC5795383 DOI: 10.3390/s18010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
A bioelectronic nose, an intelligent chemical sensor array system coupled with bio-receptors to identify gases and vapours, resembles mammalian olfaction by which many vertebrates can sniff out volatile organic compounds (VOCs) sensitively and specifically even at very low concentrations. Olfaction is undertaken by the olfactory system, which detects odorants that are inhaled through the nose where they come into contact with the olfactory epithelium containing olfactory receptors (ORs). Because of its ability to mimic biological olfaction, a bio-inspired electronic nose has been used to detect a variety of important compounds in complex environments. Recently, biosensor systems have been introduced that combine nanoelectronic technology and olfactory receptors themselves as a source of capturing elements for biosensing. In this article, we will present the latest advances in bioelectronic nose technology mimicking the olfactory system, including biological recognition elements, emerging detection systems, production and immobilization of sensing elements on sensor surface, and applications of bioelectronic noses. Furthermore, current research trends and future challenges in this field will be discussed.
Collapse
|
23
|
Son M, Park TH. The bioelectronic nose and tongue using olfactory and taste receptors: Analytical tools for food quality and safety assessment. Biotechnol Adv 2017; 36:371-379. [PMID: 29289691 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Food intake is the primary method for obtaining energy and component materials in the human being. Humans evaluate the quality of food by combining various facets of information, such as an item of food's appearance, smell, taste, and texture in the mouth. Recently, bioelectronic noses and tongues have been reported that use human olfactory and taste receptors as primary recognition elements, and nanoelectronics as secondary signal transducers. Bioelectronic sensors that mimic human olfaction and gustation have sensitively and selectively detected odor and taste molecules from various food samples, and have been applied to food quality assessment. The portable and multiplexed bioelectronic nose and tongue are expected to be used as next-generation analytical tools for rapid on-site monitoring of food quality. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the bioelectronic nose and tongue using olfactory and taste receptors, and discuss the potential applications and future perspectives in the food industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manki Son
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Tai Hyun Park
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Wang KH, Hsu WP, Chen LH, Lin WD, Lee YL. Extensibility effect of poly(3-hexylthiophene) on the glucose sensing performance of mixed poly(3-hexylthiophene)/octadecylamine/glucose oxidase Langmuir-Blodgett films. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 155:104-110. [PMID: 28411475 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) is utilized as a material to enhance the glucose sensing performance of glucose oxidase (GOx) Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films. To enhance the extensibility and homogeneity of the P3HT in the LB films, octadecylamine (ODA) is introduced. The characteristics of the mixed P3HT/ODA Langmuir monolayers are investigated first and then, utilized as template layers to adsorb GOx from the subphase, preparing P3HT/ODA/GOx Langmuir-Blodgett films for glucose sensing. The results show that P3HT molecules tend to aggregate at the air/liquid interface and, furthermore, the P3HT monolayer has a weak ability to adsorb GOx from the subphase. By using mixed P3HT/ODA monolayer, the presence of ODA not only inhibits the aggregation of P3HT, but also increases the adsorption ability of the monolayer to GOx. The extensibility of P3HT and the homogeneity of the P3HT/ODA monolayers are closely related to the concentration of P3HT/ODA stock solutions. On the glucose sensing experiments, the performance of the P3HT/ODA/GOx LB film is greatly improved due to the presence of P3HT and, furthermore, the sensibility increases with increasing extensibility of P3HT molecules. The best sensitivity achieved for the P3HT/ODA/GOx film is 5.4μAmM-1cm-2 which is over two times the value obtained by the ODA/GOx film (2.3μAmM-1cm-2).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Hsuan Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan; Department of Industrial Chemistry, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, 36063, Japan
| | - Wen-Ping Hsu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National United University, Miao-Li, 36063, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Huei Chen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, 71710, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Don Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Yuh-Lang Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Fang RH, Jiang Y, Fang JC, Zhang L. Cell membrane-derived nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2017; 128:69-83. [PMID: 28292726 PMCID: PMC5417338 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The continued evolution of biomedical nanotechnology has enabled clinicians to better detect, prevent, manage, and treat human disease. In order to further push the limits of nanoparticle performance and functionality, there has recently been a paradigm shift towards biomimetic design strategies. By taking inspiration from nature, the goal is to create next-generation nanoparticle platforms that can more effectively navigate and interact with the incredibly complex biological systems that exist within the body. Of great interest are cellular membranes, which play essential roles in biointerfacing, self-identification, signal transduction, and compartmentalization. In this review, we explore the major ways in which researchers have directly leveraged cell membrane-derived biomaterials for the fabrication of novel nanotherapeutics and nanodiagnostics. Such emerging technologies have the potential to significantly advance the field of nanomedicine, helping to improve upon traditional modalities while also enabling novel applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie H Fang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yao Jiang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jean C Fang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Liangfang Zhang
- Department of NanoEngineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Eusebio L, Derudi M, Capelli L, Nano G, Sironi S. Assessment of the Indoor Odour Impact in a Naturally Ventilated Room. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17040778. [PMID: 28379190 PMCID: PMC5422051 DOI: 10.3390/s17040778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Indoor air quality influences people’s lives, potentially affecting their health and comfort. Nowadays, ventilation is the only technique commonly used for regulating indoor air quality. CO2 is the reference species considered in order to calculate the air exchange rates of indoor environments. Indeed, regarding air quality, the presence of pleasant or unpleasant odours can strongly influence the environmental comfort. In this paper, a case study of indoor air quality monitoring is reported. The indoor field tests were conducted measuring both CO2 concentration, using a photoacoustic multi-gas analyzer, and odour trends, using an electronic nose, in order to analyze and compare the information acquired. The indoor air monitoring campaign was run for a period of 20 working days into a university room. The work was focused on the determination of both CO2 and odour emission factors (OEF) emitted by the human activity and on the evaluation of the odour impact in a naturally ventilated room. The results highlighted that an air monitoring and recycling system based only on CO2 concentration and temperature measurements might be insufficient to ensure a good indoor air quality, whereas its performances could be improved by integrating the existing systems with an electronic nose for odour detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Eusebio
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", P.za Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Marco Derudi
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", P.za Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", P.za Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Nano
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", P.za Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Selena Sironi
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "G. Natta", P.za Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
van Oort PMP, de Bruin S, Weda H, Knobel HH, Schultz MJ, Bos LD. Exhaled Breath Metabolomics for the Diagnosis of Pneumonia in Intubated and Mechanically-Ventilated Intensive Care Unit (ICU)-Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18020449. [PMID: 28218729 PMCID: PMC5343983 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18020449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The diagnosis of hospital-acquired pneumonia remains challenging. We hypothesized that analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath could be used to diagnose pneumonia or the presence of pathogens in the respiratory tract in intubated and mechanically-ventilated intensive care unit patients. In this prospective, single-centre, cross-sectional cohort study breath from mechanically ventilated patients was analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Potentially relevant VOCs were selected with a p-value < 0.05 and an area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUROC) above 0.7. These VOCs were used for principal component analysis and partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). AUROC was used as a measure of accuracy. Ninety-three patients were included in the study. Twelve of 145 identified VOCs were significantly altered in patients with pneumonia compared to controls. In colonized patients, 52 VOCs were significantly different. Partial least square discriminant analysis classified patients with modest accuracy (AUROC: 0.73 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.57–0.88) after leave-one-out cross-validation). For determining the colonization status of patients, the model had an AUROC of 0.69 (95% CI: 0.57–0.82) after leave-one-out cross-validation. To conclude, exhaled breath analysis can be used to discriminate pneumonia from controls with a modest to good accuracy. Furthermore breath profiling could be used to predict the presence and absence of pathogens in the respiratory tract. These findings need to be validated externally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pouline M P van Oort
- Department of Intensive Care, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Sanne de Bruin
- Department of Intensive Care, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Hans Weda
- Philips Research, 5656 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Hugo H Knobel
- Philips Research, 5656 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcus J Schultz
- Department of Intensive Care, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Lieuwe D Bos
- Department of Intensive Care, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Zhang Q, Zhang D, Li N, Lu Y, Yao Y, Li S, Liu Q. Zinc Nanoparticles-equipped Bioelectronic Nose Using a Microelectrode Array for Odorant Detection. ANAL SCI 2016; 32:387-93. [PMID: 27063709 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.32.387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bioelectronic noses, such as olfactory cell- and receptor-based biosensors, have important applications for biomimetic odorant detection in various fields. Here, a nanoparticle-equipped biosensor was designed to record extracellular potentials from olfactory receptor cells effectively. In this research, a microelectrode array (MEA) was combined with olfactory epitheliums as the olfactory biosensor to record electrophysiological signals of receptor cells in the epitheliums. Zinc nanoparticles (NanoZn) were employed along with the biosensor for different kinds of odorant measurements, which improved the electrophysiological responses to odor molecules. The NanoZn-equipped biosensor showed greater performance, such as a higher sensitivity and a larger signal-to-noise ratio, than that without the nanoparticles. Thus, this approach provided a promising method to improve the detecting performance of biosensors based on olfactory cells and receptors, which would bring broad application prospects for bioelectronic noses in environmental monitoring, food analysis, and healthcare diagnosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Zhejiang University
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Capelli L, Taverna G, Bellini A, Eusebio L, Buffi N, Lazzeri M, Guazzoni G, Bozzini G, Seveso M, Mandressi A, Tidu L, Grizzi F, Sardella P, Latorre G, Hurle R, Lughezzani G, Casale P, Meregali S, Sironi S. Application and Uses of Electronic Noses for Clinical Diagnosis on Urine Samples: A Review. SENSORS 2016; 16:s16101708. [PMID: 27754437 PMCID: PMC5087496 DOI: 10.3390/s16101708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The electronic nose is able to provide useful information through the analysis of the volatile organic compounds in body fluids, such as exhaled breath, urine and blood. This paper focuses on the review of electronic nose studies and applications in the specific field of medical diagnostics based on the analysis of the gaseous headspace of human urine, in order to provide a broad overview of the state of the art and thus enhance future developments in this field. The research in this field is rather recent and still in progress, and there are several aspects that need to be investigated more into depth, not only to develop and improve specific electronic noses for different diseases, but also with the aim to discover and analyse the connections between specific diseases and the body fluids odour. Further research is needed to improve the results obtained up to now; the development of new sensors and data processing methods should lead to greater diagnostic accuracy thus making the electronic nose an effective tool for early detection of different kinds of diseases, ranging from infections to tumours or exposure to toxic agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Alessia Bellini
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Lidia Eusebio
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Niccolò Buffi
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Massimo Lazzeri
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Guazzoni
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Bozzini
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Mauro Seveso
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Alberto Mandressi
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo Tidu
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Paolo Sardella
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Latorre
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Rodolfo Hurle
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Lughezzani
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Paolo Casale
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Sara Meregali
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Selena Sironi
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Electronic Nose Testing Procedure for the Definition of Minimum Performance Requirements for Environmental Odor Monitoring. SENSORS 2016; 16:s16091548. [PMID: 27657086 PMCID: PMC5038818 DOI: 10.3390/s16091548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite initial enthusiasm towards electronic noses and their possible application in different fields, and quite a lot of promising results, several criticalities emerge from most published research studies, and, as a matter of fact, the diffusion of electronic noses in real-life applications is still very limited. In general, a first step towards large-scale-diffusion of an analysis method, is standardization. The aim of this paper is describing the experimental procedure adopted in order to evaluate electronic nose performances, with the final purpose of establishing minimum performance requirements, which is considered to be a first crucial step towards standardization of the specific case of electronic nose application for environmental odor monitoring at receptors. Based on the experimental results of the performance testing of a commercialized electronic nose type with respect to three criteria (i.e., response invariability to variable atmospheric conditions, instrumental detection limit, and odor classification accuracy), it was possible to hypothesize a logic that could be adopted for the definition of minimum performance requirements, according to the idea that these are technologically achievable.
Collapse
|
31
|
Pérez Antón A, Del Nogal Sánchez M, Crisolino Pozas ÁP, Pérez Pavón JL, Moreno Cordero B. Headspace-programmed temperature vaporizer-mass spectrometry and pattern recognition techniques for the analysis of volatiles in saliva samples. Talanta 2016; 160:21-27. [PMID: 27591583 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.06.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A rapid method for the analysis of volatiles in saliva samples is proposed. The method is based on direct coupling of three components: a headspace sampler (HS), a programmable temperature vaporizer (PTV) and a quadrupole mass spectrometer (qMS). Several applications in the biomedical field have been proposed with electronic noses based on different sensors. However, few contributions have been developed using a mass spectrometry-based electronic nose in this field up to date. Samples of 23 patients with some type of cancer and 32 healthy volunteers were analyzed with HS-PTV-MS and the profile signals obtained were subjected to pattern recognition techniques with the aim of studying the possibilities of the methodology to differentiate patients with cancer from healthy controls. An initial inspection of the contained information in the data by means of principal components analysis (PCA) revealed a complex situation were an overlapped distribution of samples in the score plot was visualized instead of two groups of separated samples. Models using K-nearest neighbors (KNN) and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) showed poor discrimination, specially using SIMCA where a small distance between classes was obtained and no satisfactory results in the classification of the external validation samples were achieved. Good results were obtained when Mahalanobis discriminant analysis (DA) and support vector machines (SVM) were used obtaining 2 (false positives) and 0 samples misclassified in the external validation set, respectively. No false negatives were found using these techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pérez Antón
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Miguel Del Nogal Sánchez
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Ángel Pedro Crisolino Pozas
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Virgen de la Vega, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - José Luis Pérez Pavón
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Bernardo Moreno Cordero
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Pérez Antón A, Ramos ÁG, Del Nogal Sánchez M, Pavón JLP, Cordero BM, Pozas ÁPC. Headspace-programmed temperature vaporization-mass spectrometry for the rapid determination of possible volatile biomarkers of lung cancer in urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:5239-46. [PMID: 27178559 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9618-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
We propose a new method for the rapid determination of five volatile compounds described in the literature as possible biomarkers of lung cancer in urine samples. The method is based on the coupling of a headspace sampler, a programmed temperature vaporizer in solvent-vent injection mode, and a mass spectrometer (HS-PTV-MS). This configuration is known as an electronic nose based on mass spectrometry. Once the method was developed, it was used for the analysis of urine samples from lung cancer patients and healthy individuals. Multivariate calibration models were employed to quantify the biomarker concentrations in the samples. The detection limits ranged between 0.16 and 21 μg/L. For the assignment of the samples to the patient group or the healthy individuals, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used, comparing the concentrations obtained with the median of a reference set of healthy individuals. To date, this is the first time that multivariate calibration and non-parametric methods have been combined to classify biological samples from profile signals obtained with an electronic nose. When significant differences in the concentration of one or more biomarkers were found with respect to the reference set, the sample is considered as a positive one and a new analysis was performed using a chromatographic method (HS-PTV-GC/MS) to confirm the result. The main advantage of the proposed HS-PTV-MS methodology is that no prior chromatographic separation and no sample manipulation are required, which allows an increase of the number of samples analyzed per hour and restricts the use of time-consuming techniques to only when necessary. Graphical abstract Schematic diagram of the developed methodology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pérez Antón
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Álvaro García Ramos
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Miguel Del Nogal Sánchez
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008, Salamanca, Spain.
| | - José Luis Pérez Pavón
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Bernardo Moreno Cordero
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Ángel Pedro Crisolino Pozas
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Virgen de la Vega, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Chen Q, Yoo SY, Chung YH, Lee JY, Min J, Choi JW. Control of electrochemical signals from quantum dots conjugated to organic materials by using DNA structure in an analog logic gate. Bioelectrochemistry 2016; 111:1-6. [PMID: 27116705 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Various bio-logic gates have been studied intensively to overcome the rigidity of single-function silicon-based logic devices arising from combinations of various gates. Here, a simple control tool using electrochemical signals from quantum dots (QDs) was constructed using DNA and organic materials for multiple logic functions. The electrochemical redox current generated from QDs was controlled by the DNA structure. DNA structure, in turn, was dependent on the components (organic materials) and the input signal (pH). Independent electrochemical signals from two different logic units containing QDs were merged into a single analog-type logic gate, which was controlled by two inputs. We applied this electrochemical biodevice to a simple logic system and achieved various logic functions from the controlled pH input sets. This could be further improved by choosing QDs, ionic conditions, or DNA sequences. This research provides a feasible method for fabricating an artificial intelligence system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Chen
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Si-Youl Yoo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Ho Chung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hoseo University, Hoseoro 79 bungil 20, Baebang, Asan, Chungnam 336-795, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Young Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Junhong Min
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Heukseok-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jeong-Woo Choi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Republic of Korea; Interdisciplinary Program of Integrated Biotechnology, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Deciphering the Receptor Repertoire Encoding Specific Odorants by Time-Lapse Single-Cell Array Cytometry. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19934. [PMID: 26832639 PMCID: PMC4735795 DOI: 10.1038/srep19934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammals can recognize a vast number of odorants by using olfactory receptors (ORs) known as G protein-coupled receptors. The OR gene family is one of the most diverse gene families in mammalian genomes. Because of the vast combinations of ORs and odorants, few ORs have thus far been linked to specific odorants. Here, we established a functional screening method for OR genes by using a microchamber array containing >5,400 single olfactory epithelium-derived cells from mice applied to time-lapse single-cell array cytometry. This method facilitated the prompt isolation of single olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) responding to the odorant of interest. Subsequent single-cell RT-PCR allowed us to isolate the genes encoding respective ORs. By using volatile molecules recognized as biomarkers for lung cancers, this method could deorphanize ORs and thereby reconstitute the OR-mediated signaling cascade in HEK293T cells. Thus, our system could be applied to identify any receptor by using specific ligands in the fields of physiopathology and pharmacology.
Collapse
|
35
|
Chan DK, Leggett CL, Wang KK. Diagnosing gastrointestinal illnesses using fecal headspace volatile organic compounds. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:1639-1649. [PMID: 26819529 PMCID: PMC4721995 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i4.1639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Revised: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from stool are the components of the smell of stool representing the end products of microbial activity and metabolism that can be used to diagnose disease. Despite the abundance of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane that have already been identified in human flatus, the small portion of trace gases making up the VOCs emitted from stool include organic acids, alcohols, esters, heterocyclic compounds, aldehydes, ketones, and alkanes, among others. These are the gases that vary among individuals in sickness and in health, in dietary changes, and in gut microbial activity. Electronic nose devices are analytical and pattern recognition platforms that can utilize mass spectrometry or electrochemical sensors to detect these VOCs in gas samples. When paired with machine-learning and pattern recognition algorithms, this can identify patterns of VOCs, and thus patterns of smell, that can be used to identify disease states. In this review, we provide a clinical background of VOC identification, electronic nose development, and review gastroenterology applications toward diagnosing disease by the volatile headspace analysis of stool.
Collapse
|
36
|
Fitzgerald JE, Zhu J, Bravo-Vasquez JP, Fenniri H. Cross-reactive, self-encoded polymer film arrays for sensor applications. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra13874h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple and versatile spectroscopically-encoded styrene-based polymers are the basis for advanced e-Nose sensor array technology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E. Fitzgerald
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Northeastern University
- 313 Snell Engineering Research Center
- Boston
- USA
| | - Jintao Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and National Institute for Nanotechnology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton
- Canada
| | - Juan Pablo Bravo-Vasquez
- Department of Chemistry and National Institute for Nanotechnology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton
- Canada
| | - Hicham Fenniri
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Northeastern University
- 313 Snell Engineering Research Center
- Boston
- USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Lee SH, Oh EH, Park TH. Cell-based microfluidic platform for mimicking human olfactory system. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 74:554-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.06.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
|
38
|
Recent advances in electronic nose techniques for monitoring of fermentation process. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 31:1845-52. [PMID: 26338367 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-015-1940-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Microbial fermentation process is often sensitive to even slight changes of conditions that may result in unacceptable end-product quality. Thus, the monitoring of the process is critical for discovering unfavorable deviations as early as possible and taking the appropriate measures. However, the use of traditional analytical techniques is often time-consuming and labor-intensive. In this sense, the most effective way of developing rapid, accurate and relatively economical method for quality assurance in microbial fermentation process is the use of novel chemical sensor systems. Electronic nose techniques have particular advantages in non-invasive monitoring of microbial fermentation process. Therefore, in this review, we present an overview of the most important contributions dealing with the quality control in microbial fermentation process using the electronic nose techniques. After a brief description of the fundamentals of the sensor techniques, some examples of potential applications of electronic nose techniques monitoring are provided, including the implementation of control strategies and the combination with other monitoring tools (i.e. sensor fusion). Finally, on the basis of the review, the electronic nose techniques are critically commented, and its strengths and weaknesses being highlighted. In addition, on the basis of the observed trends, we also propose the technical challenges and future outlook for the electronic nose techniques.
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Olfactory receptor (OR) genes are considered to be the largest superfamily of the mammalian genome, and in the case of humans, approximately 390 kinds of functional ORs play a role in perceiving odors. In spite of their significance in olfaction, the function of all ORs has not yet been fully revealed. In order to efficiently identify specific ligands of orphan ORs, methods that can generate olfactory signals in a reliable manner and that can convert the cellular signals into measurable responses are required. Here, we describe an OR screening assay method using olfactory sensors that are based on cell-derived nanovesicles combined with single-walled carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (SWNT-FETs). The nanovesicles contain ORs on their surface membrane and induce influx of calcium ions similar to olfactory signal transduction. This ion influx causes an electrical current change along the carbon nanotube, and then this change is measured by the SWNT-FET sensor. This technique facilitates the simple and rapid screening of OR functions.
Collapse
|
40
|
Coupling of olfactory receptor and ion channel for rapid and sensitive visualization of odorant response. Acta Biomater 2015; 22:1-7. [PMID: 25931017 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2015.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In the human smell sensing system, there are about 390 kinds of olfactory receptors (ORs) which bind to various odorants with different affinities and specificities. Characterization and odorant binding pattern analysis of the ORs are essential for understanding of human olfaction and to mimic the olfactory system in various applications. Although various cell-based odorant screening systems have been developed for this purpose, many human ORs (hORs) still remain orphan because of the time-consuming and labor-intensive experimental procedures of the available screening methods. In this study, we constructed an ion channel-coupled hOR for simple odorant detection by rapidly visualizing the odorant response to overcome the limitations of conventional screening systems. The hORs were coupled to the Kir6.2 potassium channel and the fusion proteins were expressed in HEK293 cells. In this system, when an odorant binds to the hORs coupled to the ion channel, a conformational change in the OR occurs, which consequently opens the ion channel to result in ion influx into the cell. This ion influx was then visualized using a membrane potential dye. Cells expressing ion channel-coupled hORs showed high sensitivity and selectivity to their specific odorants, and the odorant-hOR binding pattern was visualized to identify the response of individual hORs to various odorants, as well as the response of various hORs to various odorants. These results indicate that the ion channel-coupled hOR system can be effectively used not only for simple and fast high-throughput odorant screening, but also to visualize the odorant-hOR response pattern.
Collapse
|
41
|
Piersigilli F, Bhandari V. Biomarkers in neonatology: the new "omics" of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2015; 29:1758-64. [PMID: 26135768 DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1061495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a complex disorder resulting from gene-environmental interactions. An improved understanding of the pathogenesis of this most common chronic lung disease in infants has been made by utilizing animal models and correlating with human data. Currently, while some (vitamin A, caffeine) pharmacotherapeutic options are being utilized to ameliorate this condition, there is still no specific or effective treatment for BPD. It would be helpful for prognostication and targeted potential novel therapeutic strategies to identify those babies accurately who are at risk for developing this disease. A reliable biomarker would have the capacity to be detected in the initial phase of the disease, to allow early interventions to avoid or minimize the detrimental effects of the disease. This review will focus on human studies performed with the "omic" techniques, specifically genomics, epigenomics, microbiomics, transciptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, and summarize the information available in the literature, as it pertains to biomarker identification for BPD. Using "omics" technologies, investigators have reported markers that have the potential to be used as biomarkers of BPD: SPOCK2, VEGF -624C > G, VEGF -460T > C, mast cells specific markers, miR-219 pathway, miR-152, -30a-3p, -133b, -206, -7, lactate, taurine, trimethylamine-N-oxide, gluconate, myoinositol and alterations in surfactant lipid profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fiammetta Piersigilli
- a Division of Perinatal Medicine and Yale Child Health Research Center, Department of Pediatrics , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , CT , USA .,b Bambino Gesu' Children's Hospital, Division of Neonatology , Rome , Italy , and
| | - Vineet Bhandari
- a Division of Perinatal Medicine and Yale Child Health Research Center, Department of Pediatrics , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , CT , USA .,c Section of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Insights on Capacitive Interdigitated Electrodes Coated with MOF Thin Films: Humidity and VOCs Sensing as a Case Study. SENSORS 2015; 15:18153-66. [PMID: 26213943 PMCID: PMC4570312 DOI: 10.3390/s150818153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A prototypical metal-organic framework (MOF), a 2D periodic porous structure based on the assembly of copper ions and benzene dicarboxylate (bdc) ligands (Cu(bdc)·xH2O), was grown successfully as a thin film on interdigitated electrodes (IDEs). IDEs have been used for achieving planar CMOS-compatible low-cost capacitive sensing structures for the detection of humidity and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Accordingly, the resultant IDEs coated with the Cu(bdc)·xH2O thin film was evaluated, for the first time, as a capacitive sensor for gas sensing applications. A fully automated setup, using LabVIEW interfaces to experiment conduction and data acquisition, was developed in order to measure the associated gas sensing performance.
Collapse
|
43
|
Purification and functional reconstitution of human olfactory receptor expressed in Escherichia coli. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-014-0897-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
44
|
Son M, Cho DG, Lim JH, Park J, Hong S, Ko HJ, Park TH. Real-time monitoring of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, representative odor compounds in water pollution using bioelectronic nose with human-like performance. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 74:199-206. [PMID: 26143459 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A bioelectronic nose for the real-time assessment of water quality was constructed with human olfactory receptor (hOR) and single-walled carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (swCNT-FET). Geosmin (GSM) and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), mainly produced by bacteria, are representative odor compounds and also indicators of contamination in the water supply system. For the screening of hORs which respond to these compounds, we performed CRE-luciferase assays of the two odorants in heterologous cell system. Human OR51S1 for GSM and OR3A4 for MIB were selected, and nanovesicles expressing the hORs on surface were produced from HEK-293 cell. Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor was functionalized with the nanovesicles. The bioelectronic nose was able to selectively detect GSM and MIB at concentrations as low as a 10 ng L(-1). Furthermore, detection of these compounds from the real samples such as tap water, bottled water and river water was available without any pretreatment processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manki Son
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-guk Cho
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hyun Lim
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Juhun Park
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghun Hong
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Republic of Korea; Department of Biophysics and Chemical Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwi Jin Ko
- N-Bio Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-818, Republic of Korea.
| | - Tai Hyun Park
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon 433-270, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Lu Y, Yao Y, Zhang Q, Zhang D, Zhuang S, Li H, Liu Q. Olfactory biosensor for insect semiochemicals analysis by impedance sensing of odorant-binding proteins on interdigitated electrodes. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 67:662-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 09/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
46
|
Lee SH, Lim JH, Park J, Hong S, Park TH. Bioelectronic nose combined with a microfluidic system for the detection of gaseous trimethylamine. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 71:179-185. [PMID: 25909337 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A bioelectronic nose based on a novel microfluidic system (μBN) was fabricated to detect gaseous trimethylamine (TMA) in real-time. Single-walled carbon nanotube-field effect transistors (SWNT-FETs) were functionalized with olfactory receptor-derived peptides (ORPs) that can recognize the TMA molecules. The ORP-coated SWNT-FETs were assembled with a microfluidic channel and were sealed with top and bottom frames. This simple process was used to complete the μBNs, and a well-defined condition was achieved to detect the gaseous molecules. The μBNs allowed us to detect gaseous TMA molecules down to 10 parts per trillion (ppt) in real-time and showed high selectivity when distinguishing gaseous TMA from other gaseous odorants. The sensor was used to determine the quality of seafood (oysters), and spoiled seafood and other types of spoiled foods were also successfully discriminated without any pretreatment processes. These results indicate that portable-scale platforms can be manufactured by using μBNs and can be applicable for real-time on-site gas analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seung Hwan Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hyun Lim
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Juhun Park
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghun Hong
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Department of Biophysics and Chemical Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
| | - Tai Hyun Park
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Bio-MAX Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-270, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Current Challenges in Volatile Organic Compounds Analysis as Potential Biomarkers of Cancer. J Biomark 2015; 2015:981458. [PMID: 26317039 PMCID: PMC4437398 DOI: 10.1155/2015/981458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial in reducing mortality among people suffering from cancer. There is a lack of characteristic early clinical symptoms in most forms of cancer, which highlights the importance of investigating new methods for its early detection. One of the most promising methods is the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are a diverse group of carbon-based chemicals that are present in exhaled breath and biofluids and may be collected from the headspace of these matrices. Different patterns of VOCs have been correlated with various diseases, cancer among them. Studies have also shown that cancer cells in vitro produce or consume specific VOCs that can serve as potential biomarkers that differentiate them from noncancerous cells. This review identifies the current challenges in the investigation of VOCs as potential cancer biomarkers, by the critical evaluation of available matrices for the in vivo and in vitro approaches in this field and by comparison of the main extraction and detection techniques that have been applied to date in this area of study. It also summarises complementary in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro studies conducted to date in order to try to identify volatile biomarkers of cancer.
Collapse
|
48
|
Lim JH, Oh EH, Park J, Hong S, Park TH. Ion-channel-coupled receptor-based platform for a real-time measurement of G-protein-coupled receptor activities. ACS NANO 2015; 9:1699-1706. [PMID: 25625737 DOI: 10.1021/nn506494e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A simple but efficient measurement platform based on ion-channel-coupled receptors and nanovesicles was developed for monitoring the real-time activity of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In this work, an olfactory receptor (OR), the most common class A GPCR, was covalently fused with a Kir6.2 channel so that the GPCR action directly induced the opening of the ion channels and changes in the electrical membrane potential without complex cellular signaling processes. This strategy reduced the measurement errors caused by instability of various cellular components. In addition, rather than using whole cells, a cell-surface-derived nanovesicle was used to preserve the membrane-integrated structure of GPCRs and to exclude case-dependent cellular conditions. Another merit of using the nanovesicle is that nanovesicles can be easily combined with nanomaterial-based field-effect transistors (FETs) to build a sensitive and stable measurement platform to monitor GPCR activities with high sensitivity in real-time. Using a platform based on carbon nanotube FETs and nanovesicles carrying Kir6.2-channel-coupled ORs, we monitored the real-time response of ORs to their ligand molecules. Significantly, since this platform does not rely on rather unstable cell signaling pathways, our platform could be utilized for a rather long time period without losing its functionality. This system can be utilized extensively for simple and sensitive analysis of the activities of various GPCRs and should enable various academic and practical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jong Hyun Lim
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, ‡Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, §Department of Physics and Astronomy, and ⊥Department of Biophysics and Chemical Biology, Seoul National University , Seoul 151-744, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Colombo C, Leopold JH, Bos LDJ, Bellazzi R, Abu-Hanna A. Comparison of Probabilistic versus Non-probabilistic Electronic Nose Classification Methods in an Animal Model. Artif Intell Med 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-19551-3_38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
|
50
|
Cui S, Wang J, Wang X. Fabrication and design of a toxic gas sensor based on polyaniline/titanium dioxide nanocomposite film by layer-by-layer self-assembly. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra06388d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A QCM gas sensor was fabricated by a self-assembly approach with ultrathin nanocomposite PANI/TiO2. It was demonstrated to be sensitive to toxic gases (10 ppm) and to be effective in shelf-life evaluation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaoqing Cui
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310058
- PR China
- Department of Agriculture and Biological Engineering
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310058
- PR China
| | - Xinlei Wang
- Department of Agriculture and Biological Engineering
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Urbana
- USA
| |
Collapse
|