1
|
Lopez VK, Cramer EY, Pagano R, Drake JM, O’Dea EB, Adee M, Ayer T, Chhatwal J, Dalgic OO, Ladd MA, Linas BP, Mueller PP, Xiao J, Bracher J, Castro Rivadeneira AJ, Gerding A, Gneiting T, Huang Y, Jayawardena D, Kanji AH, Le K, Mühlemann A, Niemi J, Ray EL, Stark A, Wang Y, Wattanachit N, Zorn MW, Pei S, Shaman J, Yamana TK, Tarasewicz SR, Wilson DJ, Baccam S, Gurung H, Stage S, Suchoski B, Gao L, Gu Z, Kim M, Li X, Wang G, Wang L, Wang Y, Yu S, Gardner L, Jindal S, Marshall M, Nixon K, Dent J, Hill AL, Kaminsky J, Lee EC, Lemaitre JC, Lessler J, Smith CP, Truelove S, Kinsey M, Mullany LC, Rainwater-Lovett K, Shin L, Tallaksen K, Wilson S, Karlen D, Castro L, Fairchild G, Michaud I, Osthus D, Bian J, Cao W, Gao Z, Lavista Ferres J, Li C, Liu TY, Xie X, Zhang S, Zheng S, Chinazzi M, Davis JT, Mu K, Pastore y Piontti A, Vespignani A, Xiong X, Walraven R, Chen J, Gu Q, Wang L, Xu P, Zhang W, Zou D, Gibson GC, Sheldon D, Srivastava A, Adiga A, Hurt B, Kaur G, Lewis B, Marathe M, Peddireddy AS, Porebski P, Venkatramanan S, Wang L, Prasad PV, Walker JW, Webber AE, Slayton RB, Biggerstaff M, Reich NG, Johansson MA. Challenges of COVID-19 Case Forecasting in the US, 2020-2021. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011200. [PMID: 38709852 PMCID: PMC11098513 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, forecasting COVID-19 trends to support planning and response was a priority for scientists and decision makers alike. In the United States, COVID-19 forecasting was coordinated by a large group of universities, companies, and government entities led by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the US COVID-19 Forecast Hub (https://covid19forecasthub.org). We evaluated approximately 9.7 million forecasts of weekly state-level COVID-19 cases for predictions 1-4 weeks into the future submitted by 24 teams from August 2020 to December 2021. We assessed coverage of central prediction intervals and weighted interval scores (WIS), adjusting for missing forecasts relative to a baseline forecast, and used a Gaussian generalized estimating equation (GEE) model to evaluate differences in skill across epidemic phases that were defined by the effective reproduction number. Overall, we found high variation in skill across individual models, with ensemble-based forecasts outperforming other approaches. Forecast skill relative to the baseline was generally higher for larger jurisdictions (e.g., states compared to counties). Over time, forecasts generally performed worst in periods of rapid changes in reported cases (either in increasing or decreasing epidemic phases) with 95% prediction interval coverage dropping below 50% during the growth phases of the winter 2020, Delta, and Omicron waves. Ideally, case forecasts could serve as a leading indicator of changes in transmission dynamics. However, while most COVID-19 case forecasts outperformed a naïve baseline model, even the most accurate case forecasts were unreliable in key phases. Further research could improve forecasts of leading indicators, like COVID-19 cases, by leveraging additional real-time data, addressing performance across phases, improving the characterization of forecast confidence, and ensuring that forecasts were coherent across spatial scales. In the meantime, it is critical for forecast users to appreciate current limitations and use a broad set of indicators to inform pandemic-related decision making.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Velma K. Lopez
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Estee Y. Cramer
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Robert Pagano
- Unaffiliated, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - John M. Drake
- University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Eamon B. O’Dea
- University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Madeline Adee
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Turgay Ayer
- Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jagpreet Chhatwal
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ozden O. Dalgic
- Value Analytics Labs, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mary A. Ladd
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Benjamin P. Linas
- Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Peter P. Mueller
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jade Xiao
- Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Johannes Bracher
- Chair of Econometrics and Statistics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | | | - Aaron Gerding
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tilmann Gneiting
- Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Yuxin Huang
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Dasuni Jayawardena
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Abdul H. Kanji
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Khoa Le
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anja Mühlemann
- Institute of Mathematical Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jarad Niemi
- Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Evan L. Ray
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ariane Stark
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yijin Wang
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nutcha Wattanachit
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Martha W. Zorn
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sen Pei
- Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey Shaman
- Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Teresa K. Yamana
- Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Samuel R. Tarasewicz
- Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel J. Wilson
- Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Sid Baccam
- IEM, Bel Air, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Heidi Gurung
- IEM, Bel Air, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steve Stage
- IEM, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | | | - Lei Gao
- George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Zhiling Gu
- Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Myungjin Kim
- Kyungpook National University, Bukgu, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Xinyi Li
- Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Guannan Wang
- College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Lily Wang
- George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Yueying Wang
- Amazon, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Shan Yu
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Lauren Gardner
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sonia Jindal
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Kristen Nixon
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Juan Dent
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alison L. Hill
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joshua Kaminsky
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth C. Lee
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Justin Lessler
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Claire P. Smith
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shaun Truelove
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Matt Kinsey
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Luke C. Mullany
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Lauren Shin
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Katharine Tallaksen
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shelby Wilson
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Dean Karlen
- University of Victoria and TRIUMF, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Lauren Castro
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Geoffrey Fairchild
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Isaac Michaud
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Dave Osthus
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Jiang Bian
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Wei Cao
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Zhifeng Gao
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | | | - Chaozhuo Li
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Tie-Yan Liu
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Xing Xie
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Shun Zhang
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Shun Zheng
- Microsoft, Redmond, Washington, United States of America
| | - Matteo Chinazzi
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jessica T. Davis
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kunpeng Mu
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ana Pastore y Piontti
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alessandro Vespignani
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Xinyue Xiong
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Jinghui Chen
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Quanquan Gu
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Lingxiao Wang
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Pan Xu
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Weitong Zhang
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Difan Zou
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Graham Casey Gibson
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Daniel Sheldon
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ajitesh Srivastava
- University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Aniruddha Adiga
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Hurt
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Gursharn Kaur
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Bryan Lewis
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Madhav Marathe
- University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | | | | | | | - Lijing Wang
- New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Pragati V. Prasad
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jo W. Walker
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Alexander E. Webber
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Rachel B. Slayton
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Matthew Biggerstaff
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Nicholas G. Reich
- University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Johansson
- COVID-19 Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Worden L, Wannier R, Hoff NA, Musene K, Selo B, Mossoko M, Okitolonda-Wemakoy E, Muyembe Tamfum JJ, Rutherford GW, Lietman TM, Rimoin AW, Porco TC, Kelly JD. Projections of epidemic transmission and estimation of vaccination impact during an ongoing Ebola virus disease outbreak in Northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, as of Feb. 25, 2019. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007512. [PMID: 31381606 PMCID: PMC6695208 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As of February 25, 2019, 875 cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) were reported in North Kivu and Ituri Provinces, Democratic Republic of Congo. Since the beginning of October 2018, the outbreak has largely shifted into regions in which active armed conflict has occurred, and in which EVD cases and their contacts have been difficult for health workers to reach. We used available data on the current outbreak, with case-count time series from prior outbreaks, to project the short-term and long-term course of the outbreak. METHODS For short- and long-term projections, we modeled Ebola virus transmission using a stochastic branching process that assumes gradually quenching transmission rates estimated from past EVD outbreaks, with outbreak trajectories conditioned on agreement with the course of the current outbreak, and with multiple levels of vaccination coverage. We used two regression models to estimate similar projection periods. Short- and long-term projections were estimated using negative binomial autoregression and Theil-Sen regression, respectively. We also used Gott's rule to estimate a baseline minimum-information projection. We then constructed an ensemble of forecasts to be compared and recorded for future evaluation against final outcomes. From August 20, 2018 to February 25, 2019, short-term model projections were validated against known case counts. RESULTS During validation of short-term projections, from one week to four weeks, we found models consistently scored higher on shorter-term forecasts. Based on case counts as of February 25, the stochastic model projected a median case count of 933 cases by February 18 (95% prediction interval: 872-1054) and 955 cases by March 4 (95% prediction interval: 874-1105), while the auto-regression model projects median case counts of 889 (95% prediction interval: 876-933) and 898 (95% prediction interval: 877-983) cases for those dates, respectively. Projected median final counts range from 953 to 1,749. Although the outbreak is already larger than all past Ebola outbreaks other than the 2013-2016 outbreak of over 26,000 cases, our models do not project that it is likely to grow to that scale. The stochastic model estimates that vaccination coverage in this outbreak is lower than reported in its trial setting in Sierra Leone. CONCLUSIONS Our projections are concentrated in a range up to about 300 cases beyond those already reported. While a catastrophic outbreak is not projected, it is not ruled out, and prevention and vigilance are warranted. Prospective validation of our models in real time allowed us to generate more accurate short-term forecasts, and this process may prove useful for future real-time short-term forecasting. We estimate that transmission rates are higher than would be seen under target levels of 62% coverage due to contact tracing and vaccination, and this model estimate may offer a surrogate indicator for the outbreak response challenges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lee Worden
- F. I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Rae Wannier
- F. I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
- School of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Nicole A. Hoff
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Kamy Musene
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Bernice Selo
- Ministry of Health, Directorate of Primary Health Care Development, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Mathias Mossoko
- Ministry of Health, Directorate of Primary Health Care Development, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | | | | | | | - Thomas M. Lietman
- F. I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
- School of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Anne W. Rimoin
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Travis C. Porco
- F. I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
- School of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - J. Daniel Kelly
- F. I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
- School of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|