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Feng H, Wu K, Yuan Y, Fang M, Wang J, Li R, Zhang R, Wang X, Ye D, Yang Z. Genomic analysis of Clostridium perfringens type D isolates from goat farms. Vet Microbiol 2024; 294:110105. [PMID: 38729094 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2024.110105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
C. perfringens type D strains are the leading cause of enterotoxaemia in ruminants such as goats, sheep, and cattle. However, there has been no prior research on the genomic characteristics of C. perfringens type D strains from various regions in China. Here, we investigated the antibiotic resistance, genomic characteristics, and phylogenetic relationship of C. perfringens type D isolates recovered from goat farms in Shaanxi, Gansu, and Ningxia provinces. The antibiotic resistance test indicated that the isolates displayed high minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values to sulfafurazole, whereas the other antibiotics tested, such as penicillin, enrofloxacin, and florfenicol, worked well on them. Additionally, only tetracycline resistance genes [tetA(P) and tetB(P)] were identified from the isolates. A collective of 13 toxin genes, including etx and cpe were detected among the isolates. Sequence comparison revealed that the etx and cpe genes shared high sequence identities, and they could coexist on a pCW3-like plasmid, representing a potential risk to both animal breeding and public health. Phylogenetic analysis using core genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST) and core genome single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) revealed the close genetic relationship and potential regional/transregional transmission of the C. perfringens type D isolates in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Furthermore, pan-genomic analysis suggested the functional differences at the protein-coding gene level, although isolates from the same source shared a close genetic relationship. In conclusion, this study indicated the antibiotic resistance, virulence markers, potential transregional transmission, and genomic diversity of C. perfringens type D strains from various regions in China, which could provide references for the prevention of C. perfringens foodborne diseases and further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Feng
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China; Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Major Ruminant Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling, China
| | - Ke Wu
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Mingjin Fang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Juan Wang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China; Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Major Ruminant Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling, China; Research Unit of Food Safety, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (No. 2019RU014); NHC Key Lab of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA), Beijing, China.
| | - Ruichao Li
- Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Rong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang, University, School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinglong Wang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China; Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Major Ruminant Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling, China
| | - Dongyang Ye
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China; Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Major Ruminant Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling, China.
| | - Zengqi Yang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China; Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Major Ruminant Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangling, China.
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Jiang Y, Pan Y, Yin J. Prevalence, toxin-genotype distribution, and transmission of Clostridium perfringens from the breeding and milking process of dairy farms. Food Microbiol 2024; 120:104485. [PMID: 38431330 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2024.104485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to elucidate the distribution, transmission, and cross-contamination of Clostridium perfringens during the breeding and milking process from dairy farms. The prevalence of 22.3% (301/1351) yielded 494 C. perfringens isolates; all isolates were type A, except for one type D, and 69.8% (345/494) of the isolates carried atyp. cpb2 and only 0.6% (3/494) of the isolates carried cons. cpb2. C. perfringens detected throughout the whole process but without type F. 150 isolates were classified into 94 pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) genotypes; among them, six clusters contained 34 PFGE genotypes with 58.0% isolates which revealed epidemic correlation and genetic diversity; four PFGE genotypes (PT57, PT9, PT61, and PT8) were the predominant genotypes. The isolates from different farms demonstrated high homology. Our study confirmed that C. perfringens demonstrated broad cross-contamination from nipples and hides of dairy cattle, followed by personnel and tools and air-introduced raw milk during the milking process. In conclusion, raw milk could serve as a medium for the transmission of C. perfringens, which could result in human food poisoning. Monitoring and controlling several points of cross-contamination during the milking process are essential as is implementing stringent hygiene measures to prevent further spread and reduce the risk of C. perfringens infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfen Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, 712100, Yangling, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Yifan Pan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingyi Yin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, 712100, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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Erol Z, Taşçı F. Investigation of the seasonal prevalence, phenotypic, and genotypic characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes in slaughterhouses in Burdur. J Appl Microbiol 2024; 135:lxae056. [PMID: 38460954 DOI: 10.1093/jambio/lxae056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
AIM This study examined Listeria monocytogenes isolates from two slaughterhouses in Burdur province, southern Turkey, over four seasons for antibiotic resistance, serogroups, virulence genes, in vitro biofilm forming capacity, and genetic relatedness. METHODS AND RESULTS Carcass (540) and environment-equipment surface (180) samples were collected from two slaughterhouses (S1, S2) for 1 year (4 samplings). Of the 89 (12.4%) positive isolates, 48 (53.9%) were from animal carcasses, and 41 (46.1%) from the environment-equipment surfaces. Autumn was the peak season for Listeria monocytogenes compared to summer and spring (P < 0.05). In addition, the most common serotype between seasons was 1/2c. Except for plcA and luxS genes, all isolates (100%) harbored inlA, inlC, inlJ, hlyA, actA, iap, flaA genes. Listeria monocytogenes isolates were identified as belonging to IIc (1/2c-3c; 68.5%), IVb (4b-4d-4e; 29.2%), and IIa (1/2a-3a; 2.2%) in the screening using multiplex polymerase chain reaction-based serogrouping test. A total of 65 pulsotypes and 13 clusters with at least 80% homology were determined by using pulsed field gel electrophoresis on samples that had been digested with ApaI. Thirty-four (38.2%) of the isolates were not resistant to any of the 14 antibiotics tested. The antibiotic to which the isolates showed the most resistance was rifampicin (44.9%). Serotype 1/2c was the most resistant serotype to antibiotics. Despite having biofilm-associated genes (inlA, inlB, actA, flaA, and luxS), a minority (11%) of isolates formed weak biofilm. CONCLUSION This study revealed seasonal changes prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes, particularly higher in autumn, posing a greater risk of meat contamination. Notably, Serotype 1/2c showed significant prevalence and antibiotic resistance. Indistinguishable isolates indicated cross-contamination, underscoring the importance of prioritized training for slaughterhouse personnel in sanitation and hygiene protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeki Erol
- Veterinary Faculty, Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 15030 Burdur, Turkey
- Veterinary Faculty, Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Necmettin Erbakan University, 42310 Ereğli/Konya, Turkey
| | - Fulya Taşçı
- Veterinary Faculty, Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, 15030 Burdur, Turkey
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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Bolton D, Bover‐Cid S, Chemaly M, De Cesare A, Herman L, Hilbert F, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Nonno R, Peixe L, Ru G, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Fox E, Gosling R(B, Gil BM, Møretrø T, Stessl B, da Silva Felício MT, Messens W, Simon AC, Alvarez‐Ordóñez A. Persistence of microbiological hazards in food and feed production and processing environments. EFSA J 2024; 22:e8521. [PMID: 38250499 PMCID: PMC10797485 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes (in the meat, fish and seafood, dairy and fruit and vegetable sectors), Salmonella enterica (in the feed, meat, egg and low moisture food sectors) and Cronobacter sakazakii (in the low moisture food sector) were identified as the bacterial food safety hazards most relevant to public health that are associated with persistence in the food and feed processing environment (FFPE). There is a wide range of subtypes of these hazards involved in persistence in the FFPE. While some specific subtypes are more commonly reported as persistent, it is currently not possible to identify universal markers (i.e. genetic determinants) for this trait. Common risk factors for persistence in the FFPE are inadequate zoning and hygiene barriers; lack of hygienic design of equipment and machines; and inadequate cleaning and disinfection. A well-designed environmental sampling and testing programme is the most effective strategy to identify contamination sources and detect potentially persistent hazards. The establishment of hygienic barriers and measures within the food safety management system, during implementation of hazard analysis and critical control points, is key to prevent and/or control bacterial persistence in the FFPE. Once persistence is suspected in a plant, a 'seek-and-destroy' approach is frequently recommended, including intensified monitoring, the introduction of control measures and the continuation of the intensified monitoring. Successful actions triggered by persistence of L. monocytogenes are described, as well as interventions with direct bactericidal activity. These interventions could be efficient if properly validated, correctly applied and verified under industrial conditions. Perspectives are provided for performing a risk assessment for relevant combinations of hazard and food sector to assess the relative public health risk that can be associated with persistence, based on bottom-up and top-down approaches. Knowledge gaps related to bacterial food safety hazards associated with persistence in the FFPE and priorities for future research are provided.
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Gomaa NH, El-Aziz NKA, El-Naenaeey ESY, Abdelaziz WS, Sewid AH. Antimicrobial potential of myricetin-coated zinc oxide nanocomposite against drug-resistant Clostridium perfringens. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:79. [PMID: 36949384 PMCID: PMC10031903 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-02800-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) is an important pathogen in livestock animals and humans causing a wide array of systemic and enteric diseases. The current study was performed to investigate the inhibitory activity of myricetin (MYR), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocomposite against growth and α-hemolysin of C. perfringens isolated from beef meat and chicken sources. RESULTS The overall occurrence of C. perfringens was 29.8%. The prevalence of C. perfringens was higher in chicken (38.3%) than in beef meat products (10%). The antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that C. perfringens isolates exhibited high resistance levels for metronidazole (93%), bacitracin (89%), penicillin G (84%), and lincomycin (76%). Of note, 1% of C. perfringens isolates were pandrug-resistant (PDR), 4% were extensive drug-resistant (XDR), while 91% were multidrug-resistant. The results of broth microdilution technique revealed that all tested C. perfringens isolates were susceptible to MYR-loaded ZnO/PVA with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranged from 0.125 to 2 µg/mL. Moreover, the MYR either alone or combined with the nanocomposite had no cytotoxic activities on chicken red blood cells (cRBCs). Transcriptional modifications of MYR, ZnO, ZnO/PVA, and ZnO/PVA/MYR nanocomposite were determined, and the results showed significant down-regulation of α-hemolysin fold change to 0.5, 0.7, 0.6, and 0.28, respectively compared to the untreated bacteria. CONCLUSION This is an in vitro study reporting the antimicrobial potential of MYR-coated ZnO nanocomposite as an effective therapeutic candidate against C. perfringens. An in vivo approach is the next step to provide evidence for applying these alternatives in the treatment and prevention of C. perfringens-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada H Gomaa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Norhan K Abd El-Aziz
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Sharkia, Egypt.
| | - El-Sayed Y El-Naenaeey
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Walaa S Abdelaziz
- Avian and Rabbit Medicine Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Alaa H Sewid
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Sharkia, Egypt
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Wang D, Gao H, Zhao L, Lv C, Dou W, Zhang X, Liu Y, Kang X, Guo K. Detection of the dominant pathogens in diarrheal calves of Ningxia, China in 2021-2022. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1155061. [PMID: 37138922 PMCID: PMC10149748 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1155061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Calf diarrhea is a complex disease that has long been an unsolved problem in the cattle industry. Ningxia is at the forefront of China in the scale of cattle breeding, and calf diarrhea gravely restricts the development of Ningxia's cattle industry. Methods From July 2021 to May 2022, we collected diarrhea stool samples from calves aged 1-103 days from 23 farms in five cities in Ningxia, and performed PCR using specific primers for 15 major reported pathogens of calf diarrhea, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The effect of different seasons on the occurrence of diarrhea in calves was explored, the respective epidemic pathogens in different seasons were screened, and more detailed epidemiological investigations were carried out in Yinchuan and Wuzhong. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between different ages, river distributions and pathogen prevalence. Results Eventually, 10 pathogens were detected, of which 9 pathogens were pathogenic and 1 pathogen was non-pathogenic. The pathogens with the highest detection rate were Cryptosporidium (50.46%), Bovine rotavirus (BRV) (23.18%), Escherichia coli (E. coli) K99 (20.00%), and Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) (11.82%). The remaining pathogens such as Coccidia (6.90%), Bovine Astrovirus (BoAstV) (5.46%), Bovine Torovirus (BToV) (4.09%), and Bovine Kobuvirus (BKoV) (3.18%) primarily existed in the form of mixed infection. Discussion The analysis showed that different cities in Ningxia have different pathogens responsible for diarrhea, with Cryptosporidium and BRV being the most important pathogens responsible for diarrhea in calves in all cities. Control measures against those pathogens should be enforced to effectively prevent diarrhea in calves in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Haihui Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Animal Science, Ningxia Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan, China
| | - Long Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Changrong Lv
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wei Dou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiuping Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yong Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaodong Kang
- Institute of Animal Science, Ningxia Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaodong Kang
| | - Kangkang Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
- Kangkang Guo
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Hussain R, Guangbin Z, Abbas RZ, Siddique AB, Mohiuddin M, Khan I, Rehman TU, Khan A. Clostridium perfringens Types A and D Involved in Peracute Deaths in Goats Kept in Cholistan Ecosystem During Winter Season. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:849856. [PMID: 35372540 PMCID: PMC8971777 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.849856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxemia is a severe and peracute disease caused by Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) rendering high mortality leading to huge economic losses, especially in small ruminants. The bacterium induces peracute death in animals based on the rapid production of different lethal toxins. Mortality occurred three private herds of two breeds, i.e., Makhi Cheeni and Beetal, and one non-descriptive (Teddy) herds reared in the desert area of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. At necropsy, tissue samples for histopathology and intestinal contents for bacterial isolation and culture were collected. Following the standard procedure, tissue slides were prepared. Multiplex PCR was used to identify toxinotypes using specific primers. Morbidity, mortality, and case fatality in Makhi Cheeni, Beetal, and Teddy goats caused by enterotoxemia were 87.58, 75.81, and 76.11%, respectively. Based on toxinotypes in the present outbreaks, C. perfringens type A (cpα = 20.7%; cpα + cpβ2 = 11.2%) and C. perfringens type D (cpα + cpβ2 + etx = 47.7%; cpα + etx = 20.7%) were detected. Deaths due to C. perfringens type D (68.10%) were significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared with deaths by C. perfringens type A (34.90%). Petechiation of serosal surfaces, hemorrhage of intestines, lungs, and liver were seen. Kidneys were soft, and under the microscope, tubules were studded with erythrocytes. There was stunting and fusion in the intestinal villi. From this study, we concluded that endotoxemia can occur in any season; thus, a proper vaccination schedule must be followed for the protection of small ruminants' health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riaz Hussain
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Zhang Guangbin
- Shandong Vocational Animal Science and Veterinary College, Weifang, China
| | - Rao Zahid Abbas
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Abu Baker Siddique
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Mudassar Mohiuddin
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Iahtasham Khan
- Section of Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Tauseef Ur Rehman
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Ahrar Khan
- Shandong Vocational Animal Science and Veterinary College, Weifang, China
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
- *Correspondence: Ahrar Khan
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Genotyping and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridioides difficile in Camel Minced Meat. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10121640. [PMID: 34959595 PMCID: PMC8708398 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to determine the occurrence, genotypes, and antimicrobial resistance of Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) and Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) in camel minced meat samples collected from small butcher shops and supermarkets in Al-Ahsa Governorate, Saudi Arabia. A total of 100 camel minced meat samples were randomly collected from small butcher’s shops (n = 50) and supermarkets (n = 50) in Al-Ahsa Governorate, Saudi Arabia. C. perfringens and C. difficile were isolated and identified using the VITEK-2 compact system and 16S rRNA gene amplification. Genotypes, toxin genes, and antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates were determined. Moreover, ELISA was used to detect C. perfringens and C. difficile toxins. C. perfringens and C. difficile were isolated from 14% and 4% of the tested minced meat samples, respectively. Out of the 14 C. perfringens isolates, type A (64.3%), type B (7.1%), type C (21.5%), and type D (7.1%) were detected. However, out of the four C. difficile isolates, three (75%) were type A+B+ and one (25%) was type A−B+. None of the C. perfringens or C. difficile toxins were identified using ELISA. C. perfringens and C. difficile isolates exhibited a high rate of resistance to tetracycline (56% and 75%, respectively). However, all isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanate. Multidrug resistance was observed in three (21.4%) C. perfringens and one (25%) C. difficile isolates. In conclusion, camel minced meat was contaminated with C. perfringens and C. difficile, which present a potential risk of food poisoning. The majority of the isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial, and some isolates were multidrug-resistant. Therefore, food safety standards and frequent inspections of abattoirs, small butcher shops, and supermarkets should be enforced.
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