A comprehensive investigation of the behaviour of phenolic compounds in legumes during domestic cooking and in vitro digestion

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Capacities of Three Dry Bean Varieties after Cooking and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion

The present study delved into the chemical composition, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of three dry edible beans: Black (BL), Great Northern (GN), and Pinto (PN). The beans were soaked, cooked, and subjected to in vitro gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. BL bean exhibited significantly higher gastric (42%) and intestinal (8%) digestion rates. Comparative assessment of soluble GI-digested fractions (<3 kDa) revealed that the GN bean exhibited the highest abundance of dipeptides (P < 0.05). The BL bean fraction displayed a 4-fold increase in tripeptides (P < 0.05). Both BL and PN bean fractions are high in essential free amino acids, flavonols, and derivatives of hydroxybenzoic acid when compared to the GN bean. All the beans exhibited the ability to mitigate TNF-α-induced pro-inflammatory signaling; however, the BL bean fraction was the most effective at lowering AAPH-induced oxidative stress in HT-29 cells, followed by the GN bean (P < 0.05). In contrast, a low antioxidant effect was observed with PN beans.

Probiotic-Enriched Ice Cream with Fermented White Kidney Bean Homogenate: Survival, Antioxidant Activity, and Potential for Future Health Benefits

This study investigated a novel probiotic-enriched ice cream containing fermented white kidney bean homogenate to explore its potential health benefits in the future. We assessed the viability of various probiotic strains during ice cream production and storage, focusing on their potential to reach the gut, and evaluated overall antioxidant activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and total polyphenol content (TPC) assays. The incorporation of fermented white bean homogenate significantly increased antioxidant capacity compared to the control group. Notably, strains such as Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299v demonstrated the most pronounced effects on antioxidant activity, suggesting potential synergistic benefits between probiotics and bioactive compounds in fermented white beans. Although all probiotic strains experienced decreased viability during storage, certain strains, particularly L. plantarum 299v and Lacticaseibacillus casei DN-114001, showed promising survival rates even after 6 months. These results suggest the potential for developing probiotic ice cream containing viable bacteria capable of reaching the gut and contributing to a healthy gut microbiota. Overall, this study highlights the potential of probiotic-enriched ice cream with fermented white kidney bean homogenate to combine the established benefits of probiotics for gut health with the enjoyment of consuming ice cream.

Application of legumes in plant-based milk alternatives: a review of limitations and solutions

In recent years, a global shift has been observed toward reducing the consumption of animal-derived foods in favor of healthier and more sustainable dietary choices. This has led to a steady growth in the market for plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs). Projections suggest that this market will reach a value of USD 69.8 billion by 2030. Legumes, being traditional and nutritious ingredients for PMBAs, are rich in proteins, dietary fibers, and other nutrients, with potential health benefits such as anticancer and cardiovascular disease prevention. In this review, the application of 12 legumes in plant-based milk alternatives was thoroughly discussed for the first time. However, compared to milk, processing of legume-based beverages can lead to deficiencies such as nutritional imbalance, off-flavor, and emulsion stratification. Considering the potential and challenges associated with legume-based beverages, this review aims to provide a scientific comparison between legume-based beverages and cow's milk in terms of nutritional quality, organoleptic attributes and stability, and to summarize ways to improve the deficiencies of legume-based beverages in terms of raw materials and processing method improvements. In conclusion, the legume-based beverage industry will be better enhanced and developed by improving the issues.

Effect of cooking on structural changes in the common black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris var. Jamapa)

The cooking process is fundamental for bean consumption and to increase the bioavailability of its nutritional components. The study aimed to determine the effect of cooking on bean seed coat through morphological analyses with different microscopy techniques and image analyses. The chemical composition and physical properties of raw black bean (RBB) and cooked black bean (CBB) seeds were determined. The surface and cross-sectional samples were studied by Optical microscopy (OM), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The composition of samples showed significant differences after the cooking process. OM images and gray level co-occurrence matrix algorithm (GLCM) analysis indicated that cuticle-deposited minerals significantly influence texture parameters. Seed coat surface ESEM images showed cluster cracking. Texture fractal dimension and lacunarity parameters were effective in quantitatively assessing cracks on CBB. AFM results showed arithmetic average roughness (Ra) (121.67 nm) and quadratic average roughness (Rq) (149.94 nm). The cross-sectional ESEM images showed a decrease in seed coat thickness. The CLSM results showed an increased availability of lipids along the different multilayer tissues in CBB. The results generated from this research work offer a valuable potential to carry out a strict control of bean seed cooking at industrial level, since the structural changes and biochemical components (cell wall, lipids and protein bodies) that occur in the different tissues of the seed are able to migrate from the inside to the outside through the cracks generated in the multilayer structure that are evidenced by the microscopic techniques used.

Shelf Life and Functional Quality of Almond Bagasse Powders as Influenced by Dehydration and Storing Conditions

Almond bagasse resulting after the production of almond-based drinks represents a promising by-product with potential for use as a functional ingredient. To facilitate its utilization, the stability of this material can be achieved through dehydration processes such as hot air drying or freeze-drying. Nevertheless, owing to its high fat content, almond bagasse is prone to lipid oxidation, which could result in undesirable quality. Therefore, the objective of this work was to assess the impact of dehydration (by hot air drying at 60 and 70 °C and by freeze-drying) and storage (at room temperature and in accelerated conditions) on the functional quality and stability of almond bagasse powder. Throughout the dehydration process, it was observed that antioxidant compounds were preserved without significant differences among dehydration treatments. These compounds increased over the storage period, especially in the samples treated with hot air. Regarding antiradical capacity, the hot-air-dried samples showed higher values than the freeze-dried ones, although in all cases, it increased during storage. For total phenols in samples air-dried at 70 °C, increases of more than 50% were observed. The acidity and peroxide index were increased in the extended storage period, although they did not reach critical values. Samples stored for 180 days showed peroxide values ranging from 10 to 12.8 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples stored at room temperature and from 14.7 to 23 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples subjected to accelerated storage.

Leaching of Phytochemicals from Beans during Hydration, Kinetics, and Modeling

In the current era, there is a growing emphasis on the circular economy and the valorization of waste products. Bean processing industries generate substantial nutrient-rich waste laden with valuable phytochemicals. Understanding the leaching patterns and kinetics of major phytochemicals is key to designing better processes leading to increased sustainability. This review investigates phytochemical leaching mechanisms and kinetic modeling methods. Firstly we lay the foundation with a broad theoretical framework, and later deal with kinetic modeling approaches and promising areas for future research. Currently, the composition of industrial-scale bean wastewater remains undocumented in the open literature. Nonetheless, drawing from existing studies and general bean composition knowledge, we proposed a multi-phase leaching process. We hypothesize three distinct phases: initial leaching of phytochemicals from the outer seed coat, followed by a second phase involving polysaccharides, and concluding with a third phase wherein phenolic acids within the cotyledons leach into the hydration water. This review aims to shed light on the complex process of phytochemical leaching from common beans during hydration. By combining theoretical insights and practical modeling strategies, this work seeks to enhance our understanding of this phenomenon and ultimately contribute to the optimization of food processing methods with reduced environmental impact.

Effect of thermal, nonthermal, and combined treatments on functional and nutritional properties of chickpeas

Cicer arietinum or chickpea is an important and highly nutritious pulse, a source of complex carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, considered non-allergenic, and non-GMO crop. Processing technologies play an important role in modifying some chickpea properties and thus increasing its nutritional and health benefits. Herein is summarized and compared the available data on nutritional and functional aspects caused by thermal, nonthermal, and combinations of treatments for chickpea processing. The study focuses on describing the processing conditions necessary to change chickpea matrices aiming to enhance compound bioavailability, reduce anti-nutritional factors and modify functional characteristics for industrial application in product development. Thermal and nonthermal treatments can modify nutrient composition and bioavailability in chickpea matrices. Thermal treatments, moist or dry, prevent microbial spoilage, increase product palatability and increase protein quality. Nonthermal treatments aim to shorten the processing time and use less energy and water sources. Compared to thermal treatments, they usually preserve organoleptic attributes and bioactive compounds in chickpea matrices. Some treatment combinations can increase the efficacy of single treatments. Combined treatments increase antioxidant concentration, protein digestibility and available starch contents. Finally, despite differences among their effects, single and combined treatments can improve the nutritional and physicochemical properties of chickpea matrices.

Almond (Prunus dulcis) Bagasse as a Source of Bioactive Compounds with Antioxidant Properties: An In Vitro Assessment

The presence of components of nutritional interest makes fresh almond bagasse an interesting by-product for obtaining functional ingredients. Stabilization through a dehydration process is an interesting option for its integral use, ensuring its conservation and management. Subsequently, it can be turned into powder, facilitating its use as an ingredient. The aim of this paper was to determine the effects of hot air drying at 60 and 70 °C and lyophilization on the release of phenolic components and antiradical capacity in in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation, as well as on growing microbiota composition by applying high throughput sequencing. The novelty of this study lies in this holistic approach; considering both technological and physiological aspects related to gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation will provide the best conditions for functional foods. The results obtained showed that lyophilization provides a powder with a total phenol content and antiradical capacity higher than hot air drying. Furthermore, in dehydrated samples, both in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation revealed a phenol content and anti-radical capacity superior to those existing in undigested products. In addition, after colonic fermentation, beneficial bacteria species have been identified. Obtaining powders from almond bagasse is presented as an interesting opportunity for the valorization of this by-product.

Unravelling dynamic changes in non-volatile and volatile metabolites of pulses during soaking: An integrated metabolomics approach

An integrated metabolomics approach based on UPLC-QTOF-MS and HS-SPME-GC-orbitrap-MS was performed to investigate the dynamic changes of metabolite profiling in chickpeas, red speckled kidney beans, and mung beans during soaking. There were 23, 23, 16 non-volatile metabolites, and 18, 21, 22 volatile metabolites were identified as differential metabolites in chickpeas, red speckled kidney beans, and mung beans during soaking, respectively. These metabolites mainly included flavonoids, lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs), lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs), fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, and esters. The key time points responsible for the significant changes in metabolites and quality of the three pulses were 4, 8, and 24 h of soaking. Results revealed that the variations of some metabolites could attribute to oxidation and hydrolysis reactions. These results contribute to a better understanding of how soaking affects pulses quality, and provide useful information for determining soaking time according to nutritional and sensory requirements of their final products or dishes.

Non-Volatile Compounds Involved in Bitterness and Astringency of Pulses: A Review

Despite the many advantages of pulses, they are characterised by off-flavours that limit their consumption. Off-notes, bitterness and astringency contribute to negative perceptions of pulses. Several hypotheses have assumed that non-volatile compounds, including saponins, phenolic compounds, and alkaloids, are responsible for pulse bitterness and astringency. This review aims to provide an overview highlighting the non-volatile compounds identified in pulses and their bitter and/or astringent characteristics to suggest their potential involvement in pulse off-flavours. Sensorial analyses are mainly used to describe the bitterness and astringency of molecules. However, in vitro cellular assays have shown the activation of bitter taste receptors by many phenolic compounds, suggesting their potential involvement in pulse bitterness. A better knowledge of the non-volatile compounds involved in the off-flavours should enable the creation of efficient strategies to limit their impact on overall perception and increase consumer acceptability.

Impact of Air-Drying Temperature on Antioxidant Properties and ACE-Inhibiting Activity of Fungal Fermented Lentil Flour

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) with Pleurotus ostreatus enhances the nutritional value of legumes. However, drying can cause significant changes in physical and nutritional properties of the final products. Thus, this work studies the impact of air-drying temperature (50, 60, and 70 °C) on relevant properties (antioxidant properties, ACE-inhibitory capacity, phytic acid, colour, and particle size) of two fermented lentils flour (Pardina and Castellana) using freeze-drying as a reference method. Castellana variety is a better substrate for Pleurotus, generating four times more biomass. In addition, an almost total reduction of phytic acid from 7.3 to 0.9 mg/g db is achieved in this variety. Air-drying significantly decreased the particle size and the final colour with ΔE > 20; nonetheless, the temperature does not play a crucial role. SSF decreased the total phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity regardless of the variety, however, drying at 70 °C increased total phenolic content (186%) in fermented Castellana flour. Comparing drying methods, freeze-drying implied a higher decrease in those parameters, reducing the TPC from 2.4 to 1.6 and from 7.7 to 3.4 mg gallic acid/g db in Pardina and Castellana dried flours. Finally, the flours inhibit the angiotensin I-converting-enzyme, and fermentation and drying increased their potential cardiovascular benefits.

Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds using the standardized INFOGEST protocol: A narrative review

The INFOGEST protocol creation was a watershed for phenolic bioaccessibility studies. Because of this important initiative to standardize bioaccessibility studies, data comparisons between different laboratories are now expedited. It has been eight years since the INFOGEST protocol creation, and three from the latest update. However, the current status in terms of phenolic bioaccessibility and how far different laboratories are from reaching a consensus are still unrevealed. In this sense, this narrative review considered an evaluation of different studies that applied the INFOGEST protocol to investigate the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds. The central objective was to compile the main findings and consensus and to identify possible gaps and future opportunities. This approach intends to further facilitate the use of this protocol by professionals in the field of food science and technology and related areas, generating a reflection on the actual level of standardization of the method. Despite the differences in phenolic compounds from diverse food matrices, and their peculiar behavior, some trends could be elucidated, in terms of phenolic release, stability, and/or transformation upon in vivo digestion. In contrast, there was no general consensus regarding sample preparation, how to report results and the form to calculate bioaccessibility, making it difficult to compare different studies. There is still a long road to effectively standardize the results obtained for phenolic bioaccessibility using the INFOGEST protocol, which is also an opportunity in terms of food analysis that can impact the food industry, especially for the development of nutraceuticals and functional foods.

Effects of simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on antioxidant activities and potential bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from K. coccinea fruits

The changes of bioactive substances in peels and sarcocarps of three different varieties of Kadsura coccinea (Dahong, Fenhong, and Zihei) were evaluated by an in vitro simulation model. In this study, three varieties of K. coccinea fruits were digested in vitro to compare the changes and differences in antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP) and bioaccessibility. The results showed that before digestion the highest content of total phenolics (TPC) (2.265 ± 0.127 mg GAE/g DW) and the highest content of flavonoids contents (TFC) (10.379 ± 0.093 mg GAE/g DW) were found in Fenhong fruit. The highest release of TPC and TFC after simulated gastric digestion was observed in the Dahong and Zihei sarcocarp, which increased by 98.7 and 20%, respectively. During oral and intestinal digestion, the content of bioactive compounds showed a decreasing trend. The radical scavenging ability of 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), [2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline) (ABTS)] sulfonic acid free radical scavenging ability, and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) results showed that the antioxidant capacity of K. coccinea fruits increased most significantly (26.9∼181%) in gastric digestion stage and then decreased after intestinal digestion stage. The recoveries of TPC and TFC were all increased after whole simulated digestion, as well as their bioaccessibility in sarcocarps was higher than those in peels, especially for the bioaccessibility of TPC and TFC in Dahong reached 50.53 and 48.19%, respectively. These results indicated that the peel and sarcocarp of K. coccinea had good antioxidant activity, with high bioaccessibility of phenolics could be a promising antioxidant source for the food industry.

Simulated Digestion of the Pigmented Legumes' (Black Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and Brown Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) Phenolics to Estimate Their Bioavailability

This study simulated the gastrointestinal digestion (GID) of black chickpeas (BC) and brown lentils (BL). BC phenolics increased from 105.01 to 141.86 mg GAE/100 g DW) while the BL phenolics decreased from 143.26 to 132.70 mg GAE/100 g DW after cooking. In contrast, the remaining flavonoids after cooking were higher in BL (325.55 mg RE/100 g DW). After in vitro GID, moderate levels of flavonoids were detected in the colon (OUT) fractions (144.36 and 104.22 mg RE/100 g DW for cooked BC and BL, respectively). The highest TAA levels were detected as by CUPRAC assay, in cooked and in vitro GID BC (517.03 mg TEAC/100 g DW) and BL (604.98 mg TEAC/100 g DW) samples. Catechin was the most abundant compound detected in BC samples, while gallic acid was the most abundant in BL. BC and BL have unique and superior benefits for health when compared with conventional legumes. The possible interactions between their remaining phenolics and other bioactive components in the colon are promising for their widespread consumption.

Phenolic compounds profile by UPLC-ESI-MS in black beans and its distribution in the seed coat during storage

Hard to cook phenomenon results from inadequate post-harvest storage of the bean associated with the microstructure and changes in seed color and texture. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical and chemical properties, identify the phenolic compounds and their relationship with the black bean seed coat microstructure during 270 days at 30 °C and 70% r. h. The water absorption capacity decrease to 12.19% that induced changes in seed texture observed by increasing the hardness from 5.42 to 19.96 N. A total of 37 compounds were identified by UPLC-ESI-MS and the changes in phenolic profile during storage period contribute to the seed coat color saturation. The identification of flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids, as well as distribution of condensed tannins in the seed coat, the changes in physical properties evidenced by seed darkening and hardening contribute to the seed coat impermeability.

Effects of Soaking on the Volatile Compounds, Textural Property, Phytochemical Contents, and Antioxidant Capacity of Brown Rice

Brown rice is a staple whole grain worldwide. Hence, the effects of cooking on the nutritional properties of brown rice are important considerations in the field of public health. Soaking is a key stage during rice cooking; however, different rice cookers use different soaking conditions and the effects of this on the physiochemical properties and nutritional composition of cooked brown rice remain unknown. In this study, the setting of varied soaking conditions was realized by a power-adjustable rice cooker, and the effects of soaking temperature (40, 50, 60 and 70 °C) and time (30 and 60 min) on cooked brown rice were thoroughly analyzed. Textural results revealed that cooked brown rice was softer and stickier after soaking. Grain hardness decreased by increasing the soaking temperature and time. Furthermore, stickiness after soaking for 60 min was higher than that after 30 min, and this decreased with the soaking temperature. There was no significant unpleasant flavor after soaking, and the volatile compound profile between soaked and unsoaked brown rice was similar. Neither soaking temperature nor time had any significant effect on the phytochemical contents (phenolic compounds, α-tocopherol and γ-oryzanol) or antioxidant capacity of cooked brown rice, whereas γ-aminobutyric acid content was effectively preserved within a certain soaking temperature range. Textural properties can be effectively controlled by soaking temperature and time, and nutritional properties remain stable when soaking at 40-70 °C for 30-60 min.

Extraction and characterization of phenolic compounds and their potential antioxidant activities

For thousands of years, plant has been widely applied in the medical area and is an important part of human diet. A high content of nutrients could be found in all kinds of plants, and the most outstanding group of nutrients that attracts scientists' attention is the high level of phenolic compounds. Due to the relationship between high phenolic compound content and high antioxidant capacity, plant extracts are expected to become a potential treatment for oxidation stress diseases including diabetes and cancer. However, according to the instability of phenolic compounds to light and oxygen, there are certain difficulties in the extraction of such compounds. But after many years of development, the extraction technology of phenolic compounds has been quite stable, and the only problem is how to obtain high-quality extracts with high efficiency. To further enhance the value of plant extracts, concentration and separation methods are often applied, and when detailed analysis is required, characterization methods including HPLC and LC/GC-MS will be applied to evaluate the number and type of phenolic compounds. A series of antioxidant assays are widely performed in numerous studies to test the antioxidant capacity of the plant extracts, which is also an important basis for evaluating value of extracts. This paper intends to provide a view of a variety of methods used in plants' phenolic compound extraction, separation, and characterization. Furthermore, this review presents the advantages and disadvantages of techniques involved in phenolic compound research and provides selected representative bibliographic examples.

Effects of in vitro digestion on protein degradation, phenolic compound release, and bioactivity of black bean tempeh

The nutritional value and bioactivity of black beans are enhanced when fermented as tempeh, but their bioaccessibility and bioactivity after ingestion remain unclear. In this study, black bean tempeh and unfermented black beans were digested in vitro and changes in protein degradation, phenolic compound release, angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity, and antioxidant activity between the two groups were compared. We observed that the soluble protein content of digested black bean tempeh was generally significantly higher than that of digested unfermented black beans at the same digestion stage (P < 0.05). The degree of protein hydrolysis and the content of <10 kDa peptides were also significantly higher in the digested black bean tempeh than in digested unfermented black beans (P < 0.05). SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analysis showed that most macromolecular proteins in tempeh had been degraded during fermentation and more of the small peptides were released from black bean tempeh during digestion, respectively. Compared to that of the unfermented black beans, the level of ACE inhibition of black bean tempeh was lower, but this significantly increased to 82.51% following digestion, closing the gap with unfermented black beans. In addition, the total respective levels of phenolics, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins released from black bean tempeh were 1.21, 1.40, and 1.55 times those of unfermented black beans following in vitro digestion, respectively. Antioxidant activity was also significantly higher in digested black bean tempeh than in digested unfermented black beans and showed a positive correlation with phenolic compound contents (P < 0.05). The results of this study proved that, compared to unfermented black beans, black bean tempeh retained protein and phenolic compound bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity and showed an improved ACE-inhibitory activity even after consumption.

Catabolism of polyphenols released from mung bean coat and its effects on gut microbiota during in vitro simulated digestion and colonic fermentation

Mung bean coat is a good source of dietary polyphenols. In this study,in vitro simulated digestion and colonic fermentation were performed to investigate the release of polyphenols from mung bean coat and their bioactivities. Polyphenols released by colonic fermentation were much higher than those released by digestion and reached a peak at 12 h, resulting in higher antioxidant capacities (DPPH, ORAC, FRAP assays). About 49 polyphenols and metabolites including quercetin, vanillin, catechin and p-hydroxybenzoic acid were identified, and possible biotransformation pathways were postulated. Moreover, the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria (such as Lactococcus and Bacteroides) was improved during colonic fermentation. Altogether, gut microbiota could release polyphenols, the released polyphenols and their catabolic metabolites, alongside dietary fiber in mung bean coat selectively regulated the composition of gut microbiota and promoted the synthesis of SCFAs. These findings indicated that polyphenols in mung bean coat potentially contributed to gastrointestinal and colonic health.

Traditional Cooking Methods Affect Color, Texture and Bioactive Nutrients of Undaria pinnatifida

Undaria pinnatifida (U. pinnatifida) is an edible brown seaweed with high health value. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of traditional cooking methods (i.e., blanching, steaming, boiling and baking) on the color, texture and bioactive nutrients of U. pinnatifida, so as to screen out the traditional cooking methods more suitable for U. pinnatifida. In this study, methods of blanching and boiling resulted in better reduction in total color difference (0.91 ± 0.58 and 0.79 ± 0.34, respectively) and retention of chlorophyll A (62.99 ± 1.27 µg/g FW and 51.35 ± 1.69 µg/g FW), along with better elevation of fucoxanthin content (increased by 11.05% and 18.32%, respectively). Baking method got the best retention of total phenol content (1.62 ± 0.11 mg GAE/g DW), followed by methods of boiling and blanching (1.51 ± 0.07 mg GAE/g DW and 1.43 ± 0.05 mg GAE/g DW). Among these cooking methods, blanching and boiling seemed to be the more suitable for U. pinnatifida compared to other methods. These results could help to determine the better cooking methods for U. pinnatifida products and provide a scientific and theoretical basis for improving human dietary health.

Seasonal Fluctuations of Crop Yield, Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity in Fresh or Cooked Borage (Borago officinalis L.), Mallow (Malva sylvestris L.) and Buck’s-Horn Plantain (Plantago coronopus L.) Leaves

The interest for wild edible plants as functional food is increasing among consumers in the Mediterranean countries because of their high content of antioxidants. However, a critical point is the seasonality of wild edible species due to their spontaneity and the cultivation results necessary to satisfy market requests. Moreover, cooking may be necessary for most wild edible species to enhance their palatability. In the present experiment, the crop yield, total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) of leaves were determined in three wild edible species (Borago officinalis L., Malva sylvestris L. and Plantago coronopus L.), which were hydroponically cultivated in winter and in spring. Plants were recurrently harvested three times and the leaves were analyzed raw or after boiling in water for different times based on their palatability as evaluated by a hedonic test (2 min for B. officinalis, 2.5 min for M. sylvestris and 8 min for P. coronopus). The total crop yield was promising, especially for P. coronopus, with small differences between winter and spring (9.3 and 13.8 kg m−2, respectively). The boiling treatment caused a loss of TPC and, in some cases, of the AA in B. officinalis and M. sylvestris due to the solubilization of phenolic and other antioxidant compounds in boiling water. Conversely, in P. coronopus, TPC and AA were higher in boiled leaves than in fresh leaves, likely due to the strong binding of phenolic compounds to the cell wall. This binding might lead to the inefficient extraction of these compounds through the boiling treatment.

Functional implications of bound phenolic compounds and phenolics-food interaction: A review

Sizeable scientific evidence indicates the health benefits related to phenolic compounds and dietary fiber. Various phenolic compounds-rich foods or ingredients are also rich in dietary fiber, and these two health components may interrelate via noncovalent (reversible) and covalent (mostly irreversible) interactions. Notwithstanding, these interactions are responsible for the carrier effect ascribed to fiber toward the digestive system and can modulate the bioaccessibility of phenolics, thus shaping health-promoting effects in vivo. On this basis, the present review focuses on the nature, occurrence, and implications of the interactions between phenolics and food components. Covalent and noncovalent interactions are presented, their occurrence discussed, and the effect of food processing introduced. Once reaching the large intestine, fiber-bound phenolics undergo an intense transformation by the microbial community therein, encompassing reactions such as deglycosylation, dehydroxylation, α- and β-oxidation, dehydrogenation, demethylation, decarboxylation, C-ring fission, and cleavage to lower molecular weight phenolics. Comparatively less information is still available on the consequences on gut microbiota. So far, the very most of the information on the ability of bound phenolics to modulate gut microbiota relates to in vitro models and single strains in culture medium. Despite offering promising information, such models provide limited information about the effect on gut microbes, and future research is deemed in this field.

Tannat Grape Skin: A Feasible Ingredient for the Formulation of Snacks with Potential for Reducing the Risk of Diabetes

In the present work the feasibility of Tannat grape skin (TGS) as a functional ingredient in the formulation of two snacks (yogurt and biscuits) was studied. The research provided novel information on the effects of the food matrix and digestion process, under simulated human oral gastrointestinal conditions, in the bioaccessibility of TGS bioactive compounds composing of the snacks with health promoting properties (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic). TGS polyphenolic profile was analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) finding mainly flavonoids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins, which may exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and carbohydrase inhibition capacities. TGS digest showed antioxidant and antidiabetic potential compared to the undigested sample (p < 0.05). Yogurt and biscuits with TGS were developed with the nutrition claims “no-added sugars” and “source of fiber” and were digested in vitro to evaluate the bioaccessibility of compounds with health promoting properties after food processing and digestion. After in vitro simulation of digestion, bioactive properties were enhanced for control and TGS snacks which may be attributed to the formation/release of compounds with health-promoting properties. Biscuits showed significant increase in ABTS antioxidant capacity and yogurt showed increased α-glucosidase inhibition capacity by the addition of TGS (p < 0.05). Polyphenols from TGS and bioactive peptides from snacks which may be released during digestion might be responsible for the observed bioactivities. Consumer’s acceptance of TGS yogurt and biscuits showed scores of 6.3 and 5.1 (scale 1−9), respectively, showing TGS yogurt had higher overall acceptance. Sensory profile assessed by check-all-that-apply + just-about-right (CATA+JAR) showed most of the attributes were evaluated as “just about right”, supporting good food quality. The developed yogurt presented adequate shelf-life parameters for 28 days. TGS yogurt with higher acceptability showed reduced ROS formation (p < 0.05) induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (1 mM) in CCD-18Co colon cells and RAW264.7 macrophages when pre-treated with concentrations 500−1000 and 100−500 µg/mL of the digests, respectively. Moreover, TGS yogurt digest pre-treatment reduced nitric oxide (NO) production (p < 0.05) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages, showing anti-inflammatory potential. Bioactive peptides generated during lactic fermentation and digestion process may be contributors to intracellular effects. In conclusion, yogurt and biscuits with Tannat grape skin addition were obtained with nutrition claims “no-added sugars” and “source of fiber” with the potential to modulate key biochemical events associated with diabetes pathogenesis.

Effect of in vitro digestion on the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of phenolic compounds in fractions of Eugenia pyriformis fruit

Uvaia is a Brazilian fruit species that has great economic and nutritional potential, in addition to being a good source of compounds of biological interest. In this study, we evaluated for the first time the influence of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of phenolic compounds from two fractions of uvaia (edible and seed). It was observed that the content of total phenolic compounds was about 3 times higher in the seed (undigested extract), but reduced significantly after intestinal digestion (-50.08%). In turn, the total flavonoid content was about 5 times higher in the undigested seed extract. After intestinal digestion, the flavonoid content increased in the edible fraction (+109.49%) and decreased in the uvaia seed (-70.20%). The heatmap analysis showed that after intestinal digestion, there was an increase in the relative intensity of the flavonoids, while phenolic acids reduced their intensity. The antioxidant capacity of the undigested extract was 4-7 times greater for the seed, but decreased after intestinal digestion (-8.04-27.23%), while the antioxidant capacity of the edible fraction increased by 72.12-107.89% in this same stage of digestion. Thus, the content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity were higher in the uvaia seed, and the bioaccessibility of the bioactive compounds in this fruit were dependent on the fraction and digestive phase evaluated. These results can contribute to the establishment of uvaia as a novel ingredient for preparations with functional claims.

Effects of different household cooking methods on the biological properties of Chinese yam

Yam (Dioscorea opposite Thunb) is used as a staple food and a traditional medicine in China. This study investigated the effects of different household cooking methods on the bioactive components (phenolic compounds, diosgenin and allantoin) and their bioaccessibility as well as the biological properties (antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic activity, anti-angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) or anti-acetylcholinesterase (AChE)) of Chinese yam using an in vitro simulated digestion model. The results demonstrated that cooking caused significant losses of total soluble phenolic compounds (lowest loss of 20% for boiling at atmospheric pressure) and diosgenin content (lowest loss of 27.37% for microwaving) but no changes in the allantoin content. The cooking methods affected the bioaccessibility of the bioactive components differently. Normal steaming resulted in the highest amount of bioaccessible phenolic compounds (71.21%) and allantoin (79.07%), whereas high-pressure boiling in the highest content of diosgenin (75.58%). The concentration of bioactive components in the digesta fluid was correlated with the antioxidant activity and enzymatic inhibitory activities. Overall, household cooking processes allow the biological activity of yam to be retained by changing the profile of bioactive components potentially available for intestinal absorption. Thus, a household cooking method such as normal pressure steaming appeared to be most suitable for achieving the expected health benefits of yam.

Influence of Cooking Methods on Onion Phenolic Compounds Bioaccessibility

The impact of domestic cooking (baking, boiling, frying and grilling) and in vitro digestion on the stability and release of phenolic compounds from yellow-skinned (YSO) and red-skinned onions (RSO) have been evaluated. The mass spectrometry identification pointed out flavonols as the most representative phenolic class, led by quercetin-derivatives. RSO contained almost the double amount of phenolic compounds respect to YSO (50.12 and 27.42 mg/100 g, respectively). Baking, grilling and primarily frying resulted in an increased amount of total phenolic compounds, especially quercetin-derivatives, in both the onion varieties. Some treatments promoted the degradation of quercetin-3-O-hexoside-4′-O-hexoside, the main compound present in both the onion varieties, leading to the occurrence of quercetin-4′-O-hexoside and protocatechuic acid-4-O-hexoside. After in vitro digestion, the bioaccessibility index for total phenolic compounds ranged between 42.6% and 65.5% in grilled and baked YSO, respectively, and between 39.8% and 80.2% in boiled and baked RSO, respectively. Baking contributed to the highest amount of bioaccessible phenolic compounds for both the onion varieties after in vitro digestion. An in-depth design of the cooking process may be of paramount importance in modulating the gastro-intestinal release of onion phenolic compounds.

Evaluation of Quality, Antioxidant Capacity, and Digestibility of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. cv Blanoro) Stored under N2 and CO2 Atmospheres

The aim of this work was to monitor the quality, antioxidant capacity and digestibility of chickpea exposed to different modified atmospheres. Chickpea quality (proximal analysis, color, texture, and water absorption) and the antioxidant capacity of free, conjugated, and bound phenol fractions obtained from raw and cooked chickpea, were determined. Cooked chickpea was exposed to N₂ and CO₂ atmospheres for 0, 25, and 50 days, and the antioxidant capacity was analyzed by DPPH (2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis-[3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid]), and total phenols. After in vitro digestion, the antioxidant capacity was measured by DPPH, ABTS, FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power), and AAPH (2,2'-Azobis [2-methylpropionamidine]). Additionally, quantification of total phenols, and UPLC-MS profile were determined. The results indicated that this grain contain high quality and high protein (18.38%). Bound phenolic compounds showed the highest amount (105.6 mg GAE/100 g) and the highest antioxidant capacity in all techniques. Cooked chickpeas maintained their quality and antioxidant capacity during 50 days of storage at 4 and -20 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. Free and conjugated phenolic compounds could be hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes, increasing their bioaccessibility and their antioxidant capacity during each step of digestion. The majority compound in all samples was enterodiol, prevailing the flavonoid type in the rest of the identified compounds. Chickpea contains biological interest compounds with antioxidant potential suggesting that this legume can be exploited for various technologies.

Drying methodology effect on the phenolic content, antioxidant activity of Myrtus communis L. leaves ethanol extracts and soybean oil oxidative stability

In this study, different drying methodologies (convective air, oven and microwave) of Myrtus communis L. (M. communis L.) leaves were conducted to investigate their effects on the levels of phenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity of ethanolic extracts (EEs) as well as the soybean oil oxidative stability. Drying methodology significantly influenced the extractability of phenolic compounds. Microwave drying led to an increase in the amounts of total phenols, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins followed by oven drying at 70 °C. Higher temperature of drying (100 and 120 °C) led to a significant reduction of their amounts (p < 0.05). An ultra-performance liquid chromatography method combined with high resolution mass spectroscopic detection was used to analyze the phenolic fraction of extracts. Higher amounts of the identified compounds were observed when leaves were heat treated. Furthermore, the evaluation of the antioxidant activity showed that the studied extracts possess in general high antioxidant capacities, significantly dependent on the employed drying methodology. The incorporation of the different extracts at 200 ppm in soybean oil showed that its oxidative stability was significantly improved. Extracts from leaves treated with microwave (EE_MW) and at 70 °C (EE_70) have better effect than BHT. The results of the present study suggest that microwave drying could be useful to enhance the extractability of phenolic compounds and the antioxidant capacity of M. communis L. leaf extract.

Determining the amount of potentially bioavailable phenolic compounds and bioelements in edible mushroom mycelia of Agaricus bisporus, Cantharellus cibarius, and Lentinula edodes

Release of bioelements and phenolic compounds from edible mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus, Cantharellus cibarius, and Lentinula edodes) enriched with zinc, selenium, l-phenylalanine, alone and as a mixture was examined using a simulated human gastrointestinal digestion method. Due to the extensive amount of data obtained, in order to interpret them more precisely in the work, the methods of chemometric analysis (Cluster Analysis-CA and Principal Compenent Analysis-PCA) were additionally applied. The results showed mycelium of L. edodes has the best health-promoting properties and addition of mixture to the media increased significantly the synthesis of p-hydroxybenzoic and protocatechuic acid (267 and 16.3 mg/100 g d.w.). After extraction into artificial digestive juices, 97.4 mg/100 g d.w. p-hydroxybenzoic acid and 15.6 mg/100 g d.w. of protocatechuic acid were released. The greatest amounts of Se and Zn were extracted from enriched A. bisporus mycelium (32.3 and 342 mg/100 g d.w., respectively). This study confirmed that mycelium might prevent nutritional deficiencies in the diet through use of functional foods.

Bean phenolic compound changes during processing: Chemical interactions and identification

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) represents one of the main crops for human consumption, due to its nutritional and functional qualities. Phenolic compounds have beneficial health effects, and beans are an essential source of these molecules, being found mainly in the seed coat and its color depends on the concentration and type of phenolic compounds present. The bean during storage and processing, such as cooking, germination, extrusion, and fermentation, undergoes physical, chemical, and structural changes that affect the bioavailability of its nutrients; these changes are related to the interactions between phenolic compounds and other components of the food matrix. This review provides information about the identification and quantification of phenolic compounds present in beans and the changes they undergo during processing. It also includes information on the interactions between the phenolic compounds and the components of the bean's cell wall and the analytical methods used to identify the interactions of phenolic compounds with macromolecules.

Processing method modulates the effectiveness of black beans for lowering blood cholesterol in spontaneously hypertensive rats

BACKGROUND

Various foods are known to have beneficial effects on health when consumed whole; however, there is a trend towards preparing foods from processed ingredients, and it remains unclear whether the benefits of the whole food are retained. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine whether different processing techniques affect the lowering of cholesterol and the vascular effects of black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).

RESULTS

Beans were prepared by overnight soaking and boiling - the standard method - and by micronization, extrusion, or dehulling and boiling, and they were then fine milled. Beans prepared by the standard method were also coarse milled. These five materials were incorporated into semi-purified diets (30% wt/wt) and fed to spontaneously hypertensive rats for 4 weeks. Body weight, blood pressure, and aorta morphology were unaltered by the diets. Fasting total cholesterol was significantly reduced in rats fed micronized beans compared with extruded beans (both fine-milled) or the bean-free diet, while boiling combined with coarse milling lowered low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. The lack of cholesterol lowering in rats fed extruded bean compared to micronized was not explained by the amount or composition of dietary fiber or resistant starch. Differences in the polyphenolic profile as determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were also unable to explain the variations in cholesterol-lowering capacity.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that processing of black beans alters the health effects observed with the whole pulse, and suggests that products prepared with processed ingredients will need to be tested empirically to establish whether the biological effects are maintained in vivo. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Changes in bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of plant-based foods by gastrointestinal digestion: a review

Phenolic compounds, omnipresent in plants, are a crucial part of the human diet and are of considerable interest due to their antioxidant properties and other potential beneficial health effects, for instance, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. The consumption of a variety of plant-based foods containing various phenolic compounds has increased due to published scientific verification of several health benefits. The release of phenolic compounds and change in their bioactivities examined through in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion could provide information on the biological potency of bioactive components, which will allow us to elucidate their metabolic pathways and bioactivities at target sites. This review reports on the recent research results focused on changes during the gastro and/or intestinal phase. The effect of digestive enzymes and digestive pH conditions during simulated digestion accounted for the variations in bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic antioxidants as well as the corresponding antioxidant activities were also summarized and presented in the review.

Antioxidant Phytochemicals in Pulses and their Relation to Human Health: A Review

Pulses are a staple food cultivated since ancient times, which play an important role in the human diet. From a nutritional point of view, pulses are very interesting foods as they are rich in proteins, carbohydrates and dietary fibre. Dietary antioxidants are a complex mixture of hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds usually present in foods of plant origin, including pulses. In the present study, the phytochemical composition of selected pulses (common beans, fava beans, lentils, chickpeas, peas and lupins) has been reviewed in terms of their content of antioxidant compounds. The content of hydrosoluble antioxidants (organic acids, phenolic compounds), liposoluble antioxidants (tocopherols, carotenoids) and other compounds which exert antioxidant properties, such as dietary fibre and minerals (zinc, selenium), has been studied, reporting that pulses are an interesting source of these compounds, which have important health benefits, including a preventing role in cardiovascular diseases, anticarcinogenic or neuroprotective properties. It is important to take into account that pulses are not usually consumed raw, but they must be processed before consumption in order to improve their nutritional quality and their palatability, therefore, the effect of different technological and heat treatments (germination, cooking, boiling, extrusion) on the antioxidant compounds present in pulses has been also reviewed. In this regard, it has been observed that as a consequence of processing, the content of phytochemicals with antioxidant properties is usually decreased, but processed pulses maintain relevant amounts of these compounds, preserving their beneficial health effect.

Pectin and phytic acid reduce mineral bioaccessibility in cooked common bean cotyledons regardless of cell wall integrity

Common bean cotyledons are rich in minerals (Mg, Ca, Fe and Zn), but they also contain natural barriers that can potentially prevent mineral absorption during digestion. In this study, both the cell wall integrity and mineral chelators/antinutrients (phytic acid and pectin) were investigated as natural barriers in common bean cotyledons. To examine the cell wall integrity as a physical barrier for mineral diffusion, soluble mineral content was determined in a cooked cotyledon sample before and after disruption of intact cell walls. While this study showed that the cell wall in cooked common bean cotyledons does not hinder mineral diffusion, it also demonstrated that the presence of antinutrients decreases mineral bioaccessibility. It was shown that a certain mineral fraction is naturally bound to phytic acid and/or pectin and, by enzymatically degrading these antinutrients, the antinutrient-chelated mineral fraction decreased. Moreover, although pH changes are occurring during simulated digestion experiments, which might affect charge of the antinutrients and thus their chelating capacity for minerals, no difference in mineral distribution over antinutrients was observed due to digestion. In addition, this study showed that mineral bioaccessibility in common bean cotyledons could be potentially increased by degrading antinutrients during digestion in the small intestinal phase.

Domestic cooking methods affect the stability and bioaccessibility of dark purple eggplant (Solanum melongena) phenolic compounds

Eggplant is an important component of the Mediterranean Diet, which becomes edible after cooking. This study determined the fate of dark purple eggplant phenolic compounds after baking, boiling, frying, grilling and digestion. Thirty-seven phenolic compounds were identified and quantified in raw eggplant. Frying determined a 74% increase in total hydroxycinnamic acids whereas a decrease was observed after boiling (27%), grilling (51%), and baking (60%). After digestion, 45%, 33% and 22% of total phenolic compounds resulted bioaccessible in baked, grilled and fried dark purple eggplant. Fried eggplant displayed the highest amount of phenolic compounds (751.46 mg/100 g) after digestion. The cooking methods differently affected the release of individual phenolic compounds. Baking and grilling resulted in higher amount of bioaccessible caffeoylquinic acids whereas frying in di-caffeoylquinic acids and hydroxycinnamic acid-amides. A careful design of the cooking method may be pivotal to modulate the release of specific phenolic compounds.

Rice and common bean blends: Effect of cooking on in vitro starch digestibility and phenolics profile

This study aims to evaluate the effects of in vitro digestion of rice and common bean blends on phenolics content and profile. Black and carioca beans were used as common bean sources. Blends consisted of 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 polished rice:beans (w/w). Pure rice or pure beans were also analyzed. Phenolic compounds were determined in raw, cooked, and digested samples. The glucose release through in vitro digestion was slower as the proportion of black beans or carioca beans increased. Starch digestibility ranged between 41.1 in 100% carioca bean to 84.4% in 100% rice. Hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, catechin, and epicatechin were the most abundant phenolics detected in the studied samples. Considering the content of phenolic compounds determined in the raw, cooked, and digested grains, only a small fraction was available for absorption in the gut, with amounts varying from 0.1 to 0.6 μg·g^-1.

Modification of In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant Activity by Consumption of Cooked Chickpea in a Colon Cancer Model

Chickpea has been classified as a nutraceutical food due to its phytochemical compounds, showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity. To investigate this, we evaluated the effect of cooking on the nutritional and non-nutritional composition and the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of chickpea seed. The latter was determined by the variation in the concentration of nitric oxide (NO), oxidized carbonyl groups (CO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and the expression of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) in the colon of male BALB/c mice fed with a standard diet with 10 and 20% cooked chickpea (CC). We induced colon cancer in mice by administering azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS); for the evaluation, these were sacrificed 1, 7, and 14 weeks after the induction. Results show that cooking does not significantly modify (p < 0.05) nutritional compounds; however, it decreases the concentration of non-nutritional ones and, consequently, in vitro antioxidant activity. The in vivo evaluation showed that animals administered with AOM/DSS presented higher concentrations of NO, CO, MDA, and 4-HNE than those in animals without AOM/DSS administration. However, in the three evaluated times, these markers were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) with CC consumption. The best effect on the oxidation markers was with the 20% CC diet, demonstrating the antioxidant potential of CC.

Historical Reflection of Food Processing and the Role of Legumes as Part of a Healthy Balanced Diet

The purpose of food processing has changed over time. High-intensity industrially processed food often exhibits higher concentrations of added sugar, salt, higher energy, and lower micronutrient density than does similar food or meals prepared at home from raw or minimally processed food. Viewing the evolution of food processing from history, one could make out three major transitions related to human socioeconomic changes. The first transition was marked by the change from hunting and gathering to settled societies with agriculture and livestock farming. The second and third transitions were associated with the Industrial Revolution and with market liberalization, global trade and automation, respectively. The next major transition that will influence food processing and shape human nutrition may include the exploitation of sustainable and efficient protein and food sources that will ensure high-quality food production for the growing world population. Apart from novel food sources, traditional food such as legumes and pulses likewise exhibit great potential to contribute to a healthy balanced diet. The promotion of legumes should be intensified in public dietary guidelines because their consumption is rather low in high-income countries and increasingly displaced as a traditional staple by industrially processed food in low- to middle-income countries.

Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Antinutritional Content of Legumes: A Comparison between Four Phaseolus Species

Beans (Phaseolus spp.) are one of the most important legumes for their nutritional value and health benefits in many world regions. In addition to Phaseolus vulgaris, there are four additional species that are cultivated in many regions of the world and are a source of food for human consumption: P. lunatus, P. coccineus, P. polyanthus, and P. acutifolius. In this work, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and anti-nutritional compounds of 18 bean accessions, corresponding to four different species of the genus Phaseolus, were analyzed. In addition, their physical characteristics, proximate composition, and amino acid content were determined in order to compare their phytochemical composition and nutritional value. The species closest to each other in terms of essential amino acid content were P. polyanthus with P. vulgaris and P. lunatus with P. coccineus. Furthermore, there was a strong positive correlation between antioxidant activity and flavonoids, anthocyanins, and lectins with all the accessions collected. Significant differences in the content of phenolic compounds were found among the bean species studied. Therefore, in addition to P. vulgaris, other species such as P. coccineus and P. lunatus have high biological and antioxidant potential that could be beneficial to human health when consumed as nutraceutical foods.