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Prehn A, Hobusch C, Härtig W, Michalski D, Krueger M, Flachmeyer B. Increasing reproducibility in preclinical stroke research: the correlation of immunofluorescence intensity measurements and Western blot analyses strongly depends on antibody clonality and tissue pre-treatment in a mouse model of focal cerebral ischemia. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1183232. [PMID: 37342767 PMCID: PMC10277931 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1183232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In the setting of stroke, ischemia not only impairs neuronal function, but also detrimentally affects the different components of the neurovascular unit, which are shown to be involved in the transition from reversible to long-lasting tissue damage. In this context, the glial proteins myelin basic protein (MBP) and the 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNP) as well as the vasculature-associated basement membrane proteins laminin and collagen IV have been identified as ischemia-sensitive elements. However, available data from immunofluorescence and Western blot analyses are often found to be contradictory, which renders interpretation of the respective data rather difficult. Therefore, the present study investigates the impact of tissue pre-treatment and antibody clonality on immunofluorescence measurements of the mentioned proteins in a highly reproducible model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Here, immunofluorescence labeling using polyclonal antibodies revealed an increased immunofluorescence intensity of MBP, CNP, laminin and collagen IV in ischemic areas, although Western blot analyses did not reveal increased protein levels. Importantly, contrary to polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal ones did not provide increased fluorescence intensities in ischemic areas. Further, we were able to demonstrate that different ways of tissue pre-treatment including paraformaldehyde fixation and antigen retrieval may not only impact on fluorescence intensity measurements in general, but rather one-sidedly affect either ischemic or unaffected tissue. Therefore, immunofluorescence intensity measurements do not necessarily correlate with the actual protein levels, especially in ischemia-affected tissue and should always be complemented by different techniques to enhance reproducibility and to hopefully overcome the translational roadblock from bench to bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Prehn
- Institute of Anatomy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Martin Krueger
- Institute of Anatomy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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2
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Riew TR, Hwang JW, Jin X, Kim HL, Lee MY. Infiltration of meningeal macrophages into the Virchow-Robin space after ischemic stroke in rats: Correlation with activated PDGFR-β-positive adventitial fibroblasts. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1033271. [PMID: 36644619 PMCID: PMC9837109 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1033271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play a crucial role in wound healing and fibrosis progression after brain injury. However, a detailed analysis of their initial infiltration and interaction with fibroblasts is yet to be conducted. This study aimed to investigate the possible route for migration of meningeal macrophages into the ischemic brain and whether these macrophages closely interact with neighboring platelet-derived growth factor beta receptor (PDGFR-β)-positive adventitial fibroblasts during this process. A rat model of ischemic stroke induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was developed. In sham-operated rats, CD206-positive meningeal macrophages were confined to the leptomeninges and the perivascular spaces, and they were not found in the cortical parenchyma. In MCAO rats, the number of CD206-positive meningeal macrophages increased both at the leptomeninges and along the vessels penetrating the cortex 1 day after reperfusion and increased progressively in the extravascular area of the cortical parenchyma by 3 days. Immunoelectron microscopy and correlative light and electron microscopy showed that in the ischemic brain, macrophages were frequently located in the Virchow-Robin space around the penetrating arterioles and ascending venules at the pial surface. This was identified by cells expressing PDGFR-β, a novel biomarker of leptomeningeal cells. Macrophages within penetrating vessels were localized in the perivascular space between smooth muscle cells and PDGFR-β-positive adventitial fibroblasts. In addition, these PDGFR-β-positive fibroblasts showed morphological and molecular characteristics similar to those of leptomeningeal cells: they had large euchromatic nuclei with prominent nucleoli and well-developed rough endoplasmic reticulum; expressed nestin, vimentin, and type I collagen; and were frequently surrounded by collagen fibrils, indicating active collagen synthesis. In conclusion, the perivascular Virchow-Robin space surrounding the penetrating vessels could be an entry route of meningeal macrophages from the subarachnoid space into the ischemic cortical parenchyma, implying that activated PDGFR-β-positive adventitial fibroblasts could be involved in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Ryong Riew
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ji-Won Hwang
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Xuyan Jin
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea,Department of Biomedicine and Health Sciences, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hong Lim Kim
- Integrative Research Support Center, Laboratory of Electron Microscope, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea,Department of Biomedicine and Health Sciences, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, South Korea,*Correspondence: Mun-Yong Lee, ✉
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3
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Laminin as a Biomarker of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption under Neuroinflammation: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126788. [PMID: 35743229 PMCID: PMC9224176 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Laminin, a non-collagenous glycoprotein present in the brain extracellular matrix, helps to maintain blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity and regulation. Neuroinflammation can compromise laminin structure and function, increasing BBB permeability. The aim of this paper is to determine if neuroinflammation-induced laminin functional changes may serve as a potential biomarker of alterations in the BBB. The 38 publications included evaluated neuroinflammation, BBB disruption, and laminin, and were assessed for quality and risk of bias (protocol registered in PROSPERO; CRD42020212547). We found that laminin may be a good indicator of BBB overall structural integrity, although changes in expression are dependent on the pathologic or experimental model used. In ischemic stroke, permanent vascular damage correlates with increased laminin expression (β and γ subunits), while transient damage correlates with reduced laminin expression (α subunits). Laminin was reduced in traumatic brain injury and cerebral hemorrhage studies but increased in multiple sclerosis and status epilepticus studies. Despite these observations, there is limited knowledge about the role played by different subunits or isoforms (such as 411 or 511) of laminin in maintaining structural architecture of the BBB under neuroinflammation. Further studies may clarify this aspect and the possibility of using laminin as a biomarker in different pathologies, which have alterations in BBB function in common.
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Michalski D, Reimann W, Spielvogel E, Mages B, Biedermann B, Barthel H, Nitzsche B, Schob S, Härtig W. Regionally Altered Immunosignals of Surfactant Protein-G, Vascular and Non-Vascular Elements of the Neurovascular Unit after Experimental Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Mice, Rats, and Sheep. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23115875. [PMID: 35682557 PMCID: PMC9180438 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23115875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The surfactant protein-G (SP-G) has recently been discovered in the brain and linked to fluid balance regulations. Stroke is characterized by impaired vessel integrity, promoting water influx and edema formation. The neurovascular unit concept (NVU) has been generated to cover not only ischemic affections of neurons or vessels but also other regionally associated cells. This study provides the first spatio-temporal characterization of SP-G and NVU elements after experimental stroke. Immunofluorescence labeling was applied to explore SP-G, vascular and cellular markers in mice (4, 24, and 72 h of ischemia), rats (24 h of ischemia), and sheep (two weeks of ischemia). Extravasated albumin indicated vascular damage within ischemic areas. Quantifications revealed decreasing SP-G signals in the ischemia-affected neocortex and subcortex. Inverse immunosignals of SP-G and vascular elements existed throughout all models. Despite local associations between SP-G and the vasculature, a definite co-localization was not seen. Along with a decreased SP-G-immunoreactivity in ischemic areas, signals originating from neurons, glial elements, and the extracellular matrix exhibited morphological alterations or changed intensities. Collectively, this study revealed regional alterations of SP-G, vascular, and non-vascular NVU elements after ischemia, and may thus stimulate the discussion about the role of SP-G during stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Michalski
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (W.R.); (E.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-341-9724339
| | - Willi Reimann
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (W.R.); (E.S.)
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.B.); (W.H.)
| | - Emma Spielvogel
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (W.R.); (E.S.)
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.B.); (W.H.)
| | - Bianca Mages
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Bernd Biedermann
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.B.); (W.H.)
| | - Henryk Barthel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Stephanstr. 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (H.B.); (B.N.)
| | - Björn Nitzsche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Stephanstr. 11, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (H.B.); (B.N.)
- Institute of Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 43, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan Schob
- Department of Neuroradiology, University of Halle, Ernst-Grube-Str. 40, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.B.); (W.H.)
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Härtig W, Meinicke A, Michalski D, Schob S, Jäger C. Update on Perineuronal Net Staining With Wisteria floribunda Agglutinin (WFA). Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:851988. [PMID: 35431825 PMCID: PMC9011100 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.851988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As chemically specialized forms of the extracellular matrix in the central nervous system, polyanionic perineuronal nets (PNs) contain diverse constituents, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), hyaluronic acid, and tenascins. They are detectable by various histological approaches such as colloidal iron binding and immunohistochemical staining to reveal, for instance, the CSPGs aggrecan, neurocan, phosphacan, and versican. Moreover, biotin, peroxidase, or fluorescein conjugates of the lectins Vicia villosa agglutinin and soybean agglutinin enable the visualization of PNs. At present, the N-acetylgalactosamine-binding Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA) is the most widely applied marker for PNs. Therefore, this article is largely focused on methodological aspects of WFA staining. Notably, fluorescent WFA labeling allows, after its conversion into electron-dense adducts, electron microscopic analyses. Furthermore, the usefulness of WFA conjugates for the oftentimes neglected in vivo and in vitro labeling of PNs is emphasized. Subsequently, we discuss impaired WFA-staining sites after long-lasting experiments in vitro, especially in autoptic brain samples with long postmortem delay and partial enzymatic degradation, while immunolabeling of aggrecan and CSPG link proteins under such conditions has proven more robust. In some hippocampal regions from perfusion-fixed mice, more PNs are aggrecan immunoreactive than WFA positive, whereas the retrosplenial cortex displays many WFA-binding PNs devoid of visible aggrecan immunoreactivity. Additional multiple fluorescence labeling exemplarily revealed in ischemic tissue diminished staining of WFA-binding sites and aquaporin 4 and concomitantly upregulated immunolabeling of neurofilament, light chains, and collagen IV. Finally, we briefly discuss possible future staining approaches based on nanobodies to facilitate novel technologies revealing details of net morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- *Correspondence: Wolfgang Härtig,
| | - Anton Meinicke
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Schob
- Department of Neuroradiology, Clinic and Policlinic of Radiology, University Hospital Halle, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Carsten Jäger
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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Clark AT, Abrahamson EE, Harper MM, Ikonomovic MD. Chronic effects of blast injury on the microvasculature in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease related Aβ amyloidosis. Fluids Barriers CNS 2022; 19:5. [PMID: 35012589 PMCID: PMC8751260 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-021-00301-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Altered cerebrovascular function and accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) after traumatic brain injury (TBI) can contribute to chronic neuropathology and increase the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). TBI due to a blast-induced shock wave (bTBI) adversely affects the neurovascular unit (NVU) during the acute period after injury. However, the chronic effects of bTBI and Aβ on cellular components of the NVU and capillary network are not well understood. METHODS We exposed young adult (age range: 76-106 days) female transgenic (Tg) APP/PS1 mice, a model of AD-like Aβ amyloidosis, and wild type (Wt) mice to a single bTBI (~ 138 kPa or ~ 20 psi) or to a Sham procedure. At 3-months or 12-months survival after exposure, we quantified neocortical Aβ load in Tg mice, and percent contact area between aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-immunoreactive astrocytic end-feet and brain capillaries, numbers of PDGFRβ-immunoreactive pericytes, and capillary densities in both genotypes. RESULTS The astroglia AQP4-capillary contact area in the Tg-bTBI group was significantly lower than in the Tg-Sham group at 3-months survival. No significant changes in the AQP4-capillary contact area were observed in the Tg-bTBI group at 12-months survival or in the Wt groups. Capillary density in the Tg-bTBI group at 12-months survival was significantly higher compared to the Tg-Sham control and to the Tg-bTBI 3-months survival group. The Wt-bTBI group had significantly lower capillary density and pericyte numbers at 12-months survival compared to 3-months survival. When pericytes were quantified relative to capillary density, no significant differences were detected among the experimental groups, for both genotypes. CONCLUSION In conditions of high brain concentrations of human Aβ, bTBI exposure results in reduced AQP4 expression at the astroglia-microvascular interface, and in chronic capillary proliferation like what has been reported in AD. Long term microvascular changes after bTBI may contribute to the risk for developing chronic neurodegenerative disease later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander T. Clark
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3471 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Eric E. Abrahamson
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, University Drive C, Pittsburgh, PA 15240 USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3471 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Matthew M. Harper
- The Iowa City VA Center for the Prevention and Treatment of Visual Loss, 601 Hwy 6 West, Iowa City, IA 52246 USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences and Biology, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Dr, Iowa City, IA 52242 USA
| | - Milos D. Ikonomovic
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, University Drive C, Pittsburgh, PA 15240 USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3471 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Thomas Detre Hall of the WPH, Room 1421, 3811 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2593 USA
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Barinov E, Statinova E, Faber T, Gillyer D. Extracellular matrix remodeling as a risk factor for the progression of cerebrovascular pathology. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2022; 122:27-31. [DOI: 10.17116/jnevro202212203127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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8
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Mages B, Fuhs T, Aleithe S, Blietz A, Hobusch C, Härtig W, Schob S, Krueger M, Michalski D. The Cytoskeletal Elements MAP2 and NF-L Show Substantial Alterations in Different Stroke Models While Elevated Serum Levels Highlight Especially MAP2 as a Sensitive Biomarker in Stroke Patients. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:4051-4069. [PMID: 33931805 PMCID: PMC8280005 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02372-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the setting of ischemic stroke, the neurofilament subunit NF-L and the microtubule-associated protein MAP2 have proven to be exceptionally ischemia-sensitive elements of the neuronal cytoskeleton. Since alterations of the cytoskeleton have been linked to the transition from reversible to irreversible tissue damage, the present study investigates underlying time- and region-specific alterations of NF-L and MAP2 in different animal models of focal cerebral ischemia. Although NF-L is increasingly established as a clinical stroke biomarker, MAP2 serum measurements after stroke are still lacking. Therefore, the present study further compares serum levels of MAP2 with NF-L in stroke patients. In the applied animal models, MAP2-related immunofluorescence intensities were decreased in ischemic areas, whereas the abundance of NF-L degradation products accounted for an increase of NF-L-related immunofluorescence intensity. Accordingly, Western blot analyses of ischemic areas revealed decreased protein levels of both MAP2 and NF-L. The cytoskeletal alterations are further reflected at an ultrastructural level as indicated by a significant reduction of detectable neurofilaments in cortical axons of ischemia-affected areas. Moreover, atomic force microscopy measurements confirmed altered mechanical properties as indicated by a decreased elastic strength in ischemia-affected tissue. In addition to the results from the animal models, stroke patients exhibited significantly elevated serum levels of MAP2, which increased with infarct size, whereas serum levels of NF-L did not differ significantly. Thus, MAP2 appears to be a more sensitive stroke biomarker than NF-L, especially for early neuronal damage. This perspective is strengthened by the results from the animal models, showing MAP2-related alterations at earlier time points compared to NF-L. The profound ischemia-induced alterations further qualify both cytoskeletal elements as promising targets for neuroprotective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Mages
- Institute of Anatomy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Thomas Fuhs
- Section of Soft Matter Physics, Faculty of Physics and Geosciences, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susanne Aleithe
- Department of Neurology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan Schob
- Department of Neuroradiology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin Krueger
- Institute of Anatomy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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Mendes FR, Leclerc JL, Liu L, Kamat PK, Naziripour A, Hernandez D, Li C, Ahmad AS, Doré S. Effect of Experimental Ischemic Stroke and PGE2 EP1 Selective Antagonism in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Models. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 74:173-187. [PMID: 31985468 DOI: 10.3233/jad-191069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation has been recognized as an important factor in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). One of the most recognized pathways in mediating neuroinflammation is the prostaglandin E2-EP1 receptor pathway. OBJECTIVE Here, we examined the efficacy of the selective EP1 antagonist ONO-8713 in limiting amyloid-β (Aβ), lesion volumes, and behavioral indexes in AD mouse models after ischemic stroke. METHODS Transgenic APP/PS1, 3xTgAD, and wildtype (WT) mice were subjected to permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (pdMCAO) and sham surgeries. Functional outcomes, memory, anatomical outcomes, and Aβ concentrations were assessed 14 days after surgery. RESULTS pdMCAO resulted in significant deterioration in functional and anatomical outcomes in the transgenic mice compared with the WT mice. No relevant differences were observed in the behavioral tests when comparing the ONO-8713 and vehicle-treated groups. Significantly lower cavitation (p = 0.0373) and percent tissue loss (p = 0.0247) were observed in APP/PS1 + ONO-8713 mice compared with the WT + ONO-8713 mice. However, the percent tissue injury was significantly higher in APP/PS1 + ONO-8713 mice compared with the WT + ONO-8713 group (p = 0.0373). Percent tissue loss was also significantly lower in the 3xTgAD + ONO-8713 mice than in the WT + ONO-8713 mice (p = 0.0185). ONO-8713 treatment also attenuated cortical microgliosis in APP/PS1 mice as compared with the vehicle (p = 0.0079); however, no differences were observed in astrogliosis across the groups. Finally, APP/PS1 mice presented with characteristic Aβ load in the cortex while 3xTgAD mice exhibited very low Aβ levels. CONCLUSION In conclusion, under the experimental conditions, EP1 receptor antagonist ONO-8713 showed modest benefits in anatomical outcomes after stroke, mainly in APP/PS1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fúlvio R Mendes
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Jenna L Leclerc
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Neurology, Psychiatry, and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Pradip K Kamat
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Arash Naziripour
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Damian Hernandez
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Chris Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Abdullah S Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sylvain Doré
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Neurology, Psychiatry, and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
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10
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Scheffer S, Hermkens DMA, van der Weerd L, de Vries HE, Daemen MJAP. Vascular Hypothesis of Alzheimer Disease: Topical Review of Mouse Models. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2021; 41:1265-1283. [PMID: 33626911 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.120.311911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanny Scheffer
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (S.S., D.M.A.H., M.J.A.P.D.)
| | - Dorien M A Hermkens
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (S.S., D.M.A.H., M.J.A.P.D.)
| | - Louise van der Weerd
- Departments of Radiology & Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, the Netherlands (L.v.d.W.)
| | - Helga E de Vries
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (H.E.d.V.)
| | - Mat J A P Daemen
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (S.S., D.M.A.H., M.J.A.P.D.)
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11
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Michalski D, Spielvogel E, Puchta J, Reimann W, Barthel H, Nitzsche B, Mages B, Jäger C, Martens H, Horn AKE, Schob S, Härtig W. Increased Immunosignals of Collagen IV and Fibronectin Indicate Ischemic Consequences for the Neurovascular Matrix Adhesion Zone in Various Animal Models and Human Stroke Tissue. Front Physiol 2020; 11:575598. [PMID: 33192578 PMCID: PMC7649770 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.575598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke causes cellular alterations in the “neurovascular unit” (NVU) comprising neurons, glia, and the vasculature, and affects the blood-brain barrier (BBB) with adjacent extracellular matrix (ECM). Limited data are available for the zone between the NVU and ECM that has not yet considered for neuroprotective approaches. This study describes ischemia-induced alterations for two main components of the neurovascular matrix adhesion zone (NMZ), i.e., collagen IV as basement membrane constituent and fibronectin as crucial part of the ECM, in conjunction with traditional NVU elements. For spatio-temporal characterization of these structures, multiple immunofluorescence labeling was applied to tissues affected by focal cerebral ischemia using a filament-based model in mice (4, 24, and 72 h of ischemia), a thromboembolic model in rats (24 h of ischemia), a coagulation-based model in sheep (2 weeks of ischemia), and human autoptic stroke tissue (3 weeks of ischemia). An increased fibronectin immunofluorescence signal demarcated ischemia-affected areas in mice, along with an increased collagen IV signal and BBB impairment indicated by serum albumin extravasation. Quantifications revealed a region-specific pattern with highest collagen IV and fibronectin intensities in most severely affected neocortical areas, followed by a gradual decline toward the border zone and non-affected regions. Comparing 4 and 24 h of ischemia, the subcortical fibronectin signal increased significantly over time, whereas neocortical areas displayed only a gradual increase. Qualitative analyses confirmed increased fibronectin and collagen IV signals in ischemic areas from all tissues and time points investigated. While the increased collagen IV signal was restricted to vessels, fibronectin appeared diffusely arranged in the parenchyma with focal accumulations associated to the vasculature. Integrin α5 appeared enriched in the vicinity of fibronectin and vascular elements, while most of the non-vascular NVU elements showed complementary staining patterns referring to fibronectin. This spatio-temporal characterization of ischemia-related alterations of collagen IV and fibronectin in various stroke models and human autoptic tissue shows that ischemic consequences are not limited to traditional NVU components and the ECM, but also involve the NMZ. Future research should explore more components and the pathophysiological properties of the NMZ as a possible target for novel neuroprotective approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emma Spielvogel
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Joana Puchta
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Neuroradiology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Willi Reimann
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henryk Barthel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Björn Nitzsche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bianca Mages
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carsten Jäger
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Anja K E Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology I and German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Schob
- Department of Neuroradiology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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12
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Demonstrating a reduced capacity for removal of fluid from cerebral white matter and hypoxia in areas of white matter hyperintensity associated with age and dementia. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:131. [PMID: 32771063 PMCID: PMC7414710 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-01009-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
White matter hyperintensities (WMH) occur in association with dementia but the aetiology is unclear. Here we test the hypothesis that there is a combination of impaired elimination of interstitial fluid from the white matter together with a degree of hypoxia in WMH. One of the mechanisms for the elimination of amyloid-β (Aβ) from the brain is along the basement membranes in the walls of capillaries and arteries (Intramural Peri-Arterial Drainage – IPAD). We compared the dynamics of IPAD in the grey matter of the hippocampus and in the white matter of the corpus callosum in 10 week old C57/B16 mice by injecting soluble Aβ as a tracer. The dynamics of IPAD in the white matter were significantly slower compared with the grey matter and this was associated with a lower density of capillaries in the white matter. Exposing cultures of smooth muscle cells to hypercapnia as a model of cerebral hypoperfusion resulted in a reduction in fibronectin and an increase in laminin in the extracellular matrix. Similar changes were detected in the white matter in human WMH suggesting that hypercapnia/hypoxia may play a role in WMH. Employing therapies to enhance both IPAD and blood flow in the white matter may reduce WMH in patients with dementia.
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13
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Wang X, Chen K, Pan M, Ge W, He Z. Comparison of proteome alterations during aging in the temporal lobe of humans and rhesus macaques. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:1963-1976. [PMID: 32572507 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05855-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Rhesus macaques are widely used as animal models for studies of the nervous system; however, it is unknown whether the alterations in the protein profile of the brain during aging are conserved between humans and rhesus macaques. In this study, temporal cortex samples from old and young humans (84 vs. 34 years, respectively) or rhesus macaques (20 vs. 6 years, respectively) were subjected to tandem mass tag-labeled proteomic analysis followed by bioinformatic analysis. A total of 3861 homologous pairs of proteins were identified during the aging process. The conservatively upregulated proteins (n = 190) were involved mainly in extracellular matrix (ECM), focal adhesion and coagulation; while, the conservatively downregulated proteins (n = 56) were enriched in ribosome. Network analysis showed that these conservatively regulated proteins interacted with each other with respect to protein synthesis and cytoskeleton-ECM connection. Many proteins in the focal adhesion, blood clotting, complement and coagulation, and cytoplasmic ribosomal protein pathways were regulated in the same direction in human and macaque; while, proteins involved in oligodendrocyte specification and differentiation pathways were downregulated during human aging, and many proteins in the electron transport chain pathway showed differences in the altered expression profiles. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD013597. Our findings suggest similarities in some changes in brain protein profiles during aging both in humans and macaques, although other changes are unique to only one of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology and Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Kang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology and Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology and Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology and Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China. .,Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University, Baoding, China.
| | - Zhanlong He
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Disease, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China.
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14
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Yagensky O, Kohansal-Nodehi M, Gunaseelan S, Rabe T, Zafar S, Zerr I, Härtig W, Urlaub H, Chua JJ. Increased expression of heme-binding protein 1 early in Alzheimer's disease is linked to neurotoxicity. eLife 2019; 8:47498. [PMID: 31453805 PMCID: PMC6739868 DOI: 10.7554/elife.47498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder leading to progressive cognitive decline. Despite decades of research, understanding AD progression at the molecular level, especially at its early stages, remains elusive. Here, we identified several presymptomatic AD markers by investigating brain proteome changes over the course of neurodegeneration in a transgenic mouse model of AD (3×Tg-AD). We show that one of these markers, heme-binding protein 1 (Hebp1), is elevated in the brains of both 3×Tg-AD mice and patients affected by rapidly-progressing forms of AD. Hebp1, predominantly expressed in neurons, interacts with the mitochondrial contact site complex (MICOS) and exhibits a perimitochondrial localization. Strikingly, wildtype, but not Hebp1-deficient, neurons showed elevated cytotoxicity in response to heme-induced apoptosis. Increased survivability in Hebp1-deficient neurons is conferred by blocking the activation of the mitochondrial-associated caspase signaling pathway. Taken together, our data highlight a role of Hebp1 in progressive neuronal loss during AD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleksandr Yagensky
- Research Group Protein Trafficking in Synaptic Development and Function, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Saravanan Gunaseelan
- Interactomics and Intracellular Trafficking Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Tamara Rabe
- Department of Genes and Behavior, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Saima Zafar
- Biomedical Engineering and Sciences Department, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan.,Clinical Dementia Center, Department of Neurology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Inga Zerr
- Clinical Dementia Center, Department of Neurology, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henning Urlaub
- Research Group Bioanalytical Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany.,Bioanalytics Group, Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - John Je Chua
- Research Group Protein Trafficking in Synaptic Development and Function, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany.,Interactomics and Intracellular Trafficking Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,LSI Neurobiology Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore.,Institute for Health Innovation and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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15
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Mages B, Aleithe S, Blietz A, Krueger M, Härtig W, Michalski D. Simultaneous alterations of oligodendrocyte-specific CNP, astrocyte-specific AQP4 and neuronal NF-L demarcate ischemic tissue after experimental stroke in mice. Neurosci Lett 2019; 711:134405. [PMID: 31374325 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke not only affects neurons, but also glial and vascular elements. The development of novel neuroprotective strategies thus requires an improved pathophysiological understanding of ischemia-affected cell types that comprise the 'neurovascular unit' (NVU). To explore spatiotemporal alterations of oligodendrocytes, astrocytes and neurons after experimental ischemic stroke, we applied a permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion model in mice for 4 and 24 h. Using fluorescence microscopy, the oligodendrocyte marker 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (CNP), the neuronal neurofilament light chain (NF-L) and the astroglial aquaporin-4 (AQP4) were analyzed in regional relation to one another. Immunofluorescence intensities of CNP and NF-L were simultaneously increased in the ischemic neocortex and striatum. AQP4 immunoreactivity was decreased in the ischemic striatum, which represents the initial and potentially strongest affected site of infarction. The more distant ischemic neocortex and infarct border zones exhibited areas with alternately increased or decreased AQP4 immunoreactivity, leading to an increase of fluorescence intensity in total. Further, deformed CNP-immunopositive processes were found around axonal spheroids, indicating a combined affection of oligodendrocytes and neurons due to ischemia. Importantly, altered AQP4 immunosignals were not limited to the ischemic core, but were also detectable in penumbral areas. This applies for CNP and NF-L also, since altered immunosignals of all three markers coincided regionally at both time points. In conclusion, the present study provides evidence for a simultaneous affection of oligodendrocytes, astrocytes and neurons after experimental focal cerebral ischemia. Consequently, CNP, AQP4 and NF-L immunofluorescence alterations can be utilized to identify ischemia-affected tissue. The simultaneity of the described alterations further strengthens the concept of interdependent NVU components and distinguishes NF-L, CNP and AQP4 as highly ischemia-sensitive elements. Consequently, future therapeutic approaches might influence stroke evolution via strategies simultaneously addressing both neuronal and glial functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Mages
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Germany; Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Germany.
| | | | | | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Germany
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16
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Aleithe S, Blietz A, Mages B, Hobusch C, Härtig W, Michalski D. Transcriptional Response and Morphological Features of the Neurovascular Unit and Associated Extracellular Matrix After Experimental Stroke in Mice. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:7631-7650. [PMID: 31089963 PMCID: PMC6815284 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1604-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Experimental stroke studies yielded insights into single reactions of the neurovascular unit (NVU) and associated extracellular matrix (ECM). However, the extent of simultaneous processes caused by ischemia and their underlying transcriptional changes are still poorly understood. Strictly following the NVU and ECM concept, this study explored transcriptional responses of cellular and non-cellular components as well as their morphological characteristics following ischemia. Mice were subjected to 4 or 24 h of unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion. In the neocortex and the striatum, cytoskeletal and glial elements as well as blood-brain barrier and ECM components were analyzed using real-time PCR. Western blot analyses allowed characterization of protein levels and multiple immunofluorescence labeling enabled morphological assessment. Out of 37 genes analyzed, the majority exhibited decreased mRNA levels in ischemic areas, while changes occurred as early as 4 h after ischemia. Down-regulated mRNA levels were predominantly localized in the neocortex, such as the structural elements α-catenin 2, N-cadherin, β-catenin 1, and βIII-tubulin, consistently decreasing 4 and 24 h after ischemia. However, a few genes, e.g., claudin-5 and Pcam1, exhibited increased mRNA levels after ischemia. For several components such as βIII-tubulin, N-cadherin, and β-catenin 1, matching transcriptional and immunofluorescence signals were obtained, whereas a few markers including neurofilaments exhibited opposite directions. In conclusion, the variety in gene regulation emphasizes the complexity of interactions within the ischemia-affected NVU and ECM. These data might help to focus future research on a set of highly sensitive elements, which might prospectively facilitate neuroprotective strategies beyond the traditional single target perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Aleithe
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
- University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Blietz
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bianca Mages
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Constance Hobusch
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Härtig
- University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dominik Michalski
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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17
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Schöniger S, Schütze E, Michalski D, Puchta J, Kaiser M, Härtig W. Neuropathological findings suggestive for a stroke in an alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Acta Vet Scand 2019; 61:1. [PMID: 30602394 PMCID: PMC6317207 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-018-0438-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This case report describes a focal brain lesion in an alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Although this is a restricted study based on a single animal, neuropathological features are reported that are most likely attributed to a vascular event with either ischemic or hemorrhagic pathology. Concerning translational issues, these findings extend neurovascular unit concept to the alpacas' brain and qualify a larger panel of stroke tissue markers for further exploration of ischemic or hemorrhagic consequences beyond the usually used small animal models in stroke research. CASE PRESENTATION A brain lesion indicative of a stroke was diagnosed in a 3-year-old female alpaca as an incidental finding during a post mortem examination. The rostral portion of the right frontal lobe contained a 1.0 × 1.5 × 1.7 cm lesion that extended immediately to the overlying leptomeninges. Microscopically, it was composed of liquefactive necrosis with cholesterol crystal deposition and associated granulomatous inflammation as well as vascularized fibrous connective tissue rimmed by proliferated astrocytes. Multiple fluorescence labeling of the affected brain regions revealed strong microgliosis as shown by immunostaining of the ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 and astrogliosis as demonstrated by enhanced immunoreactivity for glial fibrillary acidic protein. In parallel, a drastic neuronal loss was detected by considerably diminished immunolabeling of neuronal nuclei. Concomitantly, up-regulated immunoreactivities for collagen IV and neurofilament light chains were found in the affected tissues, indicating vascular and cytoskeletal reactions. CONCLUSIONS Driven by these neuropathological features, the incidental brain lesion found in this alpaca strongly suggests an ischemic or hemorrhagic etiology. However, since typical hallmarks became verifiable as previously described for other species affected by focal cerebral ischemia, the lesion is more likely related to an ischemic event. Nevertheless, as such cellular alterations might be difficult to distinguish from other brain lesions as for instance caused by inflammatory processes, adjuvant observations and species-related features need to be considered for etiological interpretations. Indeed, the lack of neurological deficits is likely attributed to the location of the lesion within the rostral aspect of the right frontal lobe of the alpacas' brain. Further, fibroblast migration from the meninges likely caused the intralesional scar formation.
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18
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Mages B, Aleithe S, Altmann S, Blietz A, Nitzsche B, Barthel H, Horn AKE, Hobusch C, Härtig W, Krueger M, Michalski D. Impaired Neurofilament Integrity and Neuronal Morphology in Different Models of Focal Cerebral Ischemia and Human Stroke Tissue. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:161. [PMID: 29967576 PMCID: PMC6015914 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of the neuronal cytoskeleton, neurofilaments are involved in maintaining cellular integrity. In the setting of ischemic stroke, the affection of the neurofilament network is considered to mediate the transition towards long-lasting tissue damage. Although peripheral levels of distinct neurofilament subunits are shown to correlate with the clinically observed severity of cerebral ischemia, neurofilaments have so far not been considered for neuroprotective approaches. Therefore, the present study systematically addresses ischemia-induced alterations of the neurofilament light (NF-L), medium (NF-M), and heavy (NF-H) subunits as well as of α-internexin (INA). For this purpose, we applied a multi-parametric approach including immunofluorescence labeling, western blotting, qRT-PCR and electron microscopy. Analyses comprised ischemia-affected tissue from three stroke models of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), including approaches of filament-based MCAO in mice, thromboembolic MCAO in rats, and electrosurgical MCAO in sheep, as well as human autoptic stroke tissue. As indicated by altered immunosignals, impairment of neurofilament subunits was consistently observed throughout the applied stroke models and in human tissue. Thereby, altered NF-L immunoreactivity was also found to reach penumbral areas, while protein analysis revealed consistent reductions for NF-L and INA in the ischemia-affected neocortex in mice. At the mRNA level, the ischemic neocortex and striatum exhibited reduced expressions of NF-L- and NF-H-associated genes, whereas an upregulation for Ina appeared in the striatum. Further, multiple fluorescence labeling of neurofilament proteins revealed spheroid and bead-like structural alterations in human and rodent tissue, correlating with a cellular edema and lost cytoskeletal order at the ultrastructural level. Thus, the consistent ischemia-induced affection of neurofilament subunits in animals and human tissue, as well as the involvement of potentially salvageable tissue qualify neurofilaments as promising targets for neuroprotective strategies. During ischemia formation, such approaches may focus on the maintenance of neurofilament integrity, and appear applicable as co-treatment to modern recanalizing strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Mages
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susanne Aleithe
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Altmann
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Alexandra Blietz
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Björn Nitzsche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henryk Barthel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anja K E Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology I and German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin Krueger
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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19
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Ahn JH, Chen BH, Park JH, Shin BN, Lee TK, Cho JH, Lee JC, Park JR, Yang SR, Ryoo S, Shin MC, Cho JH, Kang IJ, Lee CH, Hwang IK, Kim YM, Won MH. Early IV-injected human dermis-derived mesenchymal stem cells after transient global cerebral ischemia do not pass through damaged blood-brain barrier. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 12:1646-1657. [PMID: 29763986 DOI: 10.1002/term.2692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is lack of researches on effects of intravenously injected mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) against transient cerebral ischemia (TCI). We investigated the disruption of the neurovascular unit (NVU), which comprises the blood-brain barrier and examined entry of human dermis-derived MSCs (hDMSCs) into the damaged hippocampal CA1 area in a gerbil model of TCI and their subsequent effects on neuroprotection and cognitive function. Impairments of neurons and blood-brain barrier were examined by immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and Evans blue and immunoglobulin G leakage. Neuronal death was observed in pyramidal neurons 5-day postischemia. NVU were structurally damaged; in particular, astrocyte end-feet were severely damaged from 2-day post-TCI and immunoglobulin G leaked out of the CA1 area 2 days after 5 min of TCI; however, Evans blue extravasation was not observed. On the basis of the results of NVU damages, ischemic gerbils received PKH2-transfected hDMSCs 3 times at early times (3 hr, 2, and 5 days) after TCI, and fluorescence imaging was used to detect hDMSCs in the tissue. PKH2-transfected hDMSCs were not found in the CA1 from immediate time to 8 days after injection, although they were detected in the liver. Furthermore, hDMSCs transplantation did not protect CA1 pyramidal neurons and did not improve cognitive impairment. Intravenously transplanted hDMSCs did not migrate to the damaged CA1 area induced by TCI. These findings suggest no neuroprotection and cognitive improvement by intravenous hDMSCs transplantation after 5 min of TCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyeon Ahn
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Bai Hui Chen
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Joon Ha Park
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Bich Na Shin
- Department of Neurobiology, and Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Kyeong Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, and Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Hwi Cho
- Department of Neurobiology, and Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Chul Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, and Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Ran Park
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, School of Medicine, and Stem Cell Institute, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Se-Ran Yang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, School of Medicine, and Stem Cell Institute, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungwoo Ryoo
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Myoung Cheol Shin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Hwi Cho
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Il Jun Kang
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Choong Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan, Chungcheongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - In Koo Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Myeong Kim
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Ho Won
- Department of Neurobiology, and Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
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20
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Blood-Brain Barrier Leakage during Early Epileptogenesis Is Associated with Rapid Remodeling of the Neurovascular Unit. eNeuro 2018; 5:eN-NWR-0123-18. [PMID: 29854942 PMCID: PMC5975718 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0123-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) following cerebral injury results in regional extravasation of plasma proteins and can critically contribute to the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Here, we comprehensively explore the spatiotemporal evolution of a main extravasation component, albumin, and illuminate associated responses of the neurovascular unit (NVU) contributing to early epileptogenic neuropathology. We applied translational in vivo MR imaging and complementary immunohistochemical analyses in the widely used rat pilocarpine post-status epilepticus (SE) model. The observed rapid BBB leakage affected major epileptogenesis-associated brain regions, peaked between 1 and 2 d post-SE, and rapidly declined thereafter, accompanied by cerebral edema generally following the same time course. At peak of BBB leakage, serum albumin colocalized with NVU constituents, such as vascular components, neurons, and brain immune cells. Surprisingly, astroglial markers did not colocalize with albumin, and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) was clearly reduced in areas of leaky BBB, indicating a severe disturbance of astrocyte-mediated endothelial-neuronal coupling. In addition, a distinct adaptive reorganization process of the NVU vasculature apparently takes place at sites of albumin presence, substantiated by reduced immunoreactivity of endothelial and changes in vascular basement membrane markers. Taken together, degenerative events at the level of the NVU, affecting vessels, astrocytes, and neurons, seem to outweigh reconstructive processes. Considering the rapidly occurring BBB leakage and subsequent impairment of the NVU, our data support the necessity of a prompt BBB-restoring treatment as one component of rational therapeutic intervention to prevent epileptogenesis and the development of other detrimental sequelae of SE.
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21
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Hecht M, Krämer LM, von Arnim CAF, Otto M, Thal DR. Capillary cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer's disease: association with allocortical/hippocampal microinfarcts and cognitive decline. Acta Neuropathol 2018; 135:681-694. [PMID: 29574591 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-018-1834-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is caused by the deposition of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) in the wall of cerebral and leptomeningeal blood vessels and is related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Capillary Aβ deposition is observed in a subset of CAA cases and represents a distinct type of CAA named capillary CAA or CAA type 1. This type of CAA is strongly associated with the presence of the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele. CAA type 1-associated AD cases often exhibit a more severe Aβ plaque pathology but less widespread neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) pathology. The objective of this study was to analyze whether capillary CAA and its effects on cerebral blood flow have an impact on dementia. To address this objective, we performed neuropathological evaluation of 284 autopsy cases of demented and non-demented individuals. We assessed the presence of CAA and its subtypes as well as for that of hemorrhages and infarcts. Capillary CAA and CAA severity were associated with allocortical microinfarcts, comprising the CA1 region of the hippocampus. Allocortical microinfarcts, capillary CAA and CAA severity were, thereby, associated with cognitive decline. In conclusion, allocortical microinfarcts, CAA severity, and the capillary type of CAA were associated with one another and with the development of cognitive decline. Thus, AD cases with CAA type 1 (capillary CAA) appear to develop dementia symptoms not only due to AD-related Aβ plaque and NFT pathology but also due to hippocampal microinfarcts that are associated with CAA type 1 and CAA severity, and that damage a brain region important for memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Hecht
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Lara Maria Krämer
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Christine A F von Arnim
- Department of Neurology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- Clinic for Neurogeriatrics and neurological Rehabilitation, University- und Rehabilitation Hospital Ulm (RKU), Ulm, Germany
| | - Markus Otto
- Department of Neurology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dietmar Rudolf Thal
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.
- Departement Neurowetenschappen, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Herestraat 49, Leuven, Belgium.
- Departement Pathologische Ontleedkunde, UZ Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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22
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Michalski D, Keck AL, Grosche J, Martens H, Härtig W. Immunosignals of Oligodendrocyte Markers and Myelin-Associated Proteins Are Critically Affected after Experimental Stroke in Wild-Type and Alzheimer Modeling Mice of Different Ages. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:23. [PMID: 29467621 PMCID: PMC5807905 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Because stroke therapies are still limited and patients are often concerned by long-term sequelae with significant impairment of daily living, elaborated neuroprotective strategies are needed. During the last decades, research substantially improved the knowledge on cellular pathologies responsible for stroke-related tissue damage. In this context, the neurovascular unit (NVU) concept has been established, summarizing the affections of neurons, associated astrocytes and the vasculature. Although oligodendrocytes were already identified to play a major role in other brain pathologies, their role during stroke evolution and long-lasting tissue damage is poorly understood. This study aims to explore oligodendrocyte structures, i.e., oligodendrocytes and their myelin-associated proteins, after experimental focal cerebral ischemia. For translational issues, different ages and genotypes including an Alzheimer-like background were considered to mimic potential co-morbidities. Three- and 12-month-old wild-type and triple-transgenic mice were subjected to unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion. Immunofluorescence labeling was performed on forebrain tissues affected by 24 h of ischemia to visualize the oligodendrocyte-specific protein (OSP), the myelin basic protein (MBP), and the neuron-glia antigen 2 (NG2) with reference to the ischemic lesion. Subsequent analyses concomitantly detected the vasculature and the 2′, 3′-cyclic nucleotide-3′-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) to consider the NVU concept and to explore the functional relevance of histochemical data on applied oligodendrocyte markers. While the immunosignal of NG2 was found to be nearly absent 24 h after ischemia onset, enhanced immunoreactivities for OSP and especially MBP were observed in close regional association to the vasculature. Added quantitative analyses based on inter-hemispheric differences of MBP-immunoreactivity revealed a shell-like pattern with a significant increase directly in the ischemic core, followed by a gradual decline toward the striatum, the ischemic border zone and the lateral neocortex. This observation was consistent in subsequent analyses on the potential impact of age and genetic background. Furthermore, immunoreactivities for CNPase, MBP, and OSP were found to be simultaneously enhanced. In conclusion, this study provides evidence for a critical role of oligodendrocyte structures in the early phase after experimental stroke, strengthening their involvement in the ischemia-affected NVU. Consequently, oligodendrocytes and their myelin-associated proteins may qualify as potential targets for neuroprotective and regenerative approaches in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna L Keck
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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23
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Inhibition of Aquaporin-4 Improves the Outcome of Ischaemic Stroke and Modulates Brain Paravascular Drainage Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 19:ijms19010046. [PMID: 29295526 PMCID: PMC5795996 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the most abundant water channel in the brain, and its inhibition before inducing focal ischemia, using the AQP4 inhibitor TGN-020, has been showed to reduce oedema in imaging studies. Here, we aimed to evaluate, for the first time, the histopathological effects of a single dose of TGN-020 administered after the occlusion of the medial cerebral artery (MCAO). On a rat model of non-reperfusion ischemia, we have assessed vascular densities, albumin extravasation, gliosis, and apoptosis at 3 and 7 days after MCAO. TGN-020 significantly reduced oedema, glial scar, albumin effusion, and apoptosis, at both 3 and 7 days after MCAO. The area of GFAP-positive gliotic rim decreased, and 3D fractal analysis of astrocytic processes revealed a less complex architecture, possibly indicating water accumulating in the cytoplasm. Evaluation of the blood vessels revealed thicker basement membranes colocalizing with exudated albumin in the treated animals, suggesting that inhibition of AQP4 blocks fluid flow towards the parenchyma in the paravascular drainage pathways of the interstitial fluid. These findings suggest that a single dose of an AQP4 inhibitor can reduce brain oedema, even if administered after the onset of ischemia, and AQP4 agonists/antagonists might be effective modulators of the paravascular drainage flow.
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24
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Coban H, Tung S, Yoo B, Vinters HV, Hinman JD. Molecular Disorganization of Axons Adjacent to Human Cortical Microinfarcts. Front Neurol 2017; 8:405. [PMID: 28861035 PMCID: PMC5561009 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical microinfarcts (CMIs) are microscopically identified wedge-shaped ischemic lesions that occur at or near the cortical surface and result from occlusion of penetrating arterioles. These microscopic lesions can be observed with high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging in aging brains and in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Recent studies have suggested that strategically located microinfarcts strongly correlate with cognitive deficits, which can contribute to Alzheimer’s disease as well as other forms of dementia. We have recently shown that the molecular organization of axons into functional microdomains is altered in areas adjacent to white matter lacunar and microinfarcts, creating a peri-infarct penumbral injury in surviving axons. Whether similar changes in nodal, adjacent paranodal, and proximal axon initial segment molecular organization occur in the cortex adjacent to human CMIs is not known. Paraffin-embedded sections of autopsy brain tissue from five patients with CMIs were immunofluorescently labeled for nodal and paranodal markers including beta-IV spectrin, ankyrin-G, and contactin-associated protein. High magnification images from the peri-infarct cortical tissue were generated using confocal microscopy. In surviving cortical tissue adjacent to microinfarcts, we observed a dramatic loss of axon initial segments, suggesting that neuronal firing capacity in adjacent cortical tissue is likely compromised. The number of identifiable nodal/paranodal complexes in surviving cortical tissue is reduced adjacent to microinfarcts, while the average paranodal length is increased indicating a breakdown of axoglial contact. This axonal microdomain disorganization occurs in the relative absence of changes in the structural integrity of myelinated axons as measured by myelin basic protein and neurofilament staining. These findings indicate that the molecular organization of surviving axons adjacent to human CMIs is abnormal, reflecting lost axoglial contact and the functional elements necessary for neural transmission. This study provides support for the concept of a microinfarct penumbral injury that may account for the cumulative cognitive effect of these tiny strokes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamza Coban
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Section of Neuropathology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Spencer Tung
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Section of Neuropathology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Bryan Yoo
- Department of Radiology, Division of Neuroradiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Harry V Vinters
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Section of Neuropathology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jason D Hinman
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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25
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Härtig W, Mages B, Aleithe S, Nitzsche B, Altmann S, Barthel H, Krueger M, Michalski D. Damaged Neocortical Perineuronal Nets Due to Experimental Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Mice, Rats and Sheep. Front Integr Neurosci 2017; 11:15. [PMID: 28860977 PMCID: PMC5559442 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2017.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
As part of the extracellular matrix (ECM), perineuronal nets (PNs) are polyanionic, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG)-rich coatings of certain neurons, known to be affected in various neural diseases. Although these structures are considered as important parts of the neurovascular unit (NVU), their role during evolution of acute ischemic stroke and subsequent tissue damage is poorly understood and only a few preclinical studies analyzed PNs after acute ischemic stroke. By employing three models of experimental focal cerebral ischemia, this study was focused on histopathological alterations of PNs and concomitant vascular, glial and neuronal changes according to the NVU concept. We analyzed brain tissues obtained 1 day after ischemia onset from: (a) mice after filament-based permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO); (b) rats subjected to thromboembolic MACO; and (c) sheep at 14 days after electrosurgically induced focal cerebral ischemia. Multiple fluorescence labeling was applied to explore simultaneous alterations of NVU and ECM. Serial mouse sections labeled with the net marker Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA) displayed largely decomposed and nearly erased PNs in infarcted neocortical areas that were demarcated by up-regulated immunoreactivity for vascular collagen IV (Coll IV). Subsequent semi-quantitative analyses in mice confirmed significantly decreased WFA-staining along the ischemic border zone and a relative decrease in the directly ischemia-affected neocortex. Triple fluorescence labeling throughout the three animal models revealed up-regulated Coll IV and decomposed PNs accompanied by activated astroglia and altered immunoreactivity for parvalbumin, a calcium-binding protein in fast-firing GABAergic neurons which are predominantly surrounded by neocortical PNs. Furthermore, ischemic neocortical areas in rodents simultaneously displayed less intense staining of WFA, aggrecan, the net components neurocan, versican and the cartilage link protein (CRTL) as well as markers in net-bearing neurons such as the potassium channel subunit Kv3.1b and neuronal nuclei (NeuN). In summary, theconsistent observations based on three different stroke models confirmed that PNs are highly sensitive constituents of the NVU along with impaired associated GABAergic neurons. These results suggest that PNs could be promising targets of future stroke treatment, and further studies should address their reorganization and plasticity in both stabilizing the acute stroke as well as supportive effects during the chronic phase of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Härtig
- Department of Pathophysiology of Neuroglia, Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Bianca Mages
- Department of Pathophysiology of Neuroglia, Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany.,Department of Neurology, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Susanne Aleithe
- Department of Pathophysiology of Neuroglia, Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany.,Department of Neurology, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Björn Nitzsche
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Altmann
- Department of Pathophysiology of Neuroglia, Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany.,Department of Neurology, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Henryk Barthel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
| | - Martin Krueger
- Institute of Anatomy, University of LeipzigLeipzig, Germany
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26
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Michalski D, Hofmann S, Pitsch R, Grosche J, Härtig W. Neurovascular Specifications in the Alzheimer-Like Brain of Mice Affected by Focal Cerebral Ischemia: Implications for Future Therapies. J Alzheimers Dis 2017; 59:655-674. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-170185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Hofmann
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Roman Pitsch
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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27
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Up-regulation of neurofilament light chains is associated with diminished immunoreactivities for MAP2 and tau after ischemic stroke in rodents and in a human case. J Chem Neuroanat 2016; 78:140-148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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28
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Härtig W, Appel S, Suttkus A, Grosche J, Michalski D. Abolished perineuronal nets and altered parvalbumin-immunoreactivity in the nucleus reticularis thalami of wildtype and 3xTg mice after experimental stroke. Neuroscience 2016; 337:66-87. [PMID: 27634771 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Treatment strategies for ischemic stroke are still limited, since numerous attempts were successful only in preclinical research but failed under clinical condition. To overcome this translational roadblock, clinical relevant stroke models should consider co-morbidities, age-related effects and the complex neurovascular unit (NVU) concept. The NVU includes neurons, vessels and glial cells with astrocytic endfeet in close relation to the extracellular matrix (ECM). However, the role of the ECM after stroke-related tissue damage is poorly understood and mostly neglected for treatment strategies. This study is focused on alterations of perineuronal nets (PNs) as ECM constituents and parvalbumin-containing GABAergic neurons in mice with emphasis on the nucleus reticularis thalami (NRT) in close proximity to the ischemic lesion as induced by a filament-based stroke model. One day after ischemia onset, immunofluorescence-based quantitative analyses revealed drastically declined PNs in the ischemia-affected NRT from 3- and 12-month-old wildtype and co-morbid triple-transgenic (3xTg) mice with Alzheimer-like alterations. Parvalbumin-positive cells decreased numerically in the ischemia-affected NRT, while staining intensity did not differ between the affected and non-affected hemisphere. Additional qualitative analyses demonstrated ischemia-induced loss of PNs and allocated neuropil ECM immunoreactive for aggrecan and neurocan, and impaired immunoreactivity for calbindin, the potassium channel subunit Kv3.1b and the glutamate decarboxylase isoforms GAD65 and GAD67 in the NRT. In conclusion, these data confirm PNs as highly sensitive constituents of the ECM along with impaired neuronal integrity of GABAergic neurons. Therefore, specific targeting of ECM components might appear as a promising strategy for future treatment strategies in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Simon Appel
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anne Suttkus
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20 A, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jens Grosche
- Effigos GmbH, Am Deutschen Platz 4, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dominik Michalski
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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29
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Michalski D, Preißler H, Hofmann S, Kacza J, Härtig W. Decline of microtubule-associated protein tau after experimental stroke in differently aged wild-type and 3xTg mice with Alzheimer-like alterations. Neuroscience 2016; 330:1-11. [PMID: 27189884 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Stroke therapies are still limited to a minority of patients. Considering time-dependent aspects of stroke, the penumbra concept describes the transition from functional to permanent tissue damage. Thereby, the role of cytoskeletal elements, as for instance microtubules with associated tau remains poorly understood and is therefore not yet considered for therapeutic approaches. This study explored the expression of microtubule-associated protein tau related to neuronal damage in stroke-affected brain regions. Wild-type and triple-transgenic mice of 3, 7 and 12months of age and with an Alzheimer-like background underwent experimental stroke. After 24h, brain sections were used for immunofluorescence labeling of tau and Neuronal Nuclei (NeuN). Potential functional consequences of cellular alterations were explored by statistical relationships to the general health condition, i.e. neurobehavioral deficits and loss of body weight. Immunoreactivity for whole tau decreased significantly in ischemic areas, while the decline at the border zone was more drastic for tau-immunoreactivity compared with the diminished NeuN labeling. Quantitative analyses confirmed pronounced sensitivity for tau-immunoreactivity in the ischemic border zone. Decline of tau- as well as NeuN-immunoreactivity correlated with body weight loss during the 24-h observation period. In conclusion, microtubule-associated protein tau was robustly identified as a highly sensitive cytoskeletal constitute under ischemic conditions, suggesting a pivotal role during the transition process toward long-lasting tissue damage. Consequently, cytoskeletal elements appear as promising targets for novel therapeutic approaches with the objective to impede ischemia-induced irreversible cellular degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Michalski
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Hartmut Preißler
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sarah Hofmann
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Johannes Kacza
- Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 43, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Härtig
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 19, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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30
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Ramos-Rodriguez JJ, Jimenez-Palomares M, Murillo-Carretero MI, Infante-Garcia C, Berrocoso E, Hernandez-Pacho F, Lechuga-Sancho AM, Cozar-Castellano I, Garcia-Alloza M. Central vascular disease and exacerbated pathology in a mixed model of type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015; 62:69-79. [PMID: 26254770 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.07.606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Aging remains the main risk factor to suffer Alzheimer's disease (AD), though epidemiological studies also support that type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a major contributor. In order to explore the close relationship between both pathologies we have developed an animal model presenting both AD and T2D, by crossing APP/PS1 mice (AD model) with db/db mice (T2D model). We traced metabolic and cognitive evolution before T2D or AD pathology is present (4 weeks of age), when T2D has debuted but no senile plaques are present (14 weeks of age) and when both pathologies are well established (26 weeks of age). APP/PS1xdb/db mice showed an age-dependent synergistic effect between T2D and AD. Significant brain atrophy and tau pathology were detected in the cortex by 14 weeks, that spread to the hippocampus by 26 weeks of age. Severe cognitive impairment was also detected as soon as at 14 weeks of age. Interestingly, in APP/PS1xdb/db mice we observed a shift in Aβ soluble/insoluble levels, and whereas more toxic soluble species were favoured, senile plaques (SP) were reduced. An overall increase of microglia activation was observed in APP/PS1xdb/db mice. We also found exacerbated hemorrhagic burden in APP/PS1xdbd/db mice, suggesting that blood brain barrier alterations may be responsible for the early pathological features observed. Moreover, metabolic parameters can predict many of these alterations, supporting a role for T2D in AD pathology. This new model provides a relevant tool to further explore the relationship between T2D, AD and vascular implications, offering the possibility to assess therapeutic approaches, that by improving T2D metabolic control could delay or prevent AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Jose Ramos-Rodriguez
- Division of Physiology. School of Medicine. Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO). Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz (Spain)
| | | | | | - Carmen Infante-Garcia
- Division of Physiology. School of Medicine. Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO). Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz (Spain)
| | - Esther Berrocoso
- Department of Psychology, University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain; CIBER of Mental Health (CIBERSAM), ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Irene Cozar-Castellano
- Instituto de Biologia y Genetica Molecular. University of Valladolid-CSIC. Valladolid Spain
| | - Monica Garcia-Alloza
- Division of Physiology. School of Medicine. Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO). Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz (Spain).
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31
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Shin YJ, Riew TR, Park JH, Pak HJ, Lee MY. Expression of SOCS2 mRNA and protein in the ischemic core and penumbra after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Cell Tissue Res 2015; 364:67-81. [PMID: 26563457 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-015-2319-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) has been reported to be involved in astroglial reactions and adult neurogenesis in the ischemic hippocampus. To elucidate whether SOCS2 is implicated in the pathophysiology of stroke, we investigate spatiotemporal regulation and identification of cell phenotypes expressing SOCS2 after transient focal cerebral ischemia. Weak hybridization signals for SOCS2 mRNA were constitutively observed in striatal neurons and upregulation of SOCS2 mRNA was induced in association with nestin-positive cells in stroke-lesioned rats. Analysis of the characteristics and phenotypes of SOCS2/nestin double-labeled cells revealed spatial differences between infarct and peri-infarct areas. SOCS2/nestin double-labeled cells in the infarct area were associated with the vasculature and were highly proliferative. In contrast, the double-labeled cells in the peri-infarct area were indeed glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive reactive astrocytes forming the glial scar, although nestin-negative reactive astrocytes also exhibited weak SOCS2 expression. In addition, induction of SOCS2 expression was observed in Iba1-positive cells showing a macrophage-like phenotype with amoeboid morphology; these cells were predominantly localized in the infarct area. In the peri-infarct area, only a small proportion of Iba1-positive cells with the morphology of brain macrophages expressed SOCS2 and most activated stellate microglial cells with thick and short processes exhibited weak or negligible SOCS2 expression. Thus, our results revealed the phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of SOCS2-expressing cells within infarct and peri-infarct areas, suggesting the involvement of SOCS2 in astroglial reactions and activation/recruitment of brain macrophages and its potential role in perivascular progenitors/stem cells after ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo-Jin Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea.
| | - Tae-Ryong Riew
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Joo-Hee Park
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Ha-Jin Pak
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea.
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32
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Lucke-Wold BP, Logsdon AF, Turner RC, Rosen CL, Huber JD. Aging, the metabolic syndrome, and ischemic stroke: redefining the approach for studying the blood-brain barrier in a complex neurological disease. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY 2014; 71:411-49. [PMID: 25307225 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) has many important functions in maintaining the brain's immune-privileged status. Endothelial cells, astrocytes, and pericytes have important roles in preserving vasculature integrity. As we age, cell senescence can contribute to BBB compromise. The compromised BBB allows an influx of inflammatory cytokines to enter the brain. These cytokines lead to neuronal and glial damage. Ultimately, the functional changes within the brain can cause age-related disease. One of the most prominent age-related diseases is ischemic stroke. Stroke is the largest cause of disability and is third largest cause of mortality in the United States. The biggest risk factors for stroke, besides age, are results of the metabolic syndrome. The metabolic syndrome, if unchecked, quickly advances to outcomes that include diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. The contribution from these comorbidities to BBB compromise is great. Some of the common molecular pathways activated include: endoplasmic reticulum stress, reactive oxygen species formation, and glutamate excitotoxicity. In this chapter, we examine how age-related changes to cells within the central nervous system interact with comorbidities. We then look at how comorbidities lead to increased risk for stroke through BBB disruption. Finally, we discuss key molecular pathways of interest with a focus on therapeutic targets that warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon P Lucke-Wold
- Department of Neurosurgery, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA; The Center for Neuroscience, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Aric F Logsdon
- The Center for Neuroscience, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA; Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, School of Pharmacy, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Ryan C Turner
- Department of Neurosurgery, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA; The Center for Neuroscience, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Charles L Rosen
- Department of Neurosurgery, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA; The Center for Neuroscience, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Jason D Huber
- The Center for Neuroscience, West Virginia University, School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA; Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, School of Pharmacy, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA.
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33
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Milner E, Zhou ML, Johnson AW, Vellimana AK, Greenberg JK, Holtzman DM, Han BH, Zipfel GJ. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy increases susceptibility to infarction after focal cerebral ischemia in Tg2576 mice. Stroke 2014; 45:3064-9. [PMID: 25190447 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.114.006078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We and others have shown that soluble amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) cause significant cerebrovascular dysfunction in mutant amyloid precursor protein (APP) mice, and that these deficits are greater in aged APP mice having CAA compared with young APP mice lacking CAA. Amyloid β-peptide in young APP mice also increases infarction after focal cerebral ischemia, but the impact of CAA on ischemic brain injury is unknown. METHODS To determine this, we assessed cerebrovascular reactivity, cerebral blood flow (CBF), and extent of infarction and neurological deficits after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in aged APP mice having extensive CAA versus young APP mice lacking CAA (and aged-matched littermate controls). RESULTS We found that aged APP mice have more severe cerebrovascular dysfunction that is CAA dependent, have greater CBF compromise during and immediately after middle cerebral artery occlusion, and develop larger infarctions after middle cerebral artery occlusion. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate CAA induces a more severe form of cerebrovascular dysfunction than amyloid β-peptide alone, leading to intra- and postischemic CBF deficits that ultimately exacerbate cerebral infarction. Our results shed mechanistic light on human studies identifying CAA as an independent risk factor for ischemic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Milner
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Meng-Liang Zhou
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Andrew W Johnson
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Ananth K Vellimana
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Jacob K Greenberg
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - David M Holtzman
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Byung Hee Han
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Gregory J Zipfel
- From the Department of Neurological Surgery (E.M., M.-L.Z., A.W.J., A.K.V., J.K.G., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Program in Neuroscience (E.M.), Department of Neurology (D.M.H., G.J.Z.), Department of Developmental Biology (D.M.H.), and Hope Center for Neurological Disorders (D.M.H., B.H.H., G.J.Z.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO.
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