Inhibition of acrylamide by glutathione in asparagine/glucose model systems and cookies

Strategies to reduce neurotoxic acrylamide in biscuits, a systematic review

In this systematic review, considering the wide consumption of biscuits, the research that has been designed so far to reduce acrylamide in biscuits is discussed. Some methods were the use of antioxidants, some food additives, optimization of baking methods, suppression of acrolein production, and suppression of Maillard reaction. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods are discussed in this systematic review. The most important possible mechanism in the formation of acrylamide is the Maillard reaction.The greatest influence of the intervention effects was seen in the studies in which the Maillard reaction was suppressed. In some studies, this efficiency was observed above 90 %. It has also been observed in some studies that acrylamide is significantly reduced by using some antioxidants in the biscuit formulation. In this condition, a decrease in the amount of acrylamide was observed in the range of 50-90 % depending on the type of antioxidant. In this regard, the greatest reduction effect was reported with the use of tropical fruits and bamboo leaves in the formulation of biscuits.

Inhibitory effect of thiol compounds on browning precursors and intermediates in sorbitol/glycine system

BACKGROUND

Sorbitol as a sweetener is often thought to be unable to participate in the Maillard reaction causing browning. However, browning of a system was found to be significant when sorbitol was mixed with glycine and heated. The thiol compounds glutathione and cysteine were added to the system, and the inhibition mechanism of the two on the browning of the system was studied by combining the changes of precursor substances, intermediate products and browning degree.

RESULTS

When the concentration of thiol compounds reached 25 mg mL-1, both could make the browning inhibition of the system more than 80%, and the accumulated glucose concentration was reduced to <35% of the control. The production of 3-deoxyglucosone, a precursor of melanoidin, was significantly reduced.

CONCLUSION

Glutathione and cysteine directly inhibited the production of substrates in the sorbitol/glycine system, reduced glucose accumulation through competitive consumption and captured highly active intermediates through sulfhydryl groups. This has implications for the browning control of food systems containing sugar alcohols. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dual functional roles of nutritional additives in nutritional fortification and safety of thermally processed food: Potential, limitations, and perspectives

The Maillard reaction (MR) has been established to be a paramount contributor to the characteristic sensory property of thermally processed food products. Meanwhile, MR also gives rise to myriads of harmful byproducts (HMPs) (e.g., advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and acrylamide). Nutritional additives have attracted increasing attention in recent years owing to their potential to simultaneously improve nutritional quality and attenuate HMP formation. In this manuscript, a brief overview of various nutritional additives (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids, dietary fibers, and miscellaneous micronutrients) in heat-processed food is provided, followed by a summary of the formation mechanisms of AGEs and acrylamide highlighting the potential crosstalk between them. The main body of the manuscript is on the capability of nutritional additives to modulate AGE and acrylamide formation besides their traditional roles as nutritional enhancers. Finally, limitations/concerns associated with their use to attenuate dietary exposure to HMPs and future perspectives are discussed. Literature data support that through careful control of the addition levels, certain nutritional additives possess promising potential for simultaneous improvement of nutritional value and reduction of AGE and acrylamide content via multiple action mechanisms. Nonetheless, there are some major concerns that may limit their wide applications for achieving such dual functions, including influence on sensory properties of food products, potential overestimation of nutrition enhancement, and introduction of hazardous alternative reaction products or derivatives. These could be overcome through comprehensive assay of dose-response relationships and systematic evaluation of the diverse combinations from the same and/or different categories of nutritional additives to establish synergistic mixtures.

Prediction of acrylamide content in potato chips using near-infrared spectroscopy

Acrylamide (ACR), a neurotoxin with carcinogenic properties that can affect fertility, is commonly found in fried and baked foods such as potato chips. This study was carried out to predict the ACR content in fried and baked potato chips using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Effective wavenumbers were identified using competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) and the successive projections algorithm (SPA). Six wavenumbers (12799 cm^-1, 12007 cm^-1, 10944 cm^-1, 10943 cm^-1, 5801 cm^-1, and 4332 cm^-1) were selected using the ratio (λ_i/λ_j) and difference (λ_i-λ_j) of any two wavenumbers from the CARS and SPA results. First, partial least squares (PLS) models were established based on full spectral wavebands (12799-4000 cm^-1), and the prediction models were subsequently redeveloped based on effective wavenumbers to predict ACR content. Results showed that the full and selected wavenumbers-based PLS models obtained the coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.7707 and 0.6670, respectively, and the root mean square errors of prediction (RMSEP) of 53.0442 μg/kg and 64.3810 μg/kg, respectively, in the prediction sets. The results of this work demonstrate the suitability of NIR spectroscopy as a non-destructive method for predicting ACR content in potato chips.

Functional Food Based on Potato

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) has gradually become a stable food worldwide since it can be a practical nutritional supplement and antioxidant as well as an energy provider for human beings. Financially and nutritionally, the cultivation and utility of potatoes is worthy of attention from the world. Exploring the functionality and maximizing the utilization of its component parts as well as developing new products based on the potato is still an ongoing issue. To maximize the benefits of potato and induce new high-value products while avoiding unfavorable properties of the crop has been a growing trend in food and medical areas. This review intends to summarize the factors that influence changes in the key functional components of potatoes and to discuss the focus of referenced literature which may require further research efforts. Next, it summarizes the application of the latest commercial products and potential value of components existing in potato. In particular, there are several main tasks for future potato research: preparing starchy foods for special groups of people and developing fiber-rich products to supply dietary fiber intake, manufacturing bio-friendly and specific design films/coatings in the packaging industry, extracting bioactive proteins and potato protease inhibitors with high biological activity, and continuing to build and examine the health benefits of new commercial products based on potato protein. Notably, preservation methods play a key role in the phytochemical content left in foods, and potato performs superiorly to many common vegetables when meeting the demands of daily mineral intake and alleviating mineral deficiencies.

Dietary glutathione supplementation attenuates oxidative stress and improves intestinal barrier in diquat-treated weaned piglets

The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of glutathione (GSH) against oxidative stress and intestinal barrier disruption caused by diquat (an oxidative stress inducer) in weaned piglets. Twenty-four piglets were randomly assigned to four treatments with six pigs per treatment for an 18-d trial. Treatments were basal diet, basal diet + diquat challenge, 50 mg/kg GSH diets + diquat challenge and 100 mg/kg GSH diets + diquat challenge. On day 15, piglets in basal diet group and diquat-challenged groups were intraperitoneally injected with sterile saline and diquat at 10 mg/kg body weight, respectively. The results showed that GSH supplementation improved growth performance of diquat-injected piglets from days 15 to 18 (p < 0.05), especially at a dose of 100 mg/kg GSH. Meanwhile, diquat also caused oxidative stress and intestinal barrier damage in piglets. However, GSH supplementation enhanced the antioxidant capacity of serum and jejunum, as evidenced by the increase in GSH content and total superoxide dismutase activities and the decrease in 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine concentrations (p < 0.05). GSH also up-regulated the mRNA expressions of intestinal tight junction protein (zonula occludens 1, ZO1; occludin, OCLN; claudin-1, CLDN1) and mitochondrial biogenesis and function (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 alpha, PGC1α; mitochondrial transcription factor A, TFAM; cytochrome c, CYCS), compared with diquat-challenged piglets in basal diet (p < 0.05). Thus, the study demonstrates that GSH protects piglets from oxidative stress caused by diquat and 100 mg/kg GSH has a better protective role.

Detection of the 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content in roasted coffee using machine learning based on near-infrared spectroscopy

Since 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is carcinogenic to humans, its detection in foods is essential. This study performed near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (11998-4000 cm^-1) to determine the 5-HMF content in roasted coffee. The random forest (RF) was used to extract important wavenumbers, after which three machine learning models (ordinary least square (OLS), support vector machine (SVM), and RF) were established for the prediction. RF obtained the best prediction results (R_c² = 0.98 and R_p² = 0.92) compared with OLS and SVM and effectively extracted the important wavenumbers (11667 cm^-1, 11666 cm^-1, 10905 cm^-1, 7096 cm^-1, 7095 cm^-1, 7094 cm^-1, 7093 cm^-1, 7092 cm^-1, 5054 cm^-1, 5026 cm^-1, 5025 cm^-1, and 5024 cm^-1). The results demonstrated that machine learning models based on NIR spectroscopy could provide a non-destructive approach for determining 5-HMF content in roasted coffee.

Exploring correlations between green coffee bean components and thermal contaminants in roasted coffee beans

This study evaluated chemical compositions of green coffee beans from multi-production regions and correlated this information with thermal contaminants in roasted coffee. Using multivariate statistical techniques, formation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), furan, 2- and 3-methylfuran were positively correlated with lipid, sucrose, glutamic acid, phenylalanine, margaric acid, linolenic acid and trigonelline in green coffee beans. Moreover, significant positive correlations between acrylamide (AA) levels with aspartic acid, serine, alanine, histidine, asparagine, protein, and caffeine was found in green beans. Despite this, 5-HMF, furan, 2- and 3-methylfuran showed negative correlations with active constitutes (neochlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, caffeine, total phenolics (TPC) and total flavonoids contents (TFC)), and several amino acids, and there were slight negative relationships between AA and myristic acid, palmitic acid, chlorogenic acid, sucrose, lipid, TPC and TFC. This study provides valuable enlightenment for the selection of proper coffee beans for production of coffee with high nutrition and low chemical hazardous risks.

Influence of Seasonings and Spice Essential Oils on Acrylamide Production in a Low Moisture Model System

Acrylamide (AA) is a typical contaminant produced during the heating process. In the present study, two seasonings (soy sauce and rice vinegar) and three spice essential oils (chive, ginger, and pepper) were added to the asparagine (Asn)/glucose (Glc) diethylene glycol model system to investigate the production of AA in a low moisture model system. The generation of AA was significantly enhanced when low levels of soy sauce (1% and 3% v/v) were added (p < 0.05). The Asn/Glc model system was heated for 15 min with 0%, 1%, or 3% (v/v) soy sauce, containing 43 mg/L, 63 mg/L, and 53 mg/L AA, respectively. However, the addition of a high level of soy sauce (5% v/v) showed significant inhibition of AA production after heating for 10 min (p < 0.05). About 36% of AA was inhibited in the Asn/Glc/soy sauce (5%) model system after heating for 15 min. The addition of low levels of rice vinegar (1% and 3% v/v) showed comprehensive effects on AA production. Nevertheless, the addition of rice vinegar at 5% v/v had an inhibitory effect on AA generation (p < 0.05). All kinds of spice essential oils promoted the production of AA (p < 0.05). There was a dose−response relationship between the level of spice essential oils and the generation of AA. This study proposes the importance of seasonings and spice essential oils for AA production in food preparation.

A DFT Study of the Reaction of Acrylamide with L-Cysteine and L-Glutathione

Thermal processing of certain foods implies the formation of acrylamide, which has been proven to provoke adverse effects on human health. Thus, several strategies to mitigate it have been developed. One of them could be the application of organosulfur compounds obtained from natural sources to react with the acrylamide, forming non-toxic adducts. A DFT study of the acrylamide reaction with the organosulfur model compounds L-cysteine and L-glutathione by Michael addition and a free radical pathway complemented by a kinetic study of these model molecules has been applied. The kinetic evaluation results demonstrate that the L-glutathione reaction exhibited a higher rate constant than the other studied compound.

Fluorescent garlic-capped Ag nanoparticles as dual sensors for the detection of acetone and acrylamide

In order to protect human health from the adverse impacts of acrylamide and acetone, simple analytical processes are required to detect low concentrations of acrylamide and acetone. Dual functional garlic-capped silver nanoparticles (G-Ag NPs) have been used as fluorescent sensors for acrylamide and acetone. This technique depends on the quenching of the photoluminescence (PL) intensity of G-Ag NPs with the interaction of either acrylamide or acetone. This fluorescent probe presented high selectivity toward acrylamide with a wide linear response of 0.01-6 mM with a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.9 μM. Moreover, this probe also acted as a selective and sensitive fluorescent sensor for the detection of acetone in the range of 0.1-17 mM with LOD of 55 μM. The applicability of G-Ag NPs as a proposed sensor for acrylamide was evaluated using a potato chips sample with a recovery percentage of 102.4%. Acetone concentration is also quantified in human urine samples and the recoveries ranged from 98.8 to 101.7%. Repeatability and reproducibility studies for acrylamide and acetone offered relative standard deviation (RSD) of 0.9% and 1.5%, and 0.77% and 1.1%, respectively.

The role of additives on acrylamide formation in food products: a systematic review

Acrylamide (AA) is a toxic substance formed in many carbohydrate-rich food products, whose formation can be reduced by adding some additives. Furthermore, the type of food consumed determines the AA intake. According to the compiled information, the first route causing AA formation is the Maillard reaction. Some interventions, such as reducing AA precursors in raw materials, (i.e., asparagine), reducing sugars, or decreasing temperature and processing time can be applied to limit AA formation in food products. The L-asparaginase is more widely used in potato products. Also, coatings loaded with proteins, enzymes, and phenolic compounds are new techniques for reducing AA content. Enzymes have a reducing effect on AA formation by acting on asparagine; proteins by competing with amino acids to participate in Maillard, and phenolic compounds through their radical scavenging activity. On the other hand, some synthetic and natural additives increase the formation of AA. Due to the high exposure to AA and its toxic effects, it is essential to recognize suitable food additives to reduce the health risks for consumers. In this sense, this study focuses on different additives that are proven to be effective in the reduction or formation of AA in food products.

Unraveling inhibitory effects of Alpinia officinarum Hance and curcumin on methylimidazole and acrylamide in cookies and possible pathways revealed by electron paramagnetic resonance

The synchronous mitigative effects of Alpinia officinarum Hance (AOH) and curcumin on the generation of methylimidazole and acrylamide in cookies were investigated. Possible mechanisms related to quenching free radicals, reducing lipid oxidation and eliminating carbonyl intermediates were explored by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and HPLC. The total methylimidazole and acrylamide contents raised with an increase in heating temperature and time, and reached a maximum at 200 °C for 11 min. AOH and curcumin reduced methylimidazole and acrylamide simultaneously; the maximum inhibition rates for methylimidazole and acrylamide were 51.55% (0.015% curcumin) and 73.66% (1.5% AOH). Alkyl free radicals and HO· were proved to be the critical free radicals for methylimidazole and acrylamide, AOH and curcumin quenched these radicals in a dose-dependent manner. The lipid oxidation, active carbonyl intermediates glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and acrylaldehyde were also reduced by AOH and curcumin simultaneously, which may be resulted from the quenching of free radicals.

Allicin Promoted Reducing Effect of Garlic Powder through Acrylamide Formation Stage

Background: Acrylamide is formed during food heating and is neurotoxic to animals and potentially carcinogenic to humans. It is important to reduce acrylamide content during food processing. Researchers have suggested that garlic powder could reduce acrylamide content, but the key substance and acrylamide reduction pathway of garlic powder was unclear. Methods: The inhibitory effect of garlic powder on acrylamide in asparagine/glucose solution and a fried potato model system were firstly evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of allicin on the amount of produced acrylamide in the asparagine/glucose solution model system and fried potatoes was studied with kinetic analysis. Results: The freeze-dried garlic powder had a higher inhibition rate (41.0%) than oven-dried garlic powder (maximum inhibition rate was 37.3%), and allicin had a 71.3% attribution to the reduction of acrylamide content. Moreover, the inhibition rate of allicin had a nonlinear relationship with the addition level increase. The kinetic analysis indicated that garlic powder and allicin could reduce acrylamide content through the AA formation stage, but not the decomposition stage. Conclusions: Allicin was the key component of garlic powder in reducing acrylamide content during acrylamide formation stage. This research could provide a new method to reduce acrylamide content during food processing and expand the application area of garlic.

Influence of citral on acrylamide formation in model systems

This work aimed to evaluate the role of citral (Cit) in the formation of acrylamide (AA) in model systems. The asparagine (Asn)/glucose (Glc), Asn/Glc/ginger essential oil (GEO), and Asn/Glc/Cit model systems were prepared and analysed by UPLC-MS/MS. Cit was implicated to be a major product that contributed to the enhancement of AA formation by GEO. The addition of Cit significantly enhanced the formation of AA in the Asn/Glc model system in a dose-dependent manner. Further analysis showed Cit rather than its oxidation product played a major role in AA formation. Cit not only directly reacted with Asn via the Maillard reaction producing AA but also promoted the formation of AA between Asn and Glc.

Dietary exposure to acrylamide: A critical appraisal on the conversion of disregarded intermediates into acrylamide and possible reactions during digestion

The amount of acrylamide in asparagine rich thermally processed foods has been broadly monitored over the past two decades. Acrylamide exposure can be estimated by using the concentration of acrylamide found in foods and alternatively, biomarkers of exposure are correlated. A better estimation of dietary acrylamide exposure is crucial for a proper food safety assessment, regulations, and public health research. This review addresses the importance of the presence of neglected Maillard reaction intermediates found in foods, that may convert into acrylamide during digestion and the fate of acrylamide in the gastrointestinal tract as a reactive compound. Therefore, it is questioned in this review whether acrylamide concentration in ingested foods is directly correlated with the dietary exposure to acrylamide.

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Neglected Maillard reaction intermediates play role in acrylamide formation in gut.

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Exposure may increase when intermediates are converted into acrylamide in the gut.

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Nucleophiles cause elimination of acrylamide in the intestinal phase.

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The fate of acrylamide during digestion could be important for exposure estimation.

Color and structural modifications of alkaline extracted sunflower protein concentrates and isolates using L-cysteine and glutathione

Alkaline sunflower protein extraction can be performed along with de-phenolization of sunflower seed proteins if greening is unwanted. This greening is promoted at alkaline pH when chlorogenic acid (CGA) oxidizes and reacts with amino acids such as lysine. Thiol-containing dough conditioners: L-cysteine hydrochloride and glutathione (GSH) were investigated as an alternative de-greening strategy to acidification and de-phenolization. Greening and browning inhibition of thiols (GSH and Cysteine) were modeled by a combination of additive and interaction effects of extraction pH (7.0 to 11.0) and thiol concentration (0.00 to 5.60 mM) randomly assigned by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The powders with the highest greening were the controls (pH 8.9-9.3 and no added thiols) and powders at pH 10.41 with 0.82 mM thiols. From RSM, the maximum greening inhibition was achieved at pH 8.71 and 4.23 mM cysteine, and pH 8.51 and 3.78 mM GSH. However, cysteine caused more browning at alkaline pH than GSH. Furthermore, fluorescence spectroscopy showed that cysteine had a protective effect against alkaline unfolding, whereas GSH quenched fluorescence in a concentration-dependent manner. Overall, de-greening of alkaline extracted sunflower protein was achieved by adding cysteine or glutathione, but the thiols differed in their contribution to the browning and unfolding effect.

Inhibition Kinetics and Mechanism of Glutathione and Quercetin on Acrylamide in the Low-Moisture Maillard Systems

ABSTRACT

The inhibition kinetics of glutathione (GSH) and quercetin on acrylamide (AA) formation in the low-moisture Maillard systems were investigated at 180°C. The inhibition rates in an equal-molar asparagine-glucose (Asn-Glc) system were higher than those in an asparagine-fructose (Asn-Fru) system, and the maximum inhibition rates for AA were 57.75% with 10-2 mol L-1 GSH and 51.38% with 10-1 mol L-1 quercetin. The Logistic-Index dynamic model and two consecutive simplified first-order kinetic models were well fitted to the changes of AA in the Asn-Glc system. The kinetics results suggested that the predominant inhibition effect of GSH on AA could be attributed to the competitive reaction between GSH and Asn for the consumption of Glc. The kinetic results and high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of the inhibitory effect of quercetin on AA indicated that quercetin might mitigate AA through the binding reaction of quercetin decomposition products and Maillard intermediate products. These experimental results provide theoretical data that may be useful to control the formation of AA during food thermal processing.

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