Deep frying cooking oils promote the high risk of metastases in the breast-A critical review

Ononin inhibits triple-negative breast cancer lung metastasis by targeting the EGFR-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

The spreading of cancer cells from the primary tumor site to other parts of the body, known as metastasis, is the leading cause of cancer recurrence and mortality in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is observed in approximately 70% of TNBC patients. EGFR is crucial for promoting tumor metastasis and associated with poor prognosis. Therefore, it is vital to identify effective therapeutic strategies targeting EGFR inhibition. Ononin, an isoflavonoid found in various plants, such as clover and soybeans, has been shown to have anticancer properties in several cancers. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of ononin on TNBC lung metastasis and the associated molecular pathways. We used various assays, including cell viability, colony formation, Transwell, wound healing, ELISA, Western blotting, and staining techniques, to achieve this objective. The results demonstrated that ononin effectively suppressed cellular proliferation and induced apoptosis, as evidenced by the cell viability assay, colony formation assay, and expression of apoptosis markers, and reduced the metastatic capabilities of TNBC cells. These effects were achieved through the direct suppression of cell adhesion, invasiveness and motility. Furthermore, in TNBC xenograft lung metastatic models, ononin treatment significantly reduced tumor growth and lung metastasis. Additionally, ononin reversed the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by downregulating the expression of EMT markers and matrix metalloproteinases, as confirmed by Western blot analysis. Furthermore, ononin treatment reduced EGFR phosphorylation and suppressed the PI3K, Akt, and mTOR signaling pathways, which was further confirmed using EGFR agonists or inhibitors. Importantly, ononin treatment did not exert any toxic effects on liver or kidney function. In conclusion, our findings suggest that ononin is a safe and potentially therapeutic treatment for TNBC metastasis that targets the EGFR-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Further studies are warranted to validate its efficacy and explore its potential clinical applications.

Biomonitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels in domestic kitchens using commonly grown culinary herbs

Cooking is a significant source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) emissions in indoor environments. A one-month biomonitoring study was carried out in previously selected rural Hungarian kitchens to evaluate cooking-related PAHs concentrations in 4 common kitchen vegetables such as basil, parsley, rocket and chives. The study had two mainobjectives: firstly, to follow PAHs accumulation pattern and to find out if this pattern can be associated with different cooking habits. Also, the usefulness of culinary herbs for indoor bioaccumulation studies was assessed. The 2-ring naphthalene was the dominant PAH in the majority of the samples, its concentrations were in the range of 25.4 µg/kg and 274 µg/kg, of 3-ring PAHs the prevalency of phenanthrene was observed, with highest concentration of 62 µg/kg. PAHs accumulation pattern in tested plants clearly indicated differences in cooking methods and cooking oils used in the selected households. Use of lard and animal fats in general resulted in the high concentrations of higher molecular weight (5- and 6-ring) PAHs, while olive oil usage could be associated with the emission of 2- and 3-ring PAHs. Culinary herbs, however, accumulated carcinogenic PAHs such as benzo[a]anthracene (highest concentration 11.9 µg/kg), benzo[b]fluoranthene (highest concentration 13.8 µg/kg) and chrysene (highest concentration 20.1 µg/kg) which might question their safe use.

Metabolic Syndrome and Biotherapeutic Activity of Dairy (Cow and Buffalo) Milk Proteins and Peptides: Fast Food-Induced Obesity Perspective-A Narrative Review

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is defined by the outcome of interconnected metabolic factors that directly increase the prevalence of obesity and other metabolic diseases. Currently, obesity is considered one of the most relevant topics of discussion because an epidemic heave of the incidence of obesity in both developing and underdeveloped countries has been reached. According to the World Obesity Atlas 2023 report, 38% of the world population are presently either obese or overweight. One of the causes of obesity is an imbalance of energy intake and energy expenditure, where nutritional imbalance due to consumption of high-calorie fast foods play a pivotal role. The dynamic interactions among different risk factors of obesity are highly complex; however, the underpinnings of hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia for obesity incidence are recognized. Fast foods, primarily composed of soluble carbohydrates, non-nutritive artificial sweeteners, saturated fats, and complexes of macronutrients (protein-carbohydrate, starch-lipid, starch-lipid-protein) provide high metabolic calories. Several experimental studies have pointed out that dairy proteins and peptides may modulate the activities of risk factors of obesity. To justify the results precisely, peptides from dairy milk proteins were synthesized under in vitro conditions and their contributions to biomarkers of obesity were assessed. Comprehensive information about the impact of proteins and peptides from dairy milks on fast food-induced obesity is presented in this narrative review article.

CD36: The Bridge between Lipids and Tumors

It has been found that the development of some cancers can be attributed to obesity, which is associated with the excessive intake of lipids. Cancer cells undergo metabolic reprogramming, shifting from utilizing glucose to fatty acids (FAs) for energy. CD36, a lipid transporter, is highly expressed in certain kinds of cancer cells. High expressions of CD36 in tumor cells triggers FA uptake and lipid accumulation, promoting rapid tumor growth and initiating metastasis. Meanwhile, immune cells in the tumor microenvironment overexpress CD36 and undergo metabolic reprogramming. CD36-mediated FA uptake leads to lipid accumulation and has immunosuppressive effects. This paper reviews the types of FAs associated with cancer, high expressions of CD36 that promote cancer development and progression, effects of CD36 on different immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, and the current status of CD36 as a therapeutic target for the treatment of tumors with high CD36 expression.

Association of Dietary Factors and Physical Inactivity with Molecular Subtypes of Breast Cancer- Hospital Based Case-Control Study

Improper diet and physical inactivity are environmental risk factors for breast cancer (BC). This study evaluated the association of dietary risk factors and physical activities with different molecular subtypes of BC. We conducted a case-control study among 130 cases of BC and 150 age-matched controls. Demographic data and tissue marker status were obtained. Diet was assessed using Food Frequency Questionnaire and physical activity was determined using Physical Activity Questionnaire. The association between diet and physical activity with the cancer status was evaluated by Pearson's Correlation. Among the various dietary factors, refined oil displayed a weak albeit significant positive correlation (r = 0.344) to Luminal B subtype of BC. Consumption of all kinds of non-vegetarian food exhibited significant elevation in BC risk with OR > 1.9 (95% CI 0.825-2.707). A higher odds ratio (>1.66) was observed in individuals who had a limited intake of fruits. Furthermore, a strong association was found between low physical activity and breast cancer risk, with around 14.6% of cases being distinctly linked to this risk (OR = 3.33, 95% CI 1.158-9.403, p < 0.01). In essence, while dietary factors exhibited a negative correlation with breast cancer risk, the risk was heightened by physical inactivity.

Formation, migration, derivation, and generation mechanism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during frying

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic and lipophilic, which can be found in frying system. This review summarized the formation, migration and derivation for PAHs, hypothesized the possible mechanism for PAHs generation during frying and presented the research prospects. Some factors like high oil consumption, high temperature, long time and oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids promoted the formation of PAHs and the presence of antioxidants inhibited the PAHs formation. The effect of proteins and carbohydrates in foods on the formation of PAHs is inconclusive. The formed PAHs were migrated into food and air. Moreover, some PAHs transformed into more toxic PAHs-derivatives during frying. The generation of PAHs may be related to low-barrier free radical-mediated reaction and the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be precursors of PAHs during frying. In future, the isotope tracer technology and on-line detection may be applied to discover intermediates and provide clues for studying PAHs generation mechanisms.

Influence of cooking techniques on food quality, digestibility, and health risks regarding lipid oxidation

Foods undergo various physical and chemical reactions during cooking. Boiling, steaming, baking, smoking and frying are common traditional cooking techniques. At present, new cooking technologies including ultrasonic-assisted cooking, vacuum low-temperature cooking, vacuum frying, microwave heating, infrared heating, ohmic heating and air frying are widely studied and used. In cooking, lipid oxidation is the main reason for the change in lipid quality. Oxidative decomposition, triglyceride monomer oxidation, hydrolysis, isomerization, cyclization reaction and polymerization occurred in lipid oxidation affect lipids' quality, flavor, digestibility and safety. Meanwhile, lipid oxidation in cooking might cause the decline of lipid digestibility and increase of health risks. Compared with the traditional cooking technology, the new cooking technology that is milder, more uniform and faster can reduce the loss of lipid nutrition and produce a better flavor. In the future, the combination of various cooking technologies is an effective strategy for families to obtain healthier food.

Fatty acid wax from epoxidation and hydrolysis treatments of waste cooking oil: synthesis and properties

To provide low-cost wax and a new methodology for utilizing waste cooking oil (WCO), fatty acid wax based on WCO was synthesized by using epoxidation and hydrolysis treatments, whose properties included melting point, color, hardness, combustion properties, aldehyde content, and microscopic morphology were tested and analyzed. The obtained WCO-based wax contained mixed fatty acids, including palmitic acid and 9,10-dihydroxystearic acid as main constituents, which could form a 3D stable crossing network constructed by large long-rod crystals. The WCO-based wax with high fatty acid content (96.41 wt%) has a high melting point (44-53 °C), light color (Lovibond color code Y = 11.9, R = 2.3), good hardness (needle penetration index = 2.66 mm), long candle burning time (293 min), and low aldehyde content (7.98 × 10^-2 μg g^-1), which could be a lower-cost alternative of commercial soybean wax (SW) for producing various wax products including candles, crayons, waxworks, etc.

Emission Characteristics and Formation Mechanism of Carbonyl Compounds from Residential Solid Fuel Combustion Based on Real-World Measurements and Tube-Furnace Experiments

This study updated carbonyl compound (CC) emission factors (EFs) and composition for residential solid fuel combustion based on real-world measurements of 124 fuel/stove combinations in China and explored the CC formation mechanism using tube-furnace experiments with 19 fuels and low/high temperatures to explain the impact of fuel and stove on CC emission characteristics. The average EF_CC values for straw, wood, and coal were 1.94 ± 1.57, 1.50 ± 0.88, and 0.40 ± 0.54 g/kg, respectively. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were the most abundant species, accounting for 40-60% of CCs, followed by acetone (∼20%), aromatic aldehydes (∼10%), and unsaturated aldehydes (∼5%). Different from formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, other species showed significant variation among fuel types. All these characteristics could be explained by the difference in the volatile content and chemical structure of fuel, such as aromatic in coal versus lignin in biomass. The improvement in stove technology reduced CC emissions by 30.4-69.7% (mainly formaldehyde and acetaldehyde) among fuels but increased the proportion of aromatic aldehydes by 24.3-89.4%. Various CC species showed different formation mechanisms related to fuel property and burning temperature. The volatile matter derived from thermal pyrolysis of fuel polymers determined CC composition, while higher temperature preferentially degraded formaldehyde and acetaldehyde but promoted the formation of acetone and aromatic aldehydes. This study not only revealed emission characteristic of CCs from RSFC but also contributed to the improvement of clean combustion technology.

The role of nutrition in harnessing the immune system: a potential approach to prevent cancer

Cancer is a vital barrier to increase the life expectancy and the foremost cause of death globally. The initial diagnosis and proper management of cancer can expand the survival rate of individuals. This review provides an in-depth investigation of cancer causes symptoms, types of cancer, and worldwide distribution of cancer. The relation between nutrition (i.e., various food items) and cancer is also emphasized to offer a framework of nutrition management in different cancer types. The microbiota is closely associated with the occurrence of cancer. Thus, genomics of intestinal microbes and nutrigenomics have been discussed based on the reported meta-analysis studies. A dramatic increase in cancer rates has been observed due to intake of alcohol, microbial infections, and deficiency of nutrition. Malnutrition is a substantial problem in cancer patients linked with improper treatment and increased morbidity. The detail studies of cancer and nutrigenomics are an eminent approach to comprehend the relation between microbes and the consumption of certain food types which can further reduce the cancer risk. The incorporation of specific nutrients and probiotics improved the gut microbial health, increased life expectancy, and also decreased the incidence of tumorigenesis in individuals.

Quality changes of repeatedly fried palm oil and extracted oil from fried loach

Fried loach is a kind of popular flavor food. The effects of repeated frying on peroxide value (PV), acid value (AV), P-anisidine value (P-AV), total polar components (TPC) and free fatty acids (FFA) of palm oil and extracted oil from fried loach (EOL) were studied. The loach was fried in palm oil at 170 °C for 3 min and the frying was repeated 10 times. The oil from fried loach was collected and analyzed. The results showed that the TPC of palm oil exceeded the standard limit (3 mg/g) when frying 10 times. The PV and TPC of EOL were unqualified after 9 and 4 times frying (19.17 meq O2/kg and 31% respectively). The AV of the EOL reached 2.46 mg/g after 9 times frying. Palm oil has better frying performance than EOL because of its balanced proportion of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Palm oil can be used for 9 times frying, while the EOL has been damaged after 4 times.

Association of Healthy Diet and Physical Activity With Breast Cancer: Lifestyle Interventions and Oncology Education

Global cancer statistics suggest that breast cancer (BC) is the most diagnosed cancer in women, with an estimated 2. 3 million new cases reported in 2020. Observational evidence shows a clear link between prevention and development of invasive BC and lifestyle-based interventions such as a healthy diet and physical activity. The recent findings reveal that even minimal amounts of daily exercise and a healthy diet reduced the risk of BC, mitigated the side effects of cancer treatment, and stopped the recurrence of cancer in the survivors. Despite the myriad benefits, the implementation of these lifestyle interventions in at-risk and survivor populations has been limited to date. Given the need to disseminate information about the role of physical activity and nutrition in BC reduction, the review aimed to present the recent scientific outreach and update on associations between the lifestyle interventions and BC outcomes to narrow the gap and strengthen the understanding more clearly. This review covers more direct, detailed, and updated scientific literature to respond to frequently asked questions related to the daily lifestyle-based interventions and their impact on BC risk and survivors. This review also highlights the importance of the oncology provider's job and how oncology education can reduce the BC burden.

Managing the hazardous waste cooking oil by conversion into bioenergy through the application of waste-derived green catalysts: A review

Waste cooking oil (WCO) is a hazardous waste generated at staggering values globally. WCO disposal into various ecosystems, including soil and water, could result in severe environmental consequences. On the other hand, mismanagement of this hazardous waste could also be translated into the loss of resources given its energy content. Hence, finding cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative pathways for simultaneous management and valorization of WCO, such as conversion into biodiesel, has been widely sought. Due to its low toxicity, high biodegradability, renewability, and the possibility of direct use in diesel engines, biodiesel is a promising alternative to mineral diesel. However, the conventional homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts used in the biodiesel production process, i.e., transesterification, are generally toxic and derived from non-renewable resources. Therefore, to boost the sustainability features of the process, the development of catalysts derived from renewable waste-oriented resources is of significant importance. In light of the above, the present work aims to review and critically discuss the hazardous WCO application for bioenergy production. Moreover, various waste-oriented catalysts used to valorize this waste are presented and discussed.

Prognostic Value of Negative Emotions on the Incidence of Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 129,621 Patients with Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the common malignant tumors in women and affects 1.6 million new cases globally each year. Investigators have recently found that negative emotions (NEs) and their impacts have greatly influenced the incidence and risk of BC. The present study aims to provide an association between NEs and the incidence of BC with possible risk factors. A total of 9343 studies were screened; nine studies met all inclusion criteria that were considered for the meta-analysis. The qualitative studies were measured by the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale; the observational studies were included with relative risks (RR) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). Besides the NEs and BC, the possible risk factors were evaluated. We analyzed data from 129,621 women diagnosed with NEs of which 2080 women were diagnosed with BC and their follow-up year ranges were from 4–24 years. NEs were significantly (p < 0.0001) associated with a higher incidence of BC with RR = 1.59, 95% CI:1.15–2.19, with other high-risk factors including, geographical distribution, emotion types, standard diagnosis of NEs, and follow-up duration. This study suggests that NEs significantly increase the risk for the incidence of BC, which can be supportive of the prognosis of the disease.

Effects and mechanisms of dietary bioactive compounds on breast cancer prevention

Breast cancer (BC) is the most often diagnosed cancer among females globally and has become an increasing global health issue over the last decades. Despite the substantial improvement in screening methods for initial diagnosis, effective therapy remains lacking. Still, there has been high recurrence and disease progression after treatment of surgery, endocrine therapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Considering this view, there is a crucial requirement to develop safe, freely accessible, and effective anticancer therapy for BC. The dietary bioactive compounds as auspicious anticancer agents have been recognized to be active and their implications in the treatment of BC with negligible side effects. Hence, this review focused on various dietary bioactive compounds as potential therapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of BC with the mechanisms of action. Bioactive compounds have chemo-preventive properties as they inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells, downregulate the expression of estrogen receptors, and cell cycle arrest by inducing apoptotic settings in tumor cells. Therapeutic drugs or natural compounds generally incorporate engineered nanoparticles with ideal sizes, shapes, and enhance their solubility, circulatory half-life, and biodistribution. All data of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies of dietary bioactive compounds and their impact on BC were collected from Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The data of chemopreventive and anticancer activity of dietary bioactive compounds were collected and orchestrated in a suitable place in the review. These shreds of data will be extremely beneficial to recognize a series of additional diet-derived bioactive compounds to treat BC with the lowest side effects.

Tumorigenic risk of Angelica sinensis on ER-positive breast cancer growth through ER-induced stemness in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The root of Angelica sinensis is widely used in traditional Chinese Medicine for relieving gynecological discomforts among the women population. However, its hormone-like effects have raised great attention on whether it is appropriate to use in breast cancer (BC) patients. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the tumorigenic effect of aqueous root extract of Angelica sinensis (AS) on estrogen receptor (ER)-positive BC growth through ER-induced stemness in-vitro and in-vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of the AS was characterized by HPLC. Cell viability was detected by MTS assay. The in-vivo effect of AS was investigated by xenograft model, immunohistochemistry, histology, Western blot, and self-renewal ability assay. Target verification was used by shRNA construction and transfection. Mammosphere formation assay was performed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

AS significantly promoted the proliferation of MCF-7 cells and inhibited the growth of MDA-MB-231 cells. AS significantly induced tumor growth (2.5 mg/kg) in xenograft models and however tamoxifen treatment significantly suppressed the AS-induced tumor growth. AS induced ERα expression in both in-vivo and in-vitro and promoted cancer stem cell activity in ER-positive BC.

CONCLUSION

AS shows the tumorigenic potential on ER-positive BC growth through ERα induced stemness, suggesting that the usage of AS is not recommended for BC in terms of safety measures.

Targeting Engineered Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer (BC) is the second most common cancer in women globally after lung cancer. Presently, the most important approach for BC treatment consists of surgery, followed by radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The latter therapeutic methods are often unsuccessful in the treatment of BC because of their various side effects and the damage incurred to healthy tissues and organs. Currently, numerous nanoparticles (NPs) have been identified and synthesized to selectively target BC cells without causing any impairments to the adjacent normal tissues or organs. Based on an exploratory study, this comprehensive review aims to provide information on engineered NPs and their payloads as promising tools in the treatment of BC. Therapeutic drugs or natural bioactive compounds generally incorporate engineered NPs of ideal sizes and shapes to enhance their solubility, circulatory half-life, and biodistribution, while reducing their side effects and immunogenicity. Furthermore, ligands such as peptides, antibodies, and nucleic acids on the surface of NPs precisely target BC cells. Studies on the synthesis of engineered NPs and their impact on BC were obtained from PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. This review provides insights on the importance of engineered NPs and their methodology for validation as a next-generation platform with preventive and therapeutic effects against BC.

Adaptation of Pseudomonas helmanticensis to fat hydrolysates and SDS: fatty acid response and aggregate formation

An essential part of designing any biotechnological process is examination of the physiological state of producer cells in different phases of cultivation. The main marker of a bacterial cell's state is its fatty acid (FA) profile, reflecting membrane lipid composition. Consideration of FA composition enables assessment of bacterial responses to cultivation conditions and helps biotechnologists understand the most significant factors impacting cellular metabolism. In this work, soil SDS-degrading Pseudomonas helmanticensis was studied at the fatty acid profile level, including analysis of rearrangement between planktonic and aggregated forms. The set of substrates included fat hydrolysates, SDS, and their mixtures with glucose. Such media are useful in bioplastic production since they can help incrementally lower overall costs. Conventional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used for FA analysis. Acridine orange-stained aggregates were observed by epifluorescence microscopy. The bacterium was shown to change fatty acid composition in the presence of hydrolyzed fats or SDS. These changes seem to be driven by the depletion of metabolizable substrates in the culture medium. Cell aggregation has also been found to be a defense strategy, particularly with anionic surfactant (SDS) exposure. It was shown that simple fluidity indices (such as saturated/unsaturated FA ratios) do not always sufficiently characterize a cell's physiological state, and morphological examination is essential in cases where complex carbon sources are used.

The Antitriple Negative Breast cancer Efficacy of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn on ROS-Induced Noncanonical Inflammasome Pyroptotic Pathway

Breast cancer (BCa) is the leading cause of women's death worldwide; among them, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most troublesome subtypes with easy recurrence and great aggressive properties. Spatholobus suberectus Dunn has been used in the clinic of Chinese society for hundreds of years. Shreds of evidence showed that Spatholobus suberectus Dunn has a favorable outcome in the management of cancer. However, the anti-TNBC efficacy of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn percolation extract (SSP) and its underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Hence, the present study is aimed at evaluating the anti-TNBC potential of SSP both in vitro and in vivo, through the cell viability, morphological analysis of MDA-MB-231, LDH release assay, ROS assay, and the tests of GSH aborted pyroptotic noninflammasome signaling pathway. Survival analysis using the KM Plotter and TNM plot database exhibited the inhibition of transcription levels of caspase-4 and 9 related to low relapse-free survival in patients with BCa. Based on the findings, SSP possesses anti-TNBC efficacy that relies on ROS-induced noncanonical inflammasome pyroptosis in cancer cells. In this study, our preclinical evidence is complementary to the preceding clinic of Chinese society; studies on the active principles of SPP remain underway in our laboratory.

Use of Different Food Classification Systems to Assess the Association between Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Cardiometabolic Health in an Elderly Population with Metabolic Syndrome (PREDIMED-Plus Cohort)

The association between ultra-processed food (UPF) and risk of cardiometabolic disorders is an ongoing concern. Different food processing-based classification systems have originated discrepancies in the conclusions among studies. To test whether the association between UPF consumption and cardiometabolic markers changes with the classification system, we used baseline data from 5636 participants (48.5% female and 51.5% male, mean age 65.1 ± 4.9) of the PREDIMED-Plus (“PREvention with MEDiterranean DIet”) trial. Subjects presented with overweight or obesity and met at least three metabolic syndrome (MetS) criteria. Food consumption was classified using a 143-item food frequency questionnaire according to four food processing-based classifications: NOVA, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), International Food Information Council (IFIC) and University of North Carolina (UNC). Mean changes in nutritional and cardiometabolic markers were assessed according to quintiles of UPF consumption for each system. The association between UPF consumption and cardiometabolic markers was assessed using linear regression analysis. The concordance of the different classifications was assessed with intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC3, overall = 0.51). The highest UPF consumption was obtained with the IARC classification (45.9%) and the lowest with NOVA (7.9%). Subjects with high UPF consumption showed a poor dietary profile. We detected a direct association between UPF consumption and BMI (p = 0.001) when using the NOVA system, and with systolic (p = 0.018) and diastolic (p = 0.042) blood pressure when using the UNC system. Food classification methodologies markedly influenced the association between UPF consumption and cardiometabolic risk markers.