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Yang X, Wu X. The impact of sestrin2 on reactive oxygen species in diabetic retinopathy. Cell Biochem Funct 2024; 42:e4024. [PMID: 38666564 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.4024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a significant complication of diabetes that often leads to blindness, impacting Müller cells, the primary retinal macroglia involved in DR pathogenesis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in the development of DR. The objective of this study was to investigate the involvement of sestrin2 in DR using a high-glucose (HG)-induced Müller cell model and assessing cell proliferation with 5-ethynyl-2-deoxyuridine (EdU) labeling. Following this, sestrin2 was upregulated in Müller cells to investigate its effects on ROS, tube formation, and inflammation both in vitro and in vivo, as well as its interaction with the nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway. The findings demonstrated a gradual increase in the number of EdU-positive cells over time, with a subsequent decrease after 72 h of exposure to high glucose levels. Additionally, the expression of sestrin2 exhibited a progressive increase over time, followed by a decrease at 72 h. The rh-sestrin2 treatment suppressed the injury of Müller cells, decreased ROS level, and inhibited the tube formation. Rh-sestrin2 treatment enhanced the expression of sestrin2, Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and glutamine synthetase (GS); however, the ML385 treatment reversed the protective effect of rh-sestrin2. Finally, we evaluated the effect of sestrin2 in a DR rat model. Sestrin2 overexpression treatment improved the pathological injury of retina and attenuated the oxidative damage and inflammatory reaction. Our results highlighted the inhibitory effect of sestrin2 in the damage of retina, thus presenting a novel therapeutic sight for DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueli Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, YanTaiShan Hospital, Yantai, China
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shandong Rongjun General Hospital, Jinan, China
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2
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Egbujor MC, Olaniyan OT, Emeruwa CN, Saha S, Saso L, Tucci P. An insight into role of amino acids as antioxidants via NRF2 activation. Amino Acids 2024; 56:23. [PMID: 38506925 PMCID: PMC10954862 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-024-03384-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Oxidative stress can affect the protein, lipids, and DNA of the cells and thus, play a crucial role in several pathophysiological conditions. It has already been established that oxidative stress has a close association with inflammation via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signaling pathway. Amino acids are notably the building block of proteins and constitute the major class of nitrogen-containing natural products of medicinal importance. They exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities, including the ability to activate NRF2, a transcription factor that regulates endogenous antioxidant responses. Moreover, amino acids may act as synergistic antioxidants as part of our dietary supplementations. This has aroused research interest in the NRF2-inducing activity of amino acids. Interestingly, amino acids' activation of NRF2-Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1) signaling pathway exerts therapeutic effects in several diseases. Therefore, the present review will discuss the relationship between different amino acids and activation of NRF2-KEAP1 signaling pathway pinning their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. We also discussed amino acids formulations and their applications as therapeutics. This will broaden the prospect of the therapeutic applications of amino acids in a myriad of inflammation and oxidative stress-related diseases. This will provide an insight for designing and developing new chemical entities as NRF2 activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melford C Egbujor
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University Otuoke, Otuoke, Bayelsa, Nigeria
| | | | | | - Sarmistha Saha
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences and Humanities, GLA University, Mathura, 281406, India
| | - Luciano Saso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Vittorio Erspamer, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Paolo Tucci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122, Foggia, Italy
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3
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Navneet S, Wilson K, Rohrer B. Müller Glial Cells in the Macula: Their Activation and Cell-Cell Interactions in Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:42. [PMID: 38416457 PMCID: PMC10910558 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.2.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Müller glia, the main glial cell of the retina, are critical for neuronal and vascular homeostasis in the retina. During age-related macular degeneration (AMD) pathogenesis, Müller glial activation, remodeling, and migrations are reported in the areas of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) degeneration, photoreceptor loss, and choroidal neovascularization (CNV) lesions. Despite this evidence indicating glial activation localized to the regions of AMD pathogenesis, it is unclear whether these glial responses contribute to AMD pathology or occur merely as a bystander effect. In this review, we summarize how Müller glia are affected in AMD retinas and share a prospect on how Müller glial stress might directly contribute to the pathogenesis of AMD. The goal of this review is to highlight the need for future studies investigating the Müller cell's role in AMD. This may lead to a better understanding of AMD pathology, including the conversion from dry to wet AMD, which has no effective therapy currently and may shed light on drug intolerance and resistance to current treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Navneet
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
| | - Kyrie Wilson
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
| | - Bärbel Rohrer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
- Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Division of Research, Charleston, South Carolina, United States
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4
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Zarembska E, Ślusarczyk K, Wrzosek M. The Implication of a Polymorphism in the Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase Gene in Homocysteine Metabolism and Related Civilisation Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:193. [PMID: 38203363 PMCID: PMC10779094 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is a key regulatory enzyme in the one-carbon cycle. This enzyme is essential for the metabolism of methionine, folate, and RNA, as well as for the production of proteins, DNA, and RNA. MTHFR catalyses the irreversible conversion of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate to its active form, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, a co-substrate for homocysteine remethylation to methionine. Numerous variants of the MTHFR gene have been recognised, among which the C677T variant is the most extensively studied. The C677T polymorphism, which results in the conversion of valine to alanine at codon 222, is associated with reduced activity and an increased thermolability of the enzyme. Impaired MTHFR efficiency is associated with increased levels of homocysteine, which can contribute to increased production of reactive oxygen species and the development of oxidative stress. Homocysteine is acknowledged as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, while chronic inflammation serves as the common underlying factor among these issues. Many studies have been conducted to determine whether there is an association between the C677T polymorphism and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, and overweight/obesity. There is substantial evidence supporting this association, although several studies have concluded that the polymorphism cannot be reliably used for prediction. This review examines the latest research on MTHFR polymorphisms and their correlation with cardiovascular disease, obesity, and epigenetic regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Zarembska
- Student Scientific Association “Farmakon”, Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacogenomics, Medical University of Warsaw, 1 Banacha St., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Klaudia Ślusarczyk
- Student Scientific Association “Farmakon”, Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacogenomics, Medical University of Warsaw, 1 Banacha St., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Medical Genetics, Institute of Mother and Child, 17a Kasprzaka St., 01-211 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Wrzosek
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacogenomics, Medical University of Warsaw, 1 Banacha St., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
- Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha St., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
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Cha Z, Yin Z, A L, Ge L, Yang J, Huang X, Gao H, Chen X, Feng Z, Mo L, He J, Zhu S, Zhao M, Tao Z, Gu Z, Xu H. Fullerol rescues the light-induced retinal damage by modulating Müller glia cell fate. Redox Biol 2023; 67:102911. [PMID: 37816275 PMCID: PMC10570010 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2023.102911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive light exposure can damage photoreceptors and lead to blindness. Oxidative stress serves a key role in photo-induced retinal damage. Free radical scavengers have been proven to protect against photo-damaged retinal degeneration. Fullerol, a potent antioxidant, has the potential to protect against ultraviolet-B (UVB)-induced cornea injury by activating the endogenous stem cells. However, its effects on cell fate determination of Müller glia (MG) between gliosis and de-differentiation remain unclear. Therefore, we established a MG lineage-tracing mouse model of light-induced retinal damage to examine the therapeutic effects of fullerol. Fullerol exhibited superior protection against light-induced retinal injury compared to glutathione (GSH) and reduced oxidative stress levels, inhibited gliosis by suppressing the TGF-β pathway, and enhanced the de-differentiation of MG cells. RNA sequencing revealed that transcription candidate pathways, including Nrf2 and Wnt10a pathways, were involved in fullerol-induced neuroprotection. Fullerol-mediated transcriptional changes were validated by qPCR, Western blotting, and immunostaining using mouse retinas and human-derived Müller cell lines MIO-M1 cells, confirming that fullerol possibly modulated the Nrf2, Wnt10a, and TGF-β pathways in MG, which suppressed gliosis and promoted the de-differentiation of MG in light-induced retinal degeneration, indicating its potential in treating retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Cha
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zhiyuan Yin
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Luodan A
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Lingling Ge
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Junling Yang
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xiaona Huang
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Hui Gao
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xia Chen
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zhou Feng
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Lingyue Mo
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Juncai He
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China; Joint Logistics Support Force of Chinese PLA, No. 927 Hospital, Puer 665000, Yunnan, China
| | - Shuang Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety and CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Institute of High Energy Physics and National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; College of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Maoru Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety and CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Institute of High Energy Physics and National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; College of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Zui Tao
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Zhanjun Gu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety and CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Institute of High Energy Physics and National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; College of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Chongqing 400038, China.
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6
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Washington J, Ritch R, Liu Y. Homocysteine and Glaucoma. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10790. [PMID: 37445966 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Elevated levels of homocysteine (Hcy), a non-proteinogenic amino acid, may lead to a host of manifestations across the biological systems, particularly the nervous system. Defects in Hcy metabolism have been associated with many neurodegenerative diseases including glaucoma, i.e., the leading cause of blindness. However, the pathophysiology of elevated Hcy and its eligibility as a risk factor for glaucoma remain unclear. We aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the relationship between elevated Hcy levels and glaucoma. Through a systemic search of the PubMed and Google Scholar databases, we found that elevated Hcy might play an important role in the pathogenesis of glaucoma. Further research will be necessary to help clarify the specific contribution of elevated Hcy in the pathogenesis of glaucoma. A discovery and conceptual understanding of Hcy-associated glaucoma could be the keys to providing better therapeutic treatment, if not prophylactic treatment, for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Washington
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Robert Ritch
- New York Eye & Ear Infirmary, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Yutao Liu
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- James & Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, 4 Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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Navneet S, Brandon C, Simpson K, Rohrer B. Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Elastase Inhibition in Age-Related Macular Degeneration in Mouse and Human. Cells 2023; 12:cells12091308. [PMID: 37174708 PMCID: PMC10177483 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormal turnover of the extracellular matrix (ECM) protein elastin has been linked to AMD pathology. Elastin is a critical component of Bruch's membrane (BrM), an ECM layer that separates the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) from the underlying choriocapillaris. Reduced integrity of BrM's elastin layer corresponds to areas of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in wet AMD. Serum levels of elastin-derived peptides and anti-elastin antibodies are significantly elevated in AMD patients along with the prevalence of polymorphisms of genes regulating elastin turnover. Despite these results indicating significant associations between abnormal elastin turnover and AMD, very little is known about its exact role in AMD pathogenesis. Here we report on results that suggest that elastase enzymes could play a direct role in the pathogenesis of AMD. We found significantly increased elastase activity in the retinas and RPE cells of AMD mouse models, and AMD patient-iPSC-derived RPE cells. A1AT, a protease inhibitor that inactivates elastase, reduced CNV lesion sizes in mouse models. A1AT completely inhibited elastase-induced VEGFA expression and secretion, and restored RPE monolayer integrity in ARPE-19 monolayers. A1AT also mitigated RPE thickening, an early AMD phenotype, in HTRA1 overexpressing mice, HTRA1 being a serine protease with elastase activity. Finally, in an exploratory study, examining archival records from large patient data sets, we identified an association between A1AT use, age and AMD risk. Our results suggest that repurposing A1AT may have therapeutic potential in modifying the progression to AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Navneet
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Carlene Brandon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Kit Simpson
- Department of Healthcare Leadership and Management, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Bärbel Rohrer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Division of Research, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Sun X, Liu N, Sun C, Xu Y, Ding D, Kong J. The inhibitory effect of vitamin D on myocardial homocysteine levels involves activation of Nrf2-mediated methionine synthase. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2023; 231:106303. [PMID: 36990164 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2023.106303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Homocysteine (Hcy) is a synthetic amino acid containing sulfhydryl group, which is an intermediate product of the deep metabolic pathway of methionine and cysteine. The abnormal increase in fasting plasma total Hcy concentration caused by various factors is called hyperhomocysteine (HHcy). HHcy is closely relevant to the occurrence and progression of diverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, such as coronary heart disease, hypertension and diabetes, etc. Vitamin D/vitamin D receptor (VDR) pathway is pointed out that prevent cardiovascular disease by reducing serum homocysteine levels. Our research is designed to explore the potential mechanism of vitamin D in the prevention and treatment of HHcy. METHODS AND RESULTS The Hcy and 25(OH)D3 levels in mouse myocardial tissue, serum or myocardial cells were detected using ELISA kits. The expression levels of VDR, Nrf2 and methionine synthase (MTR) were observed using Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). General information of the mice, including diet, water intake and body weight, was recorded. Vitamin D up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of Nrf2 and MTR in mouse myocardial tissue and cells. CHIP assay determined that the combination of Nrf2 binding to the S1 site of the MTR promoter in cardiomyocytes using traditional PCR and real time PCR. Dual Luciferase Assay was applied to detect the transcriptional control of Nrf2 on MTR. The up-regulation effect of Nrf2 on MTR was verified by Nrf2 knockout and overexpression in cardiomyocytes. The role of Nrf2 in vitamin D inhibition of Hcy was revealed using Nrf2-knockdown HL-1 cells and Nrf2 heterozygous mice. Western blotting, real time PCR, IHC staining and ELISA showed that Nrf2 deficiency could restrain the increase in MTR expression and the decrease in Hcy level induced by vitamin D. The transcriptional activities of Nrf2/MTR were activated by vitamin D/VDR with a decrease in Hcy. CONCLUSION Vitamin D/VDR upregulates MTR in an Nrf2-dependent manner, thereby reducing the risk of HHcy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqi Sun
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Ning Liu
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Can Sun
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Yingxi Xu
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Ding Ding
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Juan Kong
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China.
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Short-Term In Vitro ROS Detection and Oxidative Stress Regulators in Epiretinal Membranes and Vitreous from Idiopathic Vitreoretinal Diseases. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:7497816. [PMID: 36567907 PMCID: PMC9788888 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7497816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background A plethora of inflammatory, angiogenic, and tissue remodeling factors has been reported in idiopathic epiretinal membranes (ERMs). Herein we focused on the expression of a few mediators (oxidative, inflammatory, and angiogenic/vascular factors) by means of short-term vitreal cell cultures and biomolecular analysis. Methods Thirty-nine (39) ERMs and vitreal samples were collected at the time of vitreoretinal surgery and biomolecular analyses were performed in clear vitreous, vitreal cell pellets, and ERMs. ROS products and iNOS were investigated in adherent vitreal cells and/or ERMs, and iNOS, VEGF, Ang-2, IFNγ, IL18, and IL22 were quantified in vitreous (ELISA/Ella, IF/WB); transcripts specific for iNOS, p65NFkB, KEAP1, NRF2, and NOX1/NOX4 were detected in ERMs (PCR). Biomolecular changes were analyzed and correlated with disease severity. Results The higher ROS production was observed in vitreal cells at stage 4, and iNOS was found in ERMs and increased in the vitreous as early as at stage 3. Both iNOS and NOX4 were upregulated at all stages, while p65NFkB was increased at stage 3. iNOS and NOX1 were positively and inversely related with p65NFkB. While NOX4 transcripts were always upregulated, NRF2 was upregulated at stage 3 and inverted at stage 4. No significant changes occurred in the release of angiogenic (VEGF, Ang-2) and proinflammatory (IL18, IL22 and IFNγ) mediators between all stages investigated. Conclusions ROS production was strictly associated with iNOS and NOX4 overexpression and increased depending on ERM stadiation. The higher iNOS expression occurred as early as stage 3, with respect to p65NFkB and NRF2. These last mediators might have potential prognostic values in ERMs as representative of an underneath retinal damage.
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Robinson R, Glass J, Sharma A, Sharma S. Generation and characterization of a Müller-glial-cell-specific Il6ra knockout mouse to delineate the effects of IL-6 trans-signaling in the retina. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17626. [PMID: 36271280 PMCID: PMC9587029 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22329-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is implicated in various retinal and vascular complications associated with diabetic retinopathy (DR). This cytokine functions through two main modalities: classical signaling, in cells expressing the membrane-bound receptor (IL-6Rα); and trans-signaling, possible in most cells through a soluble form of the receptor (sIL-6R). These pathways are considered to be anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory, respectively. Our recent studies in retinal endothelial cells and diabetic mice have shown that inhibiting only IL-6 trans-signaling is sufficient to prevent increased vascular leakage, oxidative stress, and inflammation characteristic of DR. Isolating the specific effects of each signaling pathway, however, remains difficult in cells expressing IL-6Rα that are thus capable of both classical and trans-signaling. Müller glial cells (MGCs), the most abundant retinal macroglial cells, span the entire retinal thickness with vital roles in maintaining retinal homeostasis and regulating the blood-retinal barrier through secreted factors. The specific effects of IL-6 trans-signaling in MGCs remain poorly understood given their responsiveness to both IL-6 signaling modalities. In this study, we addressed these concerns by generating an MGC-specific knockout mouse using Cre-loxP deletion of the Il6ra cytokine-binding region. We assessed transcriptional and translational Il6ra expression to confirm the knockout and characterized the effects of knockout on visual functioning in these mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Robinson
- Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, CAII 4139, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Joshua Glass
- Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, CAII 4139, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Ashok Sharma
- Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, CAII 4139, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Shruti Sharma
- Center for Biotechnology and Genomic Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15th Street, CAII 4139, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
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Xu Z, Lei Y, Qin H, Zhang S, Li P, Yao K. Sigma-1 Receptor in Retina: Neuroprotective Effects and Potential Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147572. [PMID: 35886921 PMCID: PMC9321618 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal degenerative diseases are the major factors leading to severe visual impairment and even irreversible blindness worldwide. The therapeutic approach for retinal degenerative diseases is one extremely urgent and hot spot in science research. The sigma-1 receptor is a novel, multifunctional ligand-mediated molecular chaperone residing in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes and the ER-associated mitochondrial membrane (ER-MAM); it is widely distributed in numerous organs and tissues of various species, providing protective effects on a variety of degenerative diseases. Over three decades, considerable research has manifested the neuroprotective function of sigma-1 receptor in the retina and has attempted to explore the molecular mechanism of action. In the present review, we will discuss neuroprotective effects of the sigma-1 receptor in retinal degenerative diseases, mainly in aspects of the following: the localization in different types of retinal neurons, the interactions of sigma-1 receptors with other molecules, the correlated signaling pathways, the influence of sigma-1 receptors to cellular functions, and the potential therapeutic effects on retinal degenerative diseases.
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Egbujor MC, Petrosino M, Zuhra K, Saso L. The Role of Organosulfur Compounds as Nrf2 Activators and Their Antioxidant Effects. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:1255. [PMID: 35883746 PMCID: PMC9311638 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11071255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling has become a key pathway for cellular regulation against oxidative stress and inflammation, and therefore an attractive therapeutic target. Several organosulfur compounds are reportedly activators of the Nrf2 pathway. Organosulfur compounds constitute an important class of therapeutic agents in medicinal chemistry due to their ability to participate in biosynthesis, metabolism, cellular functions, and protection of cells from oxidative damage. Sulfur has distinctive chemical properties such as a large number of oxidation states and versatility of reactions that promote fundamental biological reactions and redox biochemistry. The presence of sulfur is responsible for the peculiar features of organosulfur compounds which have been utilized against oxidative stress-mediated diseases. Nrf2 activation being a key therapeutic strategy for oxidative stress is closely tied to sulfur-based chemistry since the ability of compounds to react with sulfhydryl (-SH) groups is a common property of Nrf2 inducers. Although some individual organosulfur compounds have been reported as Nrf2 activators, there are no papers with a collective analysis of these Nrf2-activating organosulfur compounds which may help to broaden the knowledge of their therapeutic potentials and motivate further research. In line with this fact, for the first time, this review article provides collective and comprehensive information on Nrf2-activating organosulfur compounds and their therapeutic effects against oxidative stress, thereby enriching the chemical and pharmacological diversity of Nrf2 activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melford Chuka Egbujor
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Rhema University Nigeria, Aba 453115, Abia State, Nigeria
| | - Maria Petrosino
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Karim Zuhra
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Luciano Saso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "Vittorio Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Canto A, Martínez-González J, Miranda M, Olivar T, Almansa I, Hernández-Rabaza V. Sulforaphane Modulates the Inflammation and Delays Neurodegeneration on a Retinitis Pigmentosa Mice Model. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:811257. [PMID: 35300301 PMCID: PMC8921528 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.811257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The term retinitis pigmentosa (RP) describes a large group of hereditary retinopathies. From a cellular view, retinal degeneration is prompted by an initial death of rods, followed later by cone degeneration. This cellular progressive degeneration is translated clinically in tunnel vision, which evolves to complete blindness. The mechanism underlying the photoreceptor degeneration is unknown, but several mechanisms have been pointed out as main co-stars, inflammation being one of the most relevant. Retinal inflammation is characterized by proliferation, migration, and morphological changes in glial cells, in both microglia and Müller cells, as well as the increase in the expression of inflammatory mediators. Retinal inflammation has been reported in several animal models and clinical cases of RP, but the specific role that inflammation plays in the pathology evolution remains uncertain. Sulforaphane (SFN) is an antioxidant natural compound that has shown anti-inflammatory properties, including the modulation of glial cells activation. The present work explores the effects of SFN on retinal degeneration and inflammation, analyzing the modulation of glial cells in the RP rd10 mice model. A daily dose of 20 mg/kg of sulforaphane was administered intraperitoneally to control (C57BL/6J wild type) and rd10 (Pde6brd10) mice, from postnatal day 14 to day 20. On postnatal day 21, euthanasia was performed. Histological retina samples were used to assess cellular degeneration, Müller cells, and microglia activation. SFN administration delayed the loss of photoreceptors. It also ameliorated the characteristic reactive gliosis, assessed by retinal GFAP expression. Moreover, sulforaphane treatment regulated the microglia activation state, inducing changes in the microglia morphology, migration, and expression through the retina. In addition, SFN modulated the expression of the interleukins 1β, 4, Ym1, and arginase inflammatory mediators. Surprisingly, M2 polarization marker expression was increased at P21 and was reduced by SFN treatment. To summarize, SFN administration reduced retinal neurodegeneration and modified the inflammatory profile of RP, which may contribute to the SFN neuroprotective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antolín Canto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Javier Martínez-González
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - María Miranda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Teresa Olivar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Inma Almansa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Hernández-Rabaza
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
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Zhao J, Gonsalvez GB, Mysona BA, Smith SB, Bollinger KE. Sigma 1 Receptor Contributes to Astrocyte-Mediated Retinal Ganglion Cell Protection. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:1. [PMID: 35103752 PMCID: PMC8819349 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.2.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Sigma 1 receptor (S1R) is expressed in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and astrocytes, and its activation is neuroprotective. We evaluated the contribution of S1R within optic nerve head astrocytes (ONHAs) to growth and survival of RGCs in vitro. Methods Wild-type (WT) RGCs and WT or S1R knockout (S1R KO) ONHAs were cocultured for 2, 4, or 7 days. Total and maximal neurite length, neurite root, and extremity counts were measured. Cell death was measured using a TUNEL assay. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 phosphorylation levels were evaluated in ONHA-derived lysates by immunoblotting. Results The coculture of WT RGCs with WT or S1R KO ONHAs increased the total and maximal neurite length. Neurite root and extremity counts increased at 4 and 7 days when WT RGCs were cocultured with WT or S1R KO ONHAs. At all timepoints, the total and maximal neurite length decreased for WT RGCs in coculture with S1R KO ONHAs compared with WT ONHAs. Root and extremity counts decreased for WT RGCs in coculture with S1R KO ONHAs compared with WT ONHAs at 2 and 7, but not 4 days. RGC apoptosis increased in S1R KO ONHA coculture and S1R KO-conditioned medium, compared with WT ONHA coculture or WT-conditioned medium. S1R KO ONHA-derived lysates showed decreased phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 levels compared with WT ONHA-derived lysates. Conclusions The absence of S1R within ONHAs has a deleterious effect on RGC neurite growth and RGC survival, reflected in analysis of WT RGC + S1R KO ONHA indirect cocultures. The data suggest that S1R may enhance ganglion cell survival via glia-mediated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta, Georgia, United States
| | | | - Barbara A. Mysona
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta, Georgia, United States
| | - Sylvia B. Smith
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta, Georgia, United States
| | - Kathryn E. Bollinger
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Augusta, Georgia, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta, Georgia, United States
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Unsuspected Central Vision Decrease from Macular Ganglion Cell Loss after Posterior Segment Surgery. Retina 2022; 42:867-876. [PMID: 35030145 DOI: 10.1097/iae.0000000000003408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe a novel post-surgical complication of circumscribed macula ganglion cell loss as an apparent cause of unsuspected vision loss following posterior segment surgery. METHODS Patients were seen in referral and were evaluated with comprehensive examination to include optical coherence tomography (OCT) and microperimetry. RESULTS All 8 patients had a sudden central vision loss following vitrectomy and many patients suspected the central loss was present even before the eye patch was removed on the first postoperative day. Of the 8, 1 had a vitrectomy with no membrane peeling while the remaining 7 had membrane peeling. The mean post-operative visual acuity was 20/200. The mean ganglion cell layer (GCL) volume was 0.69 µm3 in the involved eye and 1.035 µm3 in the fellow eye (P<.001). The global retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thicknesses in the involved and fellow eyes were 81.3 and 90 µm respectively (P = .08). The outer retinal architecture was unremarkable in the involved eyes and did not appear to explain the poor acuity. The GCL volume loss was not necessarily associated with RNFL thicknesses that were in the abnormal range or in optic nerve pallor. Microperimetry showed severe depression of the threshold sensitivities. CONCLUSION Severe loss of the macular ganglion cells may occur after vitrectomy and is associated with central vision loss. The diagnosis is made by having a high index of suspicion when examining OCT B-scan images and by evaluating GCL volumes. The frequency of this occurrence is currently unknown.
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Effect of long-term chronic hyperhomocysteinemia on retinal structure and function in the cystathionine-β-synthase mutant mouse. Exp Eye Res 2022; 214:108894. [PMID: 34906600 PMCID: PMC9251730 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Elevated levels of the excitatory amino acid homocysteine (Hcy) have been implicated in retinal diseases in humans including glaucoma and macular degeneration. It is not clear whether elevated Hcy levels are pathogenic. Models of hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy) have proven useful in addressing this including mice with deficiency in the enzyme cystathionine β-synthase (CBS). Cbs+/- mice have a ∼two-fold increase in plasma and retinal Hcy levels. Previous studies of visual function and structure in Cbs+/- mice during the first 10 months of life revealed mild ganglion cell loss, but minimal electrophysiological alterations. It is not clear whether extended, chronic exposure to moderate Hhcy elevation will lead to visual function loss and retinal pathology. The present study addressed this by performing comprehensive analyses of retinal function/structure in 20 month Cbs+/- and Cbs+/+ (WT) mice including IOP, SD-OCT, scotopic and photopic ERG, pattern ERG (pERG), and visual acuity. Eyes were harvested for histology and immunohistochemical analysis of Brn3a (ganglion cells), dihydroethidium (oxidative stress) and GFAP (gliosis). The analyses revealed no difference in IOP between groups for age/strain. Visual acuity measured ∼0.36c/d for mice at 20 months in Cbs+/- and WT mice; contrast sensitivity did not differ between groups at either age. Similarly SD-OCT, scotopic/photopic ERG and pERG revealed no differences between 20 month Cbs+/- and WT mice. There was minimal disruption in retinal structure when eyes were examined histologically. Morphometric analysis revealed no significant differences in retinal layers. Immunohistochemistry revealed ∼5 RGCs/100 μm retinal length in both Cbs+/- and WT mice at 20 months. While there was greater oxidative stress and gliosis in older (20 month) mice versus young (4 month) mice, there was no difference in these parameters between the 20 month Cbs+/- and WT mice. We conclude that chronic, moderate Hhcy (at least due to deficiency of Cbs) is not accompanied by retinal structural/functional changes that differ significantly from age-matched WT littermates. Despite considerable evidence that severe Hhcy is toxic to retina, moderate Hhcy appears tolerated by retina suggesting compensatory cellular survival mechanisms.
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Takashima K, Nakajima K, Shimizu S, Ojiro R, Tang Q, Okano H, Takahashi Y, Ozawa S, Jin M, Yoshinari T, Yoshida T, Sugita-Konishi Y, Shibutani M. Disruption of postnatal neurogenesis and adult-stage suppression of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal dentate gyrus after developmental exposure to sterigmatocystin in rats. Toxicol Lett 2021; 349:69-83. [PMID: 34126181 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to sterigmatocystin (STC) raises concerns on developmental neurological disorders. The present study investigated the effects of maternal oral STC exposure on postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis of offspring in rats. Dams were exposed to STC (1.7, 5.0, and 15.0 ppm in diet) from gestational day 6 until day 21 post-delivery (weaning), and offspring were maintained without STC exposure until adulthood on postnatal day (PND) 77, in accordance with OECD chemical testing guideline Test No. 426. On PND 21, 15.0-ppm STC decreased type-3 neural progenitor cell numbers in the subgranular zone (SGZ) due to suppressed proliferation. Increased γ-H2AX-immunoreactive (+) cell numbers in the SGZ and Ercc1 upregulation and Brip1 downregulation in the dentate gyrus suggested induction of DNA double-strand breaks in SGZ cells. Upregulation of Apex1 and Ogg1 and downregulation of antioxidant genes downstream of NRF2-Keap1 signaling suggested induction of oxidative DNA damage. Increased p21WAF1/CIP1+ SGZ cell numbers and suppressed cholinergic signaling through CHRNB2-containing receptors in GABAergic interneurons suggested potential neurogenesis suppression mechanisms. Multiple mechanisms involving N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated glutamatergic signaling and various GABAergic interneuron subpopulations, including CHRNA7-expressing somatostatin+ interneurons activated by BDNF-TrkB signaling, may be involved in ameliorating the neurogenesis. Upregulation of Arc, Ptgs2, and genes encoding NMDA receptors and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors suggested synaptic plasticity facilitation. On PND 77, ARC+ granule cells decreased, and Nos2 was upregulated following 15.0 ppm STC exposure, suggesting oxidative stress-mediated synaptic plasticity suppression. Inverse pattern in gene expression changes in vesicular glutamate transporter isoforms, Slc17a7 and Slc17a6, from weaning might also be responsible for the synaptic plasticity suppression. The no-observed-adverse-effect level of maternal oral STC exposure for offspring neurogenesis was determined to be 5.0 ppm, translating to 0.34-0.85 mg/kg body weight/day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumi Takashima
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Kota Nakajima
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Saori Shimizu
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Ryota Ojiro
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Qian Tang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Hiromu Okano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Yasunori Takahashi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Ozawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Meilan Jin
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, No. 2 Tiansheng Road, BeiBei District, Chongqing, 400715, PR China.
| | - Tomoya Yoshinari
- Division of Microbiology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan.
| | - Toshinori Yoshida
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Yoshiko Sugita-Konishi
- Department of Nutritional Science, Faculty of Applied Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 156-8502, Japan.
| | - Makoto Shibutani
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
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Schrier MS, Zhang Y, Trivedi MS, Deth RC. Decreased cortical Nrf2 gene expression in autism and its relationship to thiol and cobalamin status. Biochimie 2021; 192:1-12. [PMID: 34517051 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) promotes expression of a large number of antioxidant genes and multiple studies have described oxidative stress and impaired methylation in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including decreased brain levels of methylcobalamin(III) (MeCbl). Here we report decreased expression of the Nrf2 gene (NFE2L2) in frontal cortex of ASD subjects, as well as differences in other genes involved in redox homeostasis. In pooled control and ASD correlation analyses, hydroxocobalamin(III) (OHCbl) was inversely correlated with NFE2L2 expression, while MeCbl and total cobalamin abundance were positively correlated with NFE2L2 expression. Levels of methionine, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) and cystathionine were positively correlated with NFE2L2 expression, while homocysteine (HCY) was negatively correlated. The relationship between Nrf2 activity and cobalamin was further supported by a bioinformatics-based comparison of cobalamin levels in different tissues with expression of a panel of 40 Nrf2-regulated genes, which yielded a strong correlation. Lastly, Nrf2-regulated gene expression was also correlated with expression of intracellular cobalamin trafficking and processing genes, such as MMADHC and MTRR. These findings highlight a previously unrecognized relationship between the antioxidant-promoting role of Nrf2 and cobalamin status, which is dysfunctional in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Scott Schrier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Yiting Zhang
- Biologics, Bristol Myers Squibb, Devens, MA, USA
| | - Malav Suchin Trivedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Richard Carlton Deth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA.
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Kaplan P, Tatarkova Z, Sivonova MK, Racay P, Lehotsky J. Homocysteine and Mitochondria in Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Systems. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207698. [PMID: 33080955 PMCID: PMC7589705 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated concentration of homocysteine (Hcy) in the blood plasma, hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), has been implicated in various disorders, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Accumulating evidence indicates that pathophysiology of these diseases is linked with mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge concerning the effects of HHcy on mitochondrial homeostasis, including energy metabolism, mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and mitochondrial dynamics. The recent studies suggest that the interaction between Hcy and mitochondria is complex, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are possible mediators of Hcy effects. We focus on mechanisms contributing to HHcy-associated oxidative stress, such as sources of ROS generation and alterations in antioxidant defense resulting from altered gene expression and post-translational modifications of proteins. Moreover, we discuss some recent findings suggesting that HHcy may have beneficial effects on mitochondrial ROS homeostasis and antioxidant defense. A better understanding of complex mechanisms through which Hcy affects mitochondrial functions could contribute to the development of more specific therapeutic strategies targeted at HHcy-associated disorders.
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Zhang T, Huang D, Hou J, Li J, Zhang Y, Tian M, Li Z, Tie T, Cheng Y, Su X, Man Z, Ma Y. High-concentration homocysteine inhibits mitochondrial respiration function and production of reactive oxygen species in neuron cells. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2020; 29:105109. [PMID: 32912537 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Homocysteine plays critical roles in cellular redox homeostasis, and hyperhomocysteinemia has been associated with multiple diseases, including neurological disorders involving reactive oxygen species-inducing and pro-inflammatory effects of homocysteine that are related to mitochondria. This study investigated the role of homocysteine in regulating mitochondria of neuron cell lines. METHODS Neuron cells were pre-treated with homocysteine, and then flow cytometry was used to detect reactive oxygen species production and mitochondrial membrane potential, while Seahorse XFp Mito stress assay was used to comprehensively analyze mitochondrial function. RESULTS The experimental results showed that high-concentration homocysteine diminished carbonyl cyanide-4 (trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone-stimulated oxygen consumption rate and mitochondrial spare respiration capacity in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, and homocysteine also reduced reactive oxygen species in cultured neuron cell lines while no changes in mitochondrial membrane potential were observed. CONCLUSION These results indicate that homocysteine diminished mitochondrial respiration function in neuron cell lines mediated by its reactive oxygen species-reducing effects, which may underlie the association between hyperhomocysteinemia and human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhang
- Neurology Department, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Dengliang Huang
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000.
| | - Jing Hou
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Jianhua Li
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Yaogang Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000; Qinghai Province Research Key Laboratory of Echinococcosis, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Meiyuan Tian
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000.
| | - Zhiqin Li
- Department of Scientific Research Office, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Tingting Tie
- Neurology Department, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Yan Cheng
- Neurology Department, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Xiaoming Su
- Neurology Department, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Zhu Man
- Neurology Department, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000
| | - Yanyan Ma
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Qinghai University, Tongren Road 29, Xining, Qinghai Province, China, 810000.
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Potential Protective and Therapeutic Roles of the Nrf2 Pathway in Ocular Diseases: An Update. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:9410952. [PMID: 32273949 PMCID: PMC7125500 DOI: 10.1155/2020/9410952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor- (erythroid-derived 2-) like 2 (Nrf2) is a regulator of many processes of life, and it plays an important role in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic responses and in cancer. This review is focused on the potential mechanism of Nrf2 in the occurrence and development of ocular diseases. Also, several Nrf2 inducers, including noncoding RNAs and exogenous compounds, which control the expression of Nrf2 through different pathways, are discussed in ocular disease models and ocular cells, protecting them from dysfunctional changes. Therefore, Nrf2 might be a potential target of protecting ocular cells from various stresses and preventing ocular diseases.
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Eastlake K, Luis J, Limb GA. Potential of Müller Glia for Retina Neuroprotection. Curr Eye Res 2020; 45:339-348. [PMID: 31355675 DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2019.1648831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Müller glia constitute the main glial cells of the retina. They are spatially distributed along this tissue, facilitating their close membrane interactions with all retinal neurons. Müller glia are characterized by their active metabolic functions, which are neuroprotective in nature. Although they can become reactive under pathological conditions, leading to their production of inflammatory and neurotoxic factors, their main metabolic functions confer neuroprotection to the retina, resulting in the promotion of neural cell repair and survival. In addition to their protective metabolic features, Müller glia release several neurotrophic factors and antioxidants into the retinal microenvironment, which are taken up by retinal neurons for their survival. This review summarizes the Müller glial neuroprotective mechanisms and describes advances made on the clinical application of these factors for the treatment of retinal degenerative diseases. It also discusses prospects for the use of these cells as a vehicle to deliver neuroprotective factors into the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Eastlake
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, UK
| | - Joshua Luis
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, UK
| | - G Astrid Limb
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, UK
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Fliesler SJ, Ferrington DA. EDITORIAL: Special issue on the role of lipid and protein oxidation in retinal degenerations. Exp Eye Res 2020; 181:313-315. [PMID: 30929716 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Fliesler
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Biochemistry and Neuroscience Graduate Program, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York (SUNY)- University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA; Research Service, Veterans Administration Western New York Healthcare System (VAWNYHS), Buffalo, NY, USA.
| | - Deborah A Ferrington
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Montecinos-Oliva C, Arrázola MS, Jara C, Tapia-Rojas C, Inestrosa NC. Hormetic-Like Effects of L-Homocysteine on Synaptic Structure, Function, and Aβ Aggregation. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13020024. [PMID: 32024240 PMCID: PMC7168909 DOI: 10.3390/ph13020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the primary cause of dementia among the elderly population. Elevated plasma levels of homocysteine (HCy), an amino acid derived from methionine metabolism, are considered a risk factor and biomarker of AD and other types of dementia. An increase in HCy is mostly a consequence of high methionine and/or low vitamin B intake in the diet. Here, we studied the effects of physiological and pathophysiological HCy concentrations on oxidative stress, synaptic protein levels, and synaptic activity in mice hippocampal slices. We also studied the in vitro effects of HCy on the aggregation kinetics of Aβ40. We found that physiological cerebrospinal concentrations of HCy (0.5 µM) induce an increase in synaptic proteins, whereas higher doses of HCy (30–100 µM) decrease their levels, thereby increasing oxidative stress and causing excitatory transmission hyperactivity, which are all considered to be neurotoxic effects. We also observed that normal cerebrospinal concentrations of HCy slow the aggregation kinetic of Aβ40, whereas high concentrations accelerate its aggregation. Finally, we studied the effects of HCy and HCy + Aβ42 over long-term potentiation. Altogether, by studying an ample range of effects under different HCy concentrations, we report, for the first time, that HCy can exert beneficial or toxic effects over neurons, evidencing a hormetic-like effect. Therefore, we further encourage the use of HCy as a biomarker and modifiable risk factor with therapeutic use against AD and other types of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Montecinos-Oliva
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Macarena S Arrázola
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor de Chile, Santiago 8580745, Chile
| | - Claudia Jara
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Aging, Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina (CEBICEM), Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago 7510156, Chile
| | - Cheril Tapia-Rojas
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Aging, Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina (CEBICEM), Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago 7510156, Chile
| | - Nibaldo C Inestrosa
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
- Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas 6213515, Chile
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Navneet S, Zhao J, Wang J, Mysona B, Barwick S, Ammal Kaidery N, Saul A, Kaddour-Djebbar I, Bollag WB, Thomas B, Bollinger KE, Smith SB. Hyperhomocysteinemia-induced death of retinal ganglion cells: The role of Müller glial cells and NRF2. Redox Biol 2019; 24:101199. [PMID: 31026769 PMCID: PMC6482349 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy), or increased levels of the excitatory amino acid homocysteine (Hcy), is implicated in glaucoma, a disease characterized by increased oxidative stress and loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Whether Hhcy is causative or merely a biomarker for RGC loss in glaucoma is unknown. Here we analyzed the role of NRF2, a master regulator of the antioxidant response, in Hhcy-induced RGC death in vivo and in vitro. By crossing Nrf2−/− mice and two mouse models of chronic Hhcy (Cbs+/- and Mthfr+/- mice), we generated Cbs+/-Nrf2−/− and Mthfr+/-Nrf2−/− mice and performed systematic analysis of retinal architecture and visual acuity followed by assessment of retinal morphometry and gliosis. We observed significant reduction of inner retinal layer thickness and reduced visual acuity in Hhcy mice lacking NRF2. These functional deficits were accompanied by fewer RGCs and increased gliosis. Given the key role of Müller glial cells in maintaining RGCs, we established an ex-vivo indirect co-culture system using primary RGCs and Müller cells. Hhcy-exposure decreased RGC viability, which was abrogated when cells were indirectly cultured with wildtype (WT) Müller cells, but not with Nrf2−/− Müller cells. Exposure of WT Müller cells to Hhcy yielded a robust mitochondrial and glycolytic response, which was not observed in Nrf2−/− Müller cells. Taken together, the in vivo and in vitro data suggest that deleterious effects of Hhcy on RGCs are likely dependent upon the health of retinal glial cells and the availability of an intact retinal antioxidant response mechanism. Oxidative stress is linked to homocysteine (Hcy)-induced retinal ganglion cell death. NRF2's role in protecting ganglion cells from excess Hcy was studied in vitro/vivo. Hyper-Hcy mice were crossed with Nrf2−/− mice to study retinal function/structure. Ganglion cells co-cultured with primary WT Müller glial cells survived Hcy treatment. Nrf2−/− Müller cells did not afford neuroprotective advantage to Hcy-treated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Navneet
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Jing Zhao
- James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Barbara Mysona
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Shannon Barwick
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Navneet Ammal Kaidery
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Alan Saul
- James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Ismail Kaddour-Djebbar
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, One Freedom Way, Augusta, GA, 30904, USA
| | - Wendy B Bollag
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, One Freedom Way, Augusta, GA, 30904, USA
| | - Bobby Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA; Department of Drug Discovery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Kathryn E Bollinger
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Sylvia B Smith
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; James and Jean Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
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