Hepatoprotective effect of thymol against subchronic toxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Biochemical and histological evidences

Bio distribution and acute toxicity profiling of Pluronic F127 coated Titanium dioxide nanotubes in adult Wistar rats

Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are gaining immense attention among researchers owing to their admirable application potentials in various therapeutic events. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been recognized as one of the leading candidates in this category and holds wide interest within the scientific community. Among the various morphological nanoforms of TiO2, nanotube is grabbing remarkable attention as they have succeeded as an active vehicle in various medical procedures like intravascular stenting, drug delivery, as biosensors etc. This ultimately demands toxicity profiling of nanotubes in various aspects. Present study elaborates a concept through which acute toxicity profiling of TiO2 nanotubes in adult Wistar rats is presented. TNTs were synthesized via solvo-thermal approach and surface coated with a biocompatible polymer; Pluronic-F127 (P-F127). This step assists in ameliorating the troubles associated with the nanomaterial dispersion stability. The experimental rats were intraperitoneally administered with TNT-P (10 mg/kg) and sacrificed on different time periods (3rd, 7th and 14th days). Biodistribution of the material was tracked in major tissues including brain, liver, spleen and kidneys. A set of acute toxicity studies was performed which comprises hematology evaluation, biochemical studies, antioxidant detection, analysis of urine parameters, immune modulation study and histopathology evaluation. Many of the experiments revealed an unaltered physiological response in rats; except for some biochemical and hematology parameters. Overall study suggests that, TNT-P do not result into a negative response in Wistar rats over 14 days.

Co-administration of thymol and sulfoxaflor impedes the expression of reproductive toxicity in male rats

This study investigated the capability of a co-delivery system of thymol (THY) and sulfoxaflor that can serve to minimize the development of epididymal and testicular injury arise from SFX exposures alone. Forty-eight adult male rats were orally treated by gavage for 28 consecutive days. The rats were divided into six groups comprising control, THY alone (30 mg/kg), low SFX alone (79.4 mg/kg), high SFX alone (205 mg/kg) and co-exposure groups. After euthanasia, the rats epididymal and testicular damage and antioxidant status markers, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, levels of nitric oxide, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total oxidative stress (TOS) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were analyzed. Levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 b (IL-1β) and caspase-3 activity were assessed using ELISA kits. The results revealed that SFX exposure caused a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the body weight, sperm functional parameters, serum testosterone level with widespread histological abnormalities in a dose-dependent manner. Increased relative organ weights, serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) were observed in low SFX-treated rats. Similarly, the epididymal and testicular myeloperoxidase activity, malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (RONS), tumor necrosis-α, interleukin-1β levels and caspase-3 activity were significant (p < 0.05) increased and a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced glutathione (GSH) were revealed in SFX-treated rats. However, co-treatment of THY with SFX prevented SFX-induced epididymal and testicular toxicities. Thus, thymol protected against potential epididymis and testes alterations elicited by oxido-inflammatory mediators and up regulated antioxidant status.

Thymol Protects against 5-Fluorouracil-Induced Hepatotoxicity via the Regulation of the Akt/GSK-3β Pathway in In Vivo and In Silico Experimental Models

BACKGROUND

5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is a widely used, highly effective chemotherapeutic agent. However, its therapeutic efficacy is often limited by associated adverse effects, with hepatotoxicity being frequently reported with 5-FU therapy. Thymol is a monoterpene found in thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae) and is known for its antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anticancer activities. This study aimed to explore the hepatoprotective activity of thymol against 5-FU-induced liver injury.

METHODS

Rats received two intraperitoneal doses of 5-FU (150 mg/kg) either alone or in combination with thymol at doses of 60 mg/kg or 120 mg/kg. Liver enzymes, oxidative stress, and apoptotic markers, in addition to histopathological changes, were assessed.

RESULTS

5-FU induced marked liver injuries as evidenced by elevated liver enzymes and histopathological changes, in addition to abnormalities of oxidative and apoptotic markers. The administration of thymol ameliorated the 5-FU-induced oxidative damage through increasing hepatic antioxidants and lowering lipid peroxidation. Apoptotic response markers such as Bax, Bcl-2, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and PARP were also improved. Furthermore, Western blotting analysis showed that thymol modulated the 5-FU-induced changes in the expression of Akt/GSK-3β and p44/42 MAPK (ERK1/2) signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research is the first to shed light on thymol's potential protective effect against 5-FU- induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting oxidative and apoptotic pathways and modulating the Akt/ GSK-3β as well as p44/42 MAPK (ERK1/2) signaling pathways.

Thymol's modulation of cellular macromolecules, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and NF-kB/caspase-3 signaling in the liver of imidacloprid-exposed rats

We evaluated whether thymol (THY) (30 mg/kg b.wt) could relieve the adverse effects of the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid (IMD) (22.5 mg/kg b.wt) on the liver in a 56-day oral experiment and the probable underlying mechanisms. THY significantly suppressed the IMD-associated increase in hepatic enzyme leakage. Besides, the IMD-induced dyslipidemia was considerably corrected by THY. Moreover, THY significantly repressed the IMD-induced hepatic oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and inflammation. Of note, the Feulgen, mercuric bromophenol blue, and PAS-stained hepatic tissue sections analysis declared that treatment with THY largely rescued the IMD-induced depletion of the DNA, total proteins, and polysaccharides. Moreover, THY treatment did not affect the NF-kB p65 immunoexpression but markedly downregulated the Caspase-3 in the hepatocytes of the THY+IMD-treated group than the IMD-treated group. Conclusively, THY could efficiently protect against IMD-induced hepatotoxicity, probably through protecting cellular macromolecules and antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles Disrupt ultrastructure and function of Rat thyroid tissue via oxidative stress

Nano-TiO2 is widely used in various fields such as industry, daily necessities, food and medicine. Previous studies have shown that it can enter mammalian tissues through the digestive tract or respiratory tract and have effects on various organs and systems. However, the effect of nano-TiO2 on the mammalian thyroid gland has not been reported. In this study, we fed SD rats with rutile nano-TiO2 at a dose of 5 mg/kg body weight for 3 weeks, and then examined the thyroid histology and thyroid function of the rats. In vitro experiments were conducted to determine the effects of nano-TiO2 on the viability, apoptosis, inflammatory factors, antioxidant enzymes, and oxidative stress of human thyroid follicular epithelial cells. Histological evidence showed abnormal morphology of rat thyroid follicles and organelle damage in follicular epithelial cells. Nano-TiO2 caused a decrease in the level of sodium/iodide symporter (NIS), an increase in the level of apoptotic protein cleaved-caspase 3, and an increase in the levels of pro-inflammatory factors IL-1β and TNF-α in rat thyroid tissue. Nano-TiO2 also resulted in increased serum FT4 and TPO-Ab levels. In in vitro experiments, nano-TiO2 reduced the viability of human thyroid follicular cells, downregulated the levels and activities of antioxidant enzymes CAT, GPX1 and SOD, and increased the levels of ROS and MDA caused by oxidative stress. These results indicate that nano-TiO2 damages the structure and function of thyroid follicular epithelial cells through oxidative stress. Long-term exposure to nano-TiO2 could be a potential risk factor for thyroid dysfunction.

Ultrasound-Based Micro-/Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications

Due to the intrinsic non-invasive nature, cost-effectiveness, high safety, and real-time capabilities, besides diagnostic imaging, ultrasound as a typical mechanical wave has been extensively developed as a physical tool for versatile biomedical applications. Especially, the prosperity of nanotechnology and nanomedicine invigorates the landscape of ultrasound-based medicine. The unprecedented surge in research enthusiasm and dedicated efforts have led to a mass of multifunctional micro-/nanosystems being applied in ultrasound biomedicine, facilitating precise diagnosis, effective treatment, and personalized theranostics. The effective deployment of versatile ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems in biomedical applications is rooted in a profound understanding of the relationship among composition, structure, property, bioactivity, application, and performance. In this comprehensive review, we elaborate on the general principles regarding the design, synthesis, functionalization, and optimization of ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for abundant biomedical applications. In particular, recent advancements in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for diagnostic imaging are meticulously summarized. Furthermore, we systematically elucidate state-of-the-art studies concerning recent progress in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for therapeutic applications targeting various pathological abnormalities including cancer, bacterial infection, brain diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic diseases. Finally, we conclude and provide an outlook on this research field with an in-depth discussion of the challenges faced and future developments for further extensive clinical translation and application.

Thymol increases primordial follicle activation, protects stromal cells, collagen fibers and down-regulates expression of mRNA for superoxide dismutase 1, catalase and periredoxin 6 in cultured bovine ovarian tissues

This study aims to investigate the influence of thymol on primordial follicle growth and survival, as well as on collagen fibers and stromal cells density in bovine ovarian tissues cultured in vitro. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX), the thiol levels and the expression of mRNAs for SOD1, CAT, periredoxin 6 (PRDX6) and GPX1 were also investigated. Ovarian cortical tissues were cultured in α-MEM+ alone or with thymol (400, 800, 1600 or 3200 μg/mL) for six days. Before and after culture, the tissues were processed for histological analysis to evaluate follicular activation, growth, morphology, ovarian stromal cell density and collagen fibers. The levels of mRNA for SOD1, CAT, GPX1 and PRDX6 were evaluated by real-time PCR. The results show that tissues cultured with thymol (400 and 800 µg/mL) had increased percentages of normal follicles, when compared to tissues cultured in other treatments. At concentrations of 400 and 800 µg/mL, thymol maintained the rate of normal follicles similar to the uncultured control. In addition, 400 µg/mL thymol increased follicle activation, collagen fibers and stromal cell density of when compared to tissues cultured in control medium. The presence of 800 µg/mL thymol in culture medium increased CAT activity, while 400 or 800 µg/mL thymol reduced mRNA levels for SOD1, CAT and PRDX6, but did not alter GPX1 expression. In conclusion, 400 µg/mL thymol increases primordial follicle activation, preserves stromal cells, collagen fibers, and down-regulates expression of mRNA for SOD1, CAT and PRDX6 in cultured bovine ovarian tissues.

A novel bioinformatics strategy to uncover the active ingredients and molecular mechanisms of Bai Shao in the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Introduction: As a new discipline, network pharmacology has been widely used to disclose the material basis and mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine in recent years. However, numerous researches indicated that the material basis of TCMs identified based on network pharmacology was the mixtures of beneficial and harmful substances rather than the real material basis. In this work, taking the anti-NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) effect of Bai Shao (BS) as a case, we attempted to propose a novel bioinformatics strategy to uncover the material basis and mechanism of TCMs in a precise manner. Methods: In our previous studies, we have done a lot work to explore TCM-induced hepatoprotection. Here, by integrating our previous studies, we developed a novel computational pharmacology method to identify hepatoprotective ingredients from TCMs. Then the developed method was used to discover the material basis and mechanism of Bai Shao against Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by combining with the techniques of molecular network, microarray data analysis, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation. Finally, literature verification method was utilized to validate the findings. Results: A total of 12 ingredients were found to be associated with the anti-NAFLD effect of BS, including monoterpene glucosides, flavonoids, triterpenes, and phenolic acids. Further analysis found that IL1-β, IL6, and JUN would be the key targets. Interestingly, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analysis showed that there indeed existed strong and stable binding affinity between the active ingredients and the key targets. In addition, a total of 23 NAFLD-related KEGG pathways were enriched. The major biological processes involved by these pathways including inflammation, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, and glucose metabolism. Of note, there was a great deal of evidence available in the literature to support the findings mentioned above, indicating that our method was reliable. Discussion: In summary, the contributions of this work can be summarized as two aspects as follows. Firstly, we systematically elucidated the material basis and mechanism of BS against NAFLD from multiple perspectives. These findings further enhanced the theoretical foundation of BS on NAFLD. Secondly, a novel computational pharmacology research strategy was proposed, which would assist network pharmacology to uncover the scientific connotation TCMs in a more precise manner.

Hepatotoxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles

The food additive E171 (titanium dioxide, TiO2), is widely used in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. It is a fine white powder, with at least one third of its particles sized in the nanoparticulate (˂100 nm range, TiO2 NPs). The use of E171 is controversial as its relevant risk assessment has never been satisfactorily accomplished. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown dose-dependent toxicity in various organs including the liver. TiO2 NPs have been shown to induce inflammation, cell death and structural and functional changes within the liver. The toxicity of TiO2 NPs in experimental models varies between organs and according to their physiochemical characteristics and parameters such as dosage and route of administration. Among these factors, ingestion is the most significant exposure route, and the liver is a key target organ. The aim of this review is to highlight the reported adverse effects of orally administered TiO2 NPs on the liver and to discuss the controversial state of its toxicity.

Molecular mechanism of nanomaterials induced liver injury: A review

The unique physicochemical properties inherent to nanoscale materials have unveiled numerous potential applications, spanning beyond the pharmaceutical and medical sectors into various consumer industries like food and cosmetics. Consequently, humans encounter nanomaterials through diverse exposure routes, giving rise to potential health considerations. Noteworthy among these materials are silica and specific metallic nanoparticles, extensively utilized in consumer products, which have garnered substantial attention due to their propensity to accumulate and induce adverse effects in the liver. This review paper aims to provide an exhaustive examination of the molecular mechanisms underpinning nanomaterial-induced hepatotoxicity, drawing insights from both in vitro and in vivo studies. Primarily, the most frequently observed manifestations of toxicity following the exposure of cells or animal models to various nanomaterials involve the initiation of oxidative stress and inflammation. Additionally, we delve into the existing in vitro models employed for evaluating the hepatotoxic effects of nanomaterials, emphasizing the persistent endeavors to advance and bolster the reliability of these models for nanotoxicology research.

Alleviative Effect of Lactoferrin Interventions Against the Hepatotoxicity Induced by Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

The current study was designed to investigate the alleviative effect of lactoferrin interventions against the hepatotoxicity induced by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs). Thirty male Wistar rats were divided into six groups with 5 rats in each group. The first and second groups were intragastrically administered normal saline and TiO2-NPs (100 mg/kg body weight) as the negative control (NC) and TiO2-NP groups. The third, fourth, and fifth groups were intragastrically administered lactoferrin at concentrations of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight in addition to TiO2-NPs (100 mg/kg body weight). The sixth group was intragastrically administered Fuzheng Huayu (FZHY) capsules at a concentration of 4.6 g/kg body weight in addition to TiO2-NPs (100 mg/kg body weight) as the positive control group. After treatment for 4 weeks, the concentrations of lactoferrin were optimized based on the liver index and function results. Subsequently, the alleviative effects of lactoferrin interventions against TiO2-NP-induced hepatotoxicity in rat liver tissues, including the effects on histological damage, oxidative stress-related damage, inflammation, fibrosis, DNA damage, apoptosis, and gene expression, were investigated using histopathological, biochemical, and transcriptomic assays. The results showed that 200 mg/kg lactoferrin interventions for 4 weeks not only ameliorated the liver dysfunction and histopathological damage caused by TiO2-NP exposure but also inhibited the oxidative stress-related damage, inflammation, fibrosis, DNA damage, and apoptosis in the liver tissues of TiO2-NP-exposed rats. The transcriptomic results confirmed that the alleviative effect of lactoferrin interventions against the TiO2-NP exposure-induced hepatotoxicity was related to the activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

The toxicological effects of nano titanium dioxide on target organs and mechanisms of toxicity

Nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2 NPs) is widely used for its extremely high stability, corrosion resistance, and photocatalytic properties and has penetrated into various fields of production and life. Assessing its toxicity to different organs should be a key part of preclinical toxicity assessment of TiO2 NPs, which is relatively incomprehensive yet. Therefore, this review focuses on the toxic effects of TiO2 NPs on various organs in mammals and biological mechanisms from different organs. The commonality of toxic effects on various target organs reflected in tissue structure damage and dysfunction, such as liver damage and dysfunction; pulmonary fibrosis; and renal impairment (including hematuria and nephritis); damage of brain tissue and neurons; alteration of intestinal villi; and weight loss. And effects on the reproductive system are affected by different sexes, including ovarian dysfunction, testicular development damage, and sperm viability reduction. We believe that the toxic mechanisms of TiO2 NPs in target organs have commonalities, such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and organelle damage. However, different target organ toxicities also have their specificities. TiO2 NPs disturb the intestinal flora and cause undesirable changes in feces products. And in spleen are infiltration of neutrophils and lymphadenopathy and eventually immune deficiency. Although the toxic pathways are different, but there may be a close link between the different toxic pathways. In this article, the main manifestations of the toxic effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on major mammalian organs are reviewed, in order to provide basic data for their better application from a medical perspective.

TNF-α and IL-1β in Diabetes-Induced Liver Damage: The Relationship between Trachyspermum ammi Seeds Methanol Extract and Inflammatory Cytokine Inhibition

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of Trachyspermum ammi (T. ammi) on the liver of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. This study began by identifying the methanolic composition of T. ammi. The presence of three compounds was determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), with Thymol (60.705%), ϒ-Terpinene (22.216%), and P-cymene (17.078%) being the most prevalent. Afterwards, diabetic rats were treated with T. ammi (200–500 mg/kg) or losartan (20 mg/kg) daily for 60 days. In the diabetic rats treated with T. ammi, levels of hepatic indicators, lipid peroxidation markers, and proinflammatory mediators decreased significantly. In the liver of T. ammi-treated diabetic rats, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) increased significantly. Despite the fact that proinflammatory cytokine levels were significantly increased, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels decreased in the groups administered the extract. From these results, it can be concluded that T. ammi significantly restored the liver’s antioxidant balance and inflammation caused by hyperglycemia.

Thymol ameliorates ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity via regulating metabolism and autophagy

Alcoholic liver disease represents a serious threat to human health. In terms of safety and acceptability, thymol is widely used in or on foodstuffs to generate odour and taste. The present study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect and mechanism of thymol against ethanol-induced injury in liver cells. Here we found that thymol is an effective agent for reducing ethanol-induced reactive oxygen species production in mouse liver cells. Thymol improves ethanol-induced lipid accumulation, and this corresponded to altered DGAT2 mRNA expression levels. Metabolomics data analysis showed that thymol alleviated ethanol-induced changes in the levels of thirty-four metabolites including nicotinic acid and l-arginine. By utilizing pathway enrichment analysis, altered metabolites in cells treated with ethanol and ethanol plus thymol were enriched in fourteen pathways including metabolic pathways and arginine and proline metabolism. We further confirmed the alleviation of overdose nitric oxide production in cells treated with ethanol plus thymol compared with that in ethanol-treated cells. It was interesting that up-regulated LC3-II/LC3-I ratio together with higher SQSTM1 protein abundance in ethanol-treated cells were attenuated by treatment with ethanol plus thymol. Thymol ameliorated ethanol-induced reduction of HSPA8 protein abundance. In addition, chloroquine-treated cells exhibited lower HSPA8 protein abundance compared with cells simulated with ethanol plus thymol. These data reveal that improving effect of thymol on ethanol-induced metabolic alteration is related to autophagic flux restoration. Our findings indicate that thymol is an attractive option for treating ethanol-induced liver damage.

Thymol co-administration abrogates hexachlorobenzene-induced reproductive toxicities in male rats

This present study was designed to investigate ameliorating potential of thymol (THY) on hexachlorobenzene (HBC)-induced epididymal and testicular toxicities in adult male rats. Forty adult male rats were orally treated by gavage daily for 28 consecutive days and divided into four groups; control group administered with corn oil, HBC-treated group (16 mg/kg b. wt), thymol-treated group (30 mg/kg b. wt), and HBC + THY-treated group. The results revealed that HBC exposure caused a significant decrease in the body weight change, organ weights, sperm functional parameters, serum testosterone level with widespread histological abnormalities. Furthermore, HBC-treated rats showed increased in the serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), epididymal and testicular myeloperoxidase activity, tumor necrosis-α, interleukin-1β level and caspase-3 activity, induced oxidative damage as evidenced by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (RONS) levels and significant reduction in antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced glutathione (GSH). However, co-treatment of THY with HBC alleviated the HBC-induced epididymal and testicular toxicities. Our findings revealed that HBC acts as a reproductive toxicant in rats and thymol could be a potential remedial agent for HBC-induced reproductive toxicity.

Bacillus coagulans Alleviates Intestinal Damage Induced by TiO2 Nanoparticles in Mice on a High-Fat Diet

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) are generally added in considerable amounts to food as a food additive. Oral exposure to TiO₂ NPs could induce intestinal damage, especially in obese individuals with a high-fat diet. The probiotic Bacillus coagulans (B. coagulans) exhibits good resistance in the gastrointestinal system and is beneficial to intestinal health. In this study, B. coagulans was used to treat intestinal damage caused by TiO₂ NPs in high-fat-diet mice via two intervention methods: administration of TiO₂ NPs and B. coagulans simultaneously and administration of TiO₂ NPs followed by that of B. coagulans. The intervention with B. coagulans was found to reduce the inflammatory response and oxidative stress. A 16S rDNA sequencing analysis revealed that B. coagulans had increased the diversity of gut microbiota and optimized the composition of gut microbiota. Fecal metabolomics analysis indicated that B. coagulans had restored the homeostasis of sphingolipids and amino acid metabolism. The intervention strategy of administering TiO₂ NPs followed by B. coagulans was found to be more effective. In conclusion, B. coagulans could alleviate intestinal damage induced by TiO₂ NPs in high-fat-diet mice TiO₂B. coagulans. Our results suggest a new avenue for interventions against intestinal damage induced by TiO₂ NPs.

Thymol Nanopolymer Synthesis and Its Effects on Morphine Withdrawal Syndrome in Comparison With Clonidine in Rats

The drug delivery system is valuable in the treatment of the disease. A nanopolymer as a thymol and Thymbra spicata release system was synthesized and its effects on morphine withdrawal syndrome in comparison with clonidine in rats were studied. The nanopolymer was characterized by different methods, namely, IR, HNMR, CNMR, GPC, DLS, and AFM. Thymol in T. spicata extract was assessed. The loading and release rate of thymol and T. spicata extract on the nanopolymer were evaluated by HPLC. The median lethal dose (LD50) of the T. spicata extract, thymol, extract nanopolymer, and thymol nanopolymer was studied. The frequency of jumping, rearing, and teeth chattering in naloxone-induced morphine withdrawal syndrome was studied. Synthesized nanopolymer was desirable as a carrier for the drug. The loaded amount of extract and thymol on nanopolymer was estimated 55 ± 3.2% and 48 ± 2.6% and the drug released was 71 and 68%, respectively. LD50 of the T. spicata extract, thymol, extract nanopolymer, and thymol nanopolymer was 975, 580, 1,250, and 650 mg/kg, respectively. This study showed that thymol nanopolymer was more effective than clonidine to reduce the frequency of morphine withdrawal symptoms. Our results suggest that T. spicata extract, thymol, extract nanopolymer, and thymol nanopolymer are mighty in reducing the narcotic withdrawal signs. The mechanism of action and therapeutic potential is maybe similar to clonidine.

Thymol ameliorated neurotoxicity and cognitive deterioration in a thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy rat model; involvement of the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway

In the present study, we aimed to delineate the neuroprotective potential of thymol (THY) against neurotoxicity and cognitive deterioration induced by thioacetamide (TAA) in an experimental model of hepatic encephalopathy (HE). Rats received TAA (100 mg kg^-1, intraperitoneally injected, three times per week) for two weeks. THY (30 and 60 mg kg^-1), and Vit E (100 mg k^-1) were administered daily by oral gavage for 30 days after HE induction. Supplementation with THY significantly improved liver function, reduced serum ammonia level, and ameliorated the locomotor and cognitive deficits. THY effectively modulated the alteration in oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters, and brain ATP content. Histopathology of liver and brain tissues showed that THY had ameliorated TAA-induced damage, astrocyte swelling and brain edema. Furthermore, THY downregulated NF-kB and upregulated GFAP protein expression. In addition, THY significantly promoted CREB and BDNF expression at both mRNA and protein levels, together with enhancing brain cAMP level. In conclusion, THY exerted hepato- and neuroprotective effects against HE by mitigating hepatotoxicity, hyperammonemia and brain ATP depletion via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effects in addition to activation of the CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

Thymol alleviates imidacloprid-induced testicular toxicity by modulating oxidative stress and expression of steroidogenesis and apoptosis-related genes in adult male rats

The present work was designed to assess the potential ameliorative effect of thymol on the testicular toxicity caused by imidacloprid (IMI) in adult male rats. Forty adult male rats were allocated into four groups; control group was given corn oil, thymol-treated group (30 mg/kg b.wt), IMI-treated group (22.5 mg/kg b.wt), and IMI + thymol-treated group. All administrations were done by gavage every day for duration of 56 days. As a result, the IMI exposure caused a significant decline in the body weight change, reproductive organ weights, sperm functional parameters, and serum level of testosterone, widespread histological alterations, and apoptosis in the testis. Additionally, the IMI-treated rats exhibited a remarkable increment in the serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Also, IMI induced testicular oxidative stress, as indicated by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and a marked decline in the activity of antioxidant enzymes and reduced glutathione (GSH), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels. Moreover, IMI treatment significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of steroidogenic genes and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunoexpression in the testicular tissue. However, thymol co-administration significantly mitigated the IMI-induced toxic effects. Our findings suggested that IMI acts as a male reproductive toxicant in rats and thymol could be a potential therapeutic option for IMI reprotoxic impacts.

Moroccan Bee Bread Improves Biochemical and Histological Changes of the Brain, Liver, and Kidneys Induced by Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) were used in various fields such as food industry, cosmetics, medicine, and agriculture. Despite the many advantages of nanotechnology, the adverse effects of nanoparticles are inevitable. The present study was conducted to evaluate the protective effect of bee bread on titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticle toxicity. Male rats were randomly divided into four groups: Group 1 received daily by gavage (10 mL/kg bw) of distilled water, Group 2 received bee bread ethanolic extract (100 mg/kg bw), Group 3 received TiO2 (100 mg/kg bw) and distilled water (10 mL/kg bw), and Group 4 received TiO2 (100 mg/kg bw) and bee bread ethanolic extract (100 mg/kg bw). All treatments were given daily by gavage during 30 days. At the end of the experiment period, blood samples were collected to analyze fasting blood glucose, lipid profile (TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C, and VLDL-C), liver enzymes (AST, ALT, and LDH), total protein, urea, albumin, creatinine, sodium, potassium, and chloride ions. In addition, histological examinations of the kidneys, liver, and brain were investigated. The results showed that the subacute administration of TiO2 alone (100 mg/kg bw) had induced hyperglycemia (309 ± 5 mg/dL) and elevation of hepatic enzyme levels, accompanied by a change in both lipid profile and renal biomarkers as well as induced congestion and dilatation in the hepatic central vein and congestion in kidney and brain tissues. However, the cotreatment with bee bread extract restored these biochemical parameters and attenuated the deleterious effects of titanium nanoparticles on brain, liver, and kidney functions which could be due to its rich content on functional molecules. The findings of this paper could make an important contribution to the field of using bee bread as a detoxifying agent against titanium dioxide nanoparticles and other xenobiotics.

Au-TiO2 nanoparticles exposure induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity in rat

CONTEXT

The Au-TiO2NPs have a wide range of applications and can easily enter the cells. Due to their properties, they can cause toxicity.

OBJECTIVE

It was aimed to test the toxic effects of Au-TiO2 NPs in the brain, heart, kidney and liver of rats in this work.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All used rats in this work were treated using diverse concentrations (doses) of NPs (100 and 200 mg/kg bw) for 21 days. SOD, CAT, AChE activities and MDA, H2O2, NO contents were evaluated in different organs.

RESULTS

The Au-TiO2 NPs exposure induced biochemical changes in different organs of rats in view of oxidative stress and neurotoxicity by the alteration of the activity of the enzyme of neurotransmitter (AChE activity).

CONCLUSION

The Au-TiO2 NPs have the potential to interact with rat's biochemical status and cause undesirable effects. One of those damaging effects was oxidative stress and neurotoxicity.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The study signifies the impact of usage of Au-TiO2 NPs in the medical field for further exploration.

The Effects of Pre-Treatment and Post-Treatment of Thymol against tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide (t-BHP) Cytotoxicity in MCF-7 Cell Line and Fibroblast Derived Foreskin

Background

Some recent studies have reported anti-tumor activity for Thymol, but the findings are inconsistent. This study aimed to investigate and compare Thymol's effects on MCF-7 cancer cells and fibroblasts while treated with tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP).

Methods

In the pre-treatment, MCF-7 and fibroblast cells were treated with various Thymol concentrations and incubated for 24 h. Then, t-BHP was added to a final concentration of 50 μM, and the cells were incubated for one h. In the post-treatment, cells were incubated first with 50 μM t-BHP for one h and then treated with Thymol. Cell viability was tested by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Thymol's antioxidant capacity was measured by DPPH and FRAP assays, and lipid peroxidation levels were determined by the TBARS method.

Results

The thymol effects were dose-dependent, and despite their antioxidant properties, at concentrations of 100 µg/ml or more, increased t-BHP toxicity and reduced cancer cell viability. MTT assay result showed that pre-treatment and post-treatment with Thymol for 24 hours effectively reduced MCF-7 and fibroblast cell viability compared with the untreated control group. Both pre- and post-treatment of Thymol, normal fibroblast cell viability was significantly greater than that of the MCF-7 cells.

Conclusion

Our finding showed that Thymol appears to be toxic to MCF-7 cells at lower concentrations than fibroblasts after 24 hours of incubation. Pre-treatment with Thymol neutralized the oxidative effect of t-BHP in fibroblasts but was toxic for MCF-7 cells.

Neurological effects of long-term exposure to low doses of pesticides mixtures in male rats: Biochemical, histological, and neurobehavioral evaluations

Humans are usually exposed to multiple pesticides in real life, but little is known as yet about the safety of low-dose pesticides mixtures. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of long-term exposure to very low doses of pesticide mixtures on biochemical, histological, and neurobehavioral alterations in the rat model. For 90 days, four groups of male Wistar rats were given a mixture of five pesticides (in drinking water) in doses of 0, 0.25, 1 and 5 times the legally permitted levels (mg/kg body weight/day). After three-month exposure, the neurobehavioral effects of pesticide mixtures were evaluated by the Morris water maze, elevated plus maze and the open field tests. Then the biochemical and histopathological alterations in the hippocampus of studied animals were evaluated. Results showed that long-term exposure to a combination of five pesticides affected the nervous system in dose-dependent manner. As expected, nearly all of the parameters determined in this study were adversely changed in the high dose group. Exposure to medium dose (permitted level of pesticides mixture) was also able to induce oxidative stress and impaired memory and learning ability, although not all parameters were significantly changed in this group. It means that pesticides may behave differently when mixed. Interestingly, the administration of low doses of these chemicals induced an adaptive response by stimulating the redox system. In conclusion, it seems that the prolonged exposure to pesticide mixtures may cause adverse neurobehavioral effects, even at permitted levels.

Effects of oral administration of titanium dioxide particles on sperm parameters and in vitro fertilization potential in mice: A comparison between nano- and fine-sized particles

Titanium dioxide particles (TiO₂) as the second most widely used materials in consumer products are composed of nano-sized (<100 nm) particles (NPs) and fine-sized (>100 nm) particles (FPs). Toxicological studies on animals have shown that TiO₂ NPs exposure can cross the blood-testis barrier and accumulate in the testis resulting in testicular tissue damage and reduction of sperm count and motility. However, there is no information on the toxic effects of TiO₂ FPs on male reproductive fertility. Twenty-four adult male mice were randomly divided into three groups including control, TiO₂ NPs, and TiO₂ FPs (150 mg kg^-1 per day). After intragastric administration for 35 days, testicular tissue alterations (seminiferous tubule diameter and germinal epithelial height), sperm parameters (count, motility, viability, morphology, and DNA quality), in vitro fertilization potential, oxidative stress assays such as malondialdehyde (MDA) content, level of glutathione (GSH) and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in testicular tissue were investigated. The results showed that both sizes of TiO₂ caused pathologic changes in the testis and significantly increased MDA level and decreased GSH levels and activities of SOD and GPx in testicular tissue. Moreover, the administration of both sizes of TiO₂ significantly decreased all of the sperm parameters and in vitro fertility (fertilization rate and pre-implantation embryos development) compared to control. Administration of TiO₂ FPs similar to TiO₂ NPs through inducing damages to testis led to a marked reduction in sperm quality, in vitro fertilization, and embryos development in male mice.

Hepatotoxicity induced by nanomaterials: mechanisms and in vitro models

The unique physicochemical properties of materials at nanoscale have opened a plethora of opportunities for applications in the pharmaceutical and medical field, but also in consumer products from food and cosmetics industries. As a consequence, daily human exposure to nanomaterials through distinct routes is considerable and, therefore, may raise health concerns. Many nanomaterials have been described to accumulate and induce adversity in the liver. Among these, silica and some types of metallic nanoparticles are the most broadly used in consumer products and, therefore, the most studied and reported. The reviewed literature was collected from PubMed.gov during the month of March 2020 using the search words "nanomaterials induced hepatotoxicity", which yielded 181 papers. This present paper reviews the hepatotoxic effects of nanomaterials described in in vitro and in vivo studies, with emphasis on the underlying mechanisms. The induction of oxidative stress and inflammation are the manifestations of toxicity most frequently reported following exposure of cells or animal models to different nanomaterials. Furthermore, the available in vitro models for the evaluation of the hepatotoxic effects of nanomaterials are discussed, highlighting the continuous interest in the development of more advanced and reliable in vitro models for nanotoxicology.

Tissue-specific oxidative stress and element distribution after oral exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles in rats

Dietary and environmental exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) can cause low-dose and long-term oral exposure in the population, posing a potential adverse health risk. Oxidative stress is considered to be the primary effect of TiO2 NPs through biological interaction. In the present study, we conducted an animal experiment to investigate the element distribution and oxidative stress in Sprague-Dawley rats after oral exposure to TiO2 NPs at daily doses of 0, 2, 10, and 50 mg kg-1 for 90 days. Through the detection of Ti element content in various tissues, limited absorption and distribution of TiO2 NPs in rats was found. However, orally ingested TiO2 NPs still induced tissue-specific oxidative stress and imbalance of elements. Liver tissue was the most sensitive tissue to TiO2 NP-induced oxidative stress, showing decreased reduced glutathione (GSH), increased oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and decreased ratio of GSH/GSSG as well as accumulation of lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA) in liver tissues of rats after TiO2 NP exposure (10 and 50 mg kg-1). Meanwhile, oral exposure to TiO2 NPs caused a significant reduction in metal elements such as Mg, Ca and Co in various tissues. Through bioinformatics analysis, the tissue specificity and correlation between the imbalance of elements and oxidative stress were statistically confirmed, but it was difficult to understand the causal relationship. Disorder of element distribution and oxidative stress may lead to a series of subsequent adverse health effects and the tissue specificity would partly explain the target effects of TiO2 NPs.

The effects of exposure to fluoxetine during lactation on testicular tissue and sperm parameters in mice offspring

Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor is commonly prescribed to treat maternal depression in pregnancy and lactation. This study aimed to investigate the effects of maternal exposure to fluoxetine via lactation on testicular tissue, sperm parameters including count, motility, viability, and normal morphology and testicular oxidative stress status in male mice offspring. Ten mice dams were divided into control and experimental groups. The control group received water and the experimental group received fluoxetine (20.00 mg kg^-1) by gavage daily from postnatal days of 0-21. Histology of testis, sperm parameters and oxidative stress in the testicular tissue were analyzed at 80 days after birth in their male offspring (n = 8). Significant reductions in the body and testes weights were observed in animals exposed to fluoxetine. Additionally, fluoxetine exposure significantly reduced all sperm parameters, tubular diameter and epithelial height of the seminiferous tubules as well as Leydig cells number. Significant increases in the testicular malondialdehyde levels and percentage of sperm with chromatin/DNA damage were observed in mice exposed to fluoxetine compared to control. These findings suggest that maternal exposure to fluoxetine during lactation in mice has a negative effect on the testicular tissue of their offspring and impairs the spermatogenesis process which in turn can induce infertility.

Oxidative Damage Induced by Nano-titanium Dioxide in Rats and Mice: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Nano-titanium dioxide is a kind of widely used nanomaterial that exhibits various adverse outcomes. However, the role of oxidative stress in this regard remains controversial. This study aimed to evaluate whether oxidative stress is one of the toxicity mechanisms induced by nano-titanium dioxide in rats and mice model. In this meta-analysis, 64 relevant publications were included through detailed database search. The pooled results showed that nano-titanium dioxide exposure could promote the expression of oxidants, such as malonaldehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), superoxide anion (O₂^-), and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Meanwhile, the levels of antioxidant-related enzymes and molecules, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT), were reduced. Subgroup analysis revealed that different intervention routes, exposure periods, exposure dosages, and sample sources could affect the oxidative stress when exposed to nano-titanium dioxide. It was worth noting that the levels of MDA, 8-OHdG, and GSH significantly increased (P < 0.05) when the particle size of nano-titanium dioxide was < 10 nm, whereas H₂O₂, SOD, and GPx showed the highest effect at 10-40 nm. This study indicated that nano-titanium dioxide could cause oxidative damage by affecting the levels of enzymes and molecules involved in oxidative stress in rats and mice. And these results could provide a reference for studies of the toxicity mechanism induced by nano-titanium dioxide in the future.

Repeated-dose 26-week oral toxicity study of ginsenoside compound K in Beagle dogs

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginsenoside compound K (CK), a product produced by the intestinal bacteria-mediated breakdown of ginsenoside, exhibits a wide array of pharmacological activities against diverse targets. However, few of preclinical safety evaluation of CK is reported.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The present study therefore sought to assess the toxicity of oral CK in Beagle dogs over a 26-week period.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All dogs received 4, 12, or 36 mg/kg oral CK doses for 26 weeks with regular monitoring, followed by a 4-week recovery period. Animals were monitored through measurements of temperature, weight, food intake, blood chemistry and hematological findings, electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements, urinalysis, gross necropsy and organ weight and tissue histopathology.

RESULTS

Animals in the 36 mg/kg group exhibited an apparent reduction in body weight over the study period, in addition to the presence of focal liver necrosis and increased plasma enzyme levels (alanine aminotransferase, ALT; alkaline phosphatase, ALP) consistent with hepatotoxicity, although there was some evidence suggesting this toxicity was reversible. Animals in the 4 and 12 mg/kg groups did not exhibit any apparent toxicity for any measured parameters.

CONCLUSION

These results thus indicate that the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) in dogs is 12 mg/kg.

Protective effects of orally administered thymol against titanium dioxide nanoparticle-induced testicular damage

In this study, we investigated the potential of thymol and its mode of action to protect against the titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticle-induced testicular damage. Twenty-four rats were randomly divided into four groups: control group, TiO2 (100 mg/kg BW/day) group, TiO2 + thymol (10 mg/kg BW/day) group, and TiO2 + thymol (30 mg/kg BW/day) group. With the exception of the control group, all animals received orally TiO2 nanoparticles for 60 days. In treatment groups, animals were given orally thymol 1 h before TiO2 nanoparticles. Epididymal sperm parameters, testicular histopathology, and spermatogenesis assessments were performed for evaluation of the TiO2 and thymol effects on the testis. Furthermore, antioxidative enzyme activities such as catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) levels and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) value were measured. Intragastric administration of TiO2 for 60 consecutive days caused a significant decrease in sperm quality, widespread histopathological alteration, and significantly induced oxidative stress as manifested by elevated MDA levels and a remarkable decline in antioxidant enzyme activities such as CAT, SOD, and GPx, and also FRAP and GSH levels in testis tissue. Nearly all of these alterations were significantly ameliorated in the groups that orally received thymol before TiO2 nanoparticles administration. The results of this study demonstrated that thymol improved the spermatogenesis defects induced by TiO2 nanoparticles in rats in a dose-dependent manner by protecting the testes against the testicular toxicity. Reduction in TiO2 nanoparticle-induced oxidative stress may have a major role in this protective effect.

Anticonvulsant Essential Oils and Their Relationship with Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a most disabling neurological disorder affecting all age groups. Among the various mechanisms that may result in epilepsy, neuronal hyperexcitability and oxidative injury produced by an excessive formation of free radicals may play a role in the development of this pathology. Therefore, new treatment approaches are needed to address resistant conditions that do not respond fully to current antiepileptic drugs. This paper reviews studies on the anticonvulsant activities of essential oils and their chemical constituents. Data from studies published from January 2011 to December 2018 was selected from the PubMed database for examination. The bioactivity of 19 essential oils and 16 constituents is described. Apiaceae and Lamiaceae were the most promising botanical families due to the largest number of reports about plant species from these families that produce anticonvulsant essential oils. Among the evaluated compounds, β-caryophyllene, borneol, eugenol and nerolidol were the constituents that presented antioxidant properties related to anticonvulsant action. These data show the potential of these natural products as health promoting agents and use against various types of seizure disorders. Their properties on oxidative stress may contribute to the control of this neurological condition. However, further studies on the toxicological profile and mechanism of action of essential oils are needed.

Carvacrol and Thymol Modulate the Cross-Talk between TNF-α and IGF-1 Signaling in Radiotherapy-Induced Ovarian Failure

Premature ovarian failure (POF) is a common cause of infertility in premenopausal women who are unavoidably exposed to cytotoxic therapy. Radiotherapy is one of the most effective cytotoxic treatments. However, the radiosensitivity of ovarian tissues limits its therapeutic outcome and results in the depletion of the primordial follicle and loss of fertility. Therefore, the need for an effective radioprotective therapy is evident especially when none of the current clinically used modalities for radioprotection succeeds efficiently. The present study investigated the potential radioprotective effect of carvacrol (CAR) (80 mg) or thymol (80 mg) on gamma- (γ-) irradiation-induced ovarian damage as well as their role in the cross-talk between IGF-1 and TNF-α signaling and antioxidative activity. In immature female Wister rats, a single dose of whole-body irradiation (3.2 Gy, LD₂₀) produced considerable ovarian damage, which was evident by histopathological findings and hormonal changes. Interestingly, pretreatment with CAR or thymol significantly enhanced the follicular development and restored the anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH), E2, and FSH levels. Both essential oils improved the irradiation-mediated oxidative stress and reduction in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. Moreover, irradiated rats exhibited an inverse relationship between IGF-1 and TNF-α levels two days post irradiation, which was further inverted by the pretreatment with CAR and thymol and ought to contribute in their radioprotective mechanisms. In conclusion, CAR and thymol showed a radioprotective effect and rescued the ovarian reserve mainly through counteracting oxidative stress and the dysregulated cross-talk between IGF-1 and TNF-α.

Thymol polymeric nanoparticle synthesis and its effects on the toxicity of high glucose on OEC cells: involvement of growth factors and integrin-linked kinase

Background

Nowadays, the drug delivery system is important in the treatment of diseases.

Purpose

A polymeric nanoparticle modified by oleic acid (NPMO) as a Thymol (Thy) drug release system was synthesized from Thymbra spicata and its neurotrophic and angiogenic effects on rat’s olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) in normal (NG) and high glucose (HG) conditions were studied.

Methods

The NPMO was characterized by using different spectroscopy methods, such as infrared, HNMR, CNMR, gel permeation chromatography, dynamic light scattering, and atomic force microscopy. Load and releasing were investigated by HPLC. The toxicity against OECs diet-induced by MTT assay. ROS and generation of nitric oxide (NO) were evaluated using dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein and Griess method, respectively. The expression of protein integrin-linked kinase (ILK), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and nerve growth factor (NGF) were evaluated by Western blotting.

Results

ThyNPMO is desirable for transferring drug as a carrier. The amount of Thy and extract (E) loaded on NPMO estimated at 43±2.5% and 41±1.8%, respectively. Then, 65% and 63% of the drug load were released, respectively. Thy, ThyNPMO, E, and ENPMO prevented HG-induced OECs cell death (EC50 33±1.5, 22±0.9, 35±1.8, and 25±1.1 μM, respectively). Incubation with Thy, ThyNPMO, E ,and ENPMO at high concentrations increased cell death with LC50 105±3.5, 82±2.8, 109±4.3, and 86±3.4 μM, respectively in HG states.

Conclusion

OECs were protected by ThyNPMO and ENPMO in protective concentrations by reducing the amount of ROS and NO, maintaining ILK, reducing VEGF, and increasing BDNF and NGF. The mentioned mechanisms were totally reversed at high concentrations.

Subchronic and chronic toxicity evaluation of inorganic nanoparticles for delivery applications

Inorganic nanoparticles provide the opportunity to localize bioactive agents to the target sites and protect them from degradation. In many cases, acute toxicities of inorganic nanoparticles used for delivery applications have been investigated. However, little information is available regarding the long-term toxicity of such materials. This review focuses on the importance of subchronic and chronic toxicity assessment of inorganic nanoparticles investigated for delivery applications. We have attempted to provide a comprehensive review of the available literature for chronic toxicity assessment of inorganic nanoparticles. Where possible correlations are made between particle composition, physiochemical properties, duration, frequency and route of administration, as well as the sex of animals, with tissue and blood toxicity, immunotoxicity and genotoxicity. A critical gap analysis is provided and important factors that need to be considered for long-term toxicology of inorganic nanoparticles are discussed.

Purinergic system as a potential target for inflammation and toxicity induced by thymol in immune cells and tissues

Thymol is a phytochemical component present in many plants used as food additive in order to promote animal growth due to its several biological properties. However, possible side effects of thymol remain poorly known limited to few reports. In this sense, we evaluated the enzymes of the purinergic signaling such as, ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase), 5'-nucleotidase and adenosine deaminase (ADA), that play an important role on toxicity induced by excessive adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content in the extracellular environment. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether purinergic signaling could be considered a potential target of thymol-induced inflammation, and the toxicity in tissues and immune cells of mice after thymol administration. NTPDase activity (ATP as substrate) in serum, spleen, and splenic lymphocytes was lower after 30 days of oral treatment at doses of 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg of thymol, while ADA activity was stimulated at 20 and 40 mg/kg. No differences were observed between groups regarding NTPDase (ADP as substrate) and 5'-nucleotidase activities in all evaluated tissues. Based on these evidences, adenine nucleotide hydrolysis is modified in serum, spleen, and splenic lymphocytes of mice treated with thymol, contributing to inflammation and toxicity by a reduction on ATP hydrolyses and its possible accumulation in the extracellular medium and increased Ado desamination and its possible reduction in the extracellular environment, leading to a self-sustained pro-inflammatory deleterious cycle. In summary, all tested thymol concentrations induced inflammation and toxicity in tissues and immune cells of treated mice.