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Urbanek AK, Rybak J, Hanus-Lorenz B, Komisarczyk DA, Mirończuk AM. Zophobas morio versus Tenebrio molitor: Diversity in gut microbiota of larvae fed with polymers. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 952:176005. [PMID: 39236822 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 09/01/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024]
Abstract
Plastics are common synthetic materials that have been abundantly present as pollutants in natural ecosystems for the past few decades. Thus scientists have investigated the capability of plastic digestion by insects. Here we compare the effectiveness of biodegradation of the specific polymers: expanded polystyrene (EPS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) altogether with above variants of plastics with microelements and vitamins by the mealworm - the larval form of the beetle Tenebrio molitor - and larvae of the beetle Zophobas morio, known as superworms. Z. morio beetles on all diets were able to complete their life cycle from larvae through pupae and imago, gaining 19 % and 22 % in mass on LDPE and EPS; 8 % and 7 % on PVC and PP. Mealworms (T. molitor) reared on polymers had minimal weight gain, gaining 2 % on LDPE and EPS, and a slight reduction in mass was observed when reared on PP and PVC. Not all specimens of T. molitor were able to pupate and transform to the adult stage. The results suggest that larvae of Z. morio can eat and degrade some types of plastic compounds more effectively than T. molitor. The changes in microbial gut communities were compared between these two species. The highest mass gain for Z. morio is associated with higher diversity in gut microbia and it was more diverse than that of T. molitor. Citrobacter freundii, a bacterium recognized for its ability to degrade long-chain polymers, linear hydrocarbons and cyclic hydrocarbons, was found in the microflora of Z. morio. The results confirm that superworms can survive on polymer feed. Moreover, this diet supplemented with microelements and vitamins increases the number of bacterial species and the diversity in the microbial gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta K Urbanek
- Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Environmental Biology, Laboratory for Biosustainability, Kożuchowska 5b, 51-631 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Justyna Rybak
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Beata Hanus-Lorenz
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Dominika A Komisarczyk
- Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Environmental Biology, Laboratory for Biosustainability, Kożuchowska 5b, 51-631 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Aleksandra M Mirończuk
- Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Environmental Biology, Laboratory for Biosustainability, Kożuchowska 5b, 51-631 Wrocław, Poland.
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Zaman I, Turjya RR, Shakil MS, Al Shahariar M, Emu MRRH, Ahmed A, Hossain MM. Biodegradation of polyethylene and polystyrene by Zophobas atratus larvae from Bangladeshi source and isolation of two plastic-degrading gut bacteria. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 345:123446. [PMID: 38295931 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Plastic pollution has become a major environmental concern globally, and novel and eco-friendly approaches like bioremediation are essential to mitigate the impact. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and expanded polystyrene (EPS) are three of the most frequently used plastic types. This study examined biodegradation of these using Zophobas atratus larvae, followed by isolation and whole genome sequencing of gut bacteria collected from larvae frass. Over 36 days, 24.04 % LDPE, 20.01 % EPS, and 15.12 % LLDPE were consumed on average by the larvae, with survival rates of 85 %, 90 %, and 87 %, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of fresh plastic types, consumed plastics, and larvae frass showed proof of plastic oxidation in the gut. Frass bacteria were isolated and cultured in minimal salt media supplemented with plastics as the sole carbon source. Two isolates of bacteria were sampled from these cultures, designated PDB-1 and PDB-2. PDB-1 could survive on LDPE and LLDPE as carbon sources, whereas PDB-2 could survive on EPS. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) provided proof of degradation in both cases. Both isolates were identified as strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, followed by sequencing, assembly, and annotation of their genomes. LDPE- and LLDPE-degrading enzymes e.g., P450 monooxygenase, alkane monooxygenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, etc. were identified in PDB-1. Similarly, phenylacetaldehyde dehydrogenase and other enzymes involved in EPS degradation were identified in PDB-2. Genes of both isolates were compared with genomes of known plastic-degrading P. aeruginosa strains. Virulence factors, antibiotic-resistance genes, and rhamnolipid biosurfactant biosynthesis genes were also identified in both isolates. This study indicated Zophobas atratus larvae as potential LDPE, LLDPE, and EPS biodegradation agent. Additionally, the isolated strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa provide a more direct and eco-friendly solution for plastic degradation. Confirmation and modification of the plastic-degrading pathways in the bacteria may create scope for metabolic engineering in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ifthikhar Zaman
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh.
| | - Rafeed Rahman Turjya
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Dhaka, Ramna, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh.
| | - Md Salman Shakil
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh.
| | - Mahruf Al Shahariar
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh.
| | | | - Akash Ahmed
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh.
| | - M Mahboob Hossain
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh.
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Bogusz R, Bryś J, Onopiuk A, Rybak K, Witrowa-Rajchert D, Nowacka M. Effect of Pulsed Electric Field Technology on the Composition and Bioactive Compounds of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Dried with Convective and Infrared-Convective Methods. Molecules 2023; 28:8121. [PMID: 38138608 PMCID: PMC10745468 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28248121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing interest has been shown in alternative food sources. Many studies are focused on the use of insects. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in the chemical and thermal properties of black soldier fly larvae influenced by the pulsed electric field (PEF) and convective (CD) or infrared-convective (IR-CD) drying techniques. Examinations of the basic chemical composition, properties of extracted fat (fatty acid composition, acid and peroxide values, and oxidative stability), total polyphenol content, antioxidant activity, allergen content, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were performed. Generally, the results showed that dried black soldier fly larvae are a good source of protein and fat, up to 33% and 44%, respectively. The fat extracted from the dried insects consisted mainly of saturated fatty acids (above 75%), in particular lauric acid (C12:0). A good oxidative stability of the fat was also observed, especially from samples dried with the IR-CD method. The convective drying technique allowed for better preservation of protein content compared to samples dried with the IR-CD method. Nevertheless, samples treated with PEF were characterized by significantly lower protein content. The samples after PEF pretreatment, with an intensity of 20 and 40 kJ/kg and dried with the IR-CD method, were represented by a significantly higher total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity. Furthermore, in most cases, the convectively dried samples were characterized by a higher allergen content, both crustaceans and mollusks. Taking into account all of the investigated properties, it can be stated that the samples without treatment and those that were PEF-treated with an intensity of 40 kJ/kg and dried with the infrared-convective method (IR-CD) were the most rewarding from the nutritional point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radosław Bogusz
- Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (R.B.); (K.R.)
| | - Joanna Bryś
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Anna Onopiuk
- Department of Technique and Food Development, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Katarzyna Rybak
- Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (R.B.); (K.R.)
| | - Dorota Witrowa-Rajchert
- Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (R.B.); (K.R.)
| | - Małgorzata Nowacka
- Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (R.B.); (K.R.)
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Quan Z, Zhao Z, Liu Z, Wang W, Yao S, Liu H, Lin X, Li QX, Yan H, Liu X. Biodegradation of polystyrene microplastics by superworms (larve of Zophobas atratus): Gut microbiota transition, and putative metabolic ways. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 343:140246. [PMID: 37741374 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023]
Abstract
Superworm (larve of Zophobas atratus) could consume foams of expanded polystyrene plastics. However, there is no sufficient understanding of the impact of microplastics on superworms and the degradation pathways of polystyrene. Herein, we explored the weight and survival change of superworms while fed with polystyrene microplastics, and found that survival rate and mean weight would reduce. In terms of gut microbial community structure of surperworms, significant shifts were detected with the relative abundance of Hafnia-Obesumbacterium sp. increasing. In addition, we domesticated two microbiota from the gut of superworms, and confirmed their ability to degrade PS in vitro. The last but most important, 1291 metabolites were identified by HPLC-TOF-MS/MS, and six metabolites related to polystyrene degradation were identified through comparative metabolomic analysis. According to the content and pathways of these metabolites, three metabolic pathways of polystyrene were (a) styrene-phenylacetyl-CoA-L-2-aminoadipic acid; (b) styrene-phenylacetyl-CoA-benzaldehyde; (c) styrene-2-hydroxyacetophenone. These results would help to further screen bacteria of PS degradation and investigate PS metabolic pathways in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaolin Quan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zixi Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zhimin Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Weijun Wang
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Shunyu Yao
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Huiren Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Xiaoqiu Lin
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Qing X Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Hai Yan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Xiaolu Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China.
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Ferrazzano GF, D’Ambrosio F, Caruso S, Gatto R, Caruso S. Bioactive Peptides Derived from Edible Insects: Effects on Human Health and Possible Applications in Dentistry. Nutrients 2023; 15:4611. [PMID: 37960264 PMCID: PMC10650930 DOI: 10.3390/nu15214611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel foods, including edible insects, are emerging because of their nutritional characteristics and low environmental impacts and could represent a valid alternative source of food in a more sustainable way. Edible insects have been shown to have beneficial effects on human health. Insect-derived bioactive peptides exert antihypertensive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties and have protective effects against common metabolic conditions. In this review, the roles of edible insects in human health are reported, and the possible applications of these peptides in clinical practice are discussed. A special mention is given to the role of antimicrobial peptides and their potential applications in controlling infections in orthodontic procedures. In this context, insects' antimicrobial peptides might represent a potential tool to face the onset of infective endocarditis, with a low chance to develop resistances, and could be manipulated and optimized to replace common antibiotics used in clinical practice so far. Although some safety concerns must be taken into consideration, and the isolation and production of insect-derived proteins are far from easy, edible insects represent an interesting source of peptides, with beneficial effects that may be, in the future, integrated into clinical and orthodontic practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianmaria Fabrizio Ferrazzano
- UNESCO Chair in Health Education and Sustainable Development, Paediatric Dentistry Section, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80138 Naples, Italy;
| | - Francesca D’Ambrosio
- Department of Laboratory and Infectious Diseases Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Caruso
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.C.); (R.G.); (S.C.)
| | - Roberto Gatto
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.C.); (R.G.); (S.C.)
| | - Silvia Caruso
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.C.); (R.G.); (S.C.)
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Jung H, Shin G, Park SB, Jegal J, Park SA, Park J, Oh DX, Kim HJ. Circular waste management: Superworms as a sustainable solution for biodegradable plastic degradation and resource recovery. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 171:568-579. [PMID: 37812971 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Bioplastics offer a promising solution to plastic pollution, however, their production frequently relies on edible biomass, and their degradation rates remain inadequate. This study investigates the potential of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) for polybutylene succinate (PBS) waste management, aiming to achieve both resource recovery and biodegradation. Superworms exclusively fed on PBS for a month exhibited the same survival rate as those on a standard bran diet. PBS digestion yielded a 5.13% weight gain and a 23.23% increase in protein composition in superworms. Additionally, carbon isotope analyses substantiated the conversion of PBS into superworm components. Gut microbes capable of PBS biodegradation became progressively prominent, further augmenting the degradation rate of PBS under composting conditions (ISO 14855-1). Gut-free superworms fed with PBS exhibited antioxidant activities comparable to those of blueberries, renowned for their high antioxidant activity. Based on these findings, this study introduces a sustainable circular solution encompassing recycling PBS waste to generate insect biomass, employing insect gut and frass for PBS degradation and fertilizer, and harnessing insect residue as a food source. In essence, the significance of this research extends to socio-economic and environmental spheres, impacting waste management, resource efficiency, circular economy promotion, environmental preservation, industrial advancement, and global sustainability objectives. The study's outcomes possess the potential to reshape society's approach to plastic waste, facilitating a shift toward more sustainable paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyuni Jung
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Giyoung Shin
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Bae Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonggeon Jegal
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Seul-A Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeyoung Park
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dongyeop X Oh
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea; Department of Polymer Science and Engineering and Program in Environmental and Polymer Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyo Jeong Kim
- Research Center for Bio-based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan 44429, Republic of Korea.
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Peng BY, Sun Y, Zhang X, Sun J, Xu Y, Xiao S, Chen J, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Unveiling the residual plastics and produced toxicity during biodegradation of polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics by mealworms (Larvae of Tenebrio molitor). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 452:131326. [PMID: 37027925 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Evidence for plastic degradation by mealworms has been reported. However, little is known about the residual plastics derived from incomplete digestion during mealworm-mediated plastic biodegradation. We herein reveal the residual plastic particles and toxicity produced during mealworm-mediated biodegradation of the three most common microplastics, i.e., polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). All three microplastics are effectively depolymerized and biodegraded. We discover that the PVC-fed mealworms exhibit the lowest survival rate (81.3 ± 1.5%) and the highest body weight reduction (15.1 ± 1.1%) among the experimental groups by the end of the 24-day experiment. We also demonstrate that the residual PVC microplastic particles are more difficult to depurate and excrete for the mealworms compared to the residual PE and PS particles by using laser direct infrared spectrometry. The levels of oxidative stress responses, including reactive oxygen species, antioxidant enzyme activities, and lipid peroxidation, are also highest in the PVC-fed mealworms. Sub-micron microplastics and small microplastics are found in the frass of mealworms fed with PE, PS, and PVC, with the smallest particles detected at diameters of 5.0, 4.0, and 5.9 µm, respectively. Our findings provide insights into the residual microplastics and microplastic-induced stress responses in macroinvertebrates under micro(nano)plastics exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Yu Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Ying Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Eco-environmental Protection Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Science, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Jingjing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yazhou Xu
- National Engineering Research Center of Protected Agriculture, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Protected Agriculture, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shaoze Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jiabin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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8
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Park JW, Kim M, Kim SY, Bae J, Kim TJ. Biodegradation of polystyrene by intestinal symbiotic bacteria isolated from mealworms, the larvae of Tenebrio molitor. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17352. [PMID: 37426801 PMCID: PMC10329137 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Polystyrene is a plastic that leads to environmental pollution. In particular, expanded polystyrene is very light and takes up much space, causing additional environmental problems. The aim of this study was to isolate new symbiotic bacteria which degraded polystyrene from mealworms. Methods The population of polystyrene degrading bacteria was increased by enrichment culture of intestinal bacteria from mealworms with polystyrene as a sole carbon source. The degradation activity of isolated bacteria was evaluated by morphological change of micro-polystyrene particles and the surface change of polystyrene films. Results Eight isolated species (Acinetobacter septicus, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Klebsiella grimontii, Pseudomonas multiresinivorans, Pseudomonas nitroreducens, Pseudomonas plecoglossicida, Serratia marcescens, and Yokenella regensburgei) were identified that degrade polystyrene. Conclusion Bacterial identification shows that a broad spectrum of bacteria decomposing polystyrene coexists in the intestinal tract of mealworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Won Park
- Department of Forest Products and Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
| | - Minjun Kim
- Department of Forest Products and Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
| | - Seo-Young Kim
- Department of Forest Products and Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihye Bae
- Department of Forest Products and Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Jong Kim
- Department of Forest Products and Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
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9
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Grgić I, Cetinić KA, Karačić Z, Previšić A, Rožman M. Fate and effects of microplastics in combination with pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors in freshwaters: Insights from a microcosm experiment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 859:160387. [PMID: 36427730 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Microplastic contamination of freshwater ecosystems has become an increasing environmental concern. To advance the hazard assessment of microplastics, we conducted a microcosm experiment in which we exposed a simplified aquatic ecosystem consisting of moss and caddisflies to microplastics (polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (1H-benzotriazole, bisphenol A, caffeine, gemfibrozil, ketoprofen, methylparaben, estriol, diphenhydramine, tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate) over the course of 60 days. We monitored the flux of microplastics within the microcosm, as well as the metabolic and total protein variation of organisms. This study offers evidence highlighting the capacity of moss to act as a sink for free-floating microplastics in freshwater environments. Moss is also shown to serve as a source and pathway for microplastic particles to enter aquatic food webs via caddisflies feeding off of the moss. Although most ingested microparticles were eliminated between caddisflies life stages, a small fraction of microplastics was transferred from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystem by emergence. While moss exhibited a mild response to microplastic stress, caddisflies ingesting microplastics showed stress comparable to that caused by exposure to pharmaceuticals. The molecular responses that the stressors triggered were tentatively identified and related to phenotypic responses, such as the delayed development manifested through the delayed emergence of caddisflies exposed to stress. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the adverse effects of microplastics on aquatic species, compares the impacts of microplastics on freshwater biota to those of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds, and demonstrates the role aquatic organisms have in redistributing microplastics between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ana Previšić
- Department of Biology, Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
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10
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Alaaeldin Abdelfattah E, Renault D. Does the presence of heavy metal and catechol contaminants in organic waste challenge the physiological performance of the bioconverter Hermetia illucens? JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 144:104469. [PMID: 36525990 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2022.104469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The increased human activities and the worldwide population growth are constantly increasing the production of solid wastes. Over the years, waste management has thus become a prominent issue for several companies and municipalities, and several engineering techniques have been developed over the years in order to convert wastes into other solid materials or fuels. Yet, several techniques are important contributors to environmental pollution, and biological-based solutions have thus become progressively very popular. In particular, insect-based conversion of organic wastes represent eco-friendly tools, and the growth and development of insect species such as the black soldier fly have been tested and improved for a large diversity of organic wastes. However, organic wastes, including food wastes, may contain several pollutants such as heavy metals and catechol which could affect the bioconversion efficiency by incurring physiological costs that would be undetectable at the organismal level, i.e. have null to little effects on the life cycle of Hermetia illucens. In this context, assessments of antioxidant capacities can provide a rapid and low-cost evaluation of the capability of insects to handle exposure to heavy metals and catechol. Here, we aimed at measuring the physiological responses of the black soldier fly H. illucens grown on food wastes (kitchen, fruit or vegetable wastes) contaminated by cadmium, iron, lead or catechol. Biomarkers of oxidative stress (concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and protein carbonyls), non-enzymatic total antioxidant capacity (ascorbic acid amounts) and activity of enzymatic antioxidants (activities of superoxide dismutase and polyphenoloxidase) were measured from the gut of the larvae. We found no evidence of deleterious impacts of food waste contamination by catechol or heavy metals on H. illucens. In most experimental treatments, the array of physiological endpoints we measured for evaluating the degree of oxidative stress experienced by the larvae remained similar to controls. Possible physiological effects were reported for cadmium and catechol only, which tended to increase the oxidation of proteins and hydrogen peroxide in the larvae. Finally, our results suggested that the nature of the food waste could equally affect the physiological responses of the insect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Renault
- University of Rennes, CNRS, ECOBIO (Ecosystèmes, Biodiversité, Evolution), UMR, 6553 Rennes, France; Institut Universitaire de France, 1 rue Descartes, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France.
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11
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Wang X, Tang T. Effects of Polystyrene Diet on the Growth and Development of Tenebrio molitor. TOXICS 2022; 10:608. [PMID: 36287887 PMCID: PMC9610515 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10100608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the role of Tenebrio molitor in degrading polystyrene foam through its gut microbes has become the focus of research. However, little literature has reported the effect of feeding on polystyrene foam on the growth and development of Tenebrio molitor. In this study, we investigated the impacts of different polystyrene by evaluating the vital signs of Tenebrio molitor fed in the intestines and excrement fluids using RNA-Seq t.echnology and then verifying the transcriptome sequencing findings using qRT-PCR technology. The average weight of Tenebrio molitor larvae in the wheat bran group increased significantly. Tenebrio molitor larvae in the PS group, on the other hand, didn't grow as much and had a much lower average weight than those in the wheat bran group. Compared to the bran group, the excrement of Tenebrio molitor fed only on polystyrene foam was flaky and coarse, increased nitrogen and phosphorus atomic concentration ratios by about 50%, decreased potassium atomic concentration ratios by 63%, with the enterocytes and circular muscle of Tenebrio molitor falling as well. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment indicated that the differential genes were mainly related to metabolic pathways. There was an agreement between qRT-PCR and RNA-Seq analyses for the growth and development genes chitinase, heat shock protein 70, and cytochrome P450. Only feeding polystyrene foam shall lead to the growth and development retardation of Tenebrio molitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaosu Wang
- School of Tropical Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China
| | - Tianle Tang
- School of Tropical Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Hainan Medical University, Haikou 571199, China
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12
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Sanluis-Verdes A, Colomer-Vidal P, Rodriguez-Ventura F, Bello-Villarino M, Spinola-Amilibia M, Ruiz-Lopez E, Illanes-Vicioso R, Castroviejo P, Aiese Cigliano R, Montoya M, Falabella P, Pesquera C, Gonzalez-Legarreta L, Arias-Palomo E, Solà M, Torroba T, Arias CF, Bertocchini F. Wax worm saliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation by Galleria mellonella. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5568. [PMID: 36195604 PMCID: PMC9532405 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33127-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plastic degradation by biological systems with re-utilization of the by-products could be a future solution to the global threat of plastic waste accumulation. Here, we report that the saliva of Galleria mellonella larvae (wax worms) is capable of oxidizing and depolymerizing polyethylene (PE), one of the most produced and sturdy polyolefin-derived plastics. This effect is achieved after a few hours’ exposure at room temperature under physiological conditions (neutral pH). The wax worm saliva can overcome the bottleneck step in PE biodegradation, namely the initial oxidation step. Within the saliva, we identify two enzymes, belonging to the phenol oxidase family, that can reproduce the same effect. To the best of our knowledge, these enzymes are the first animal enzymes with this capability, opening the way to potential solutions for plastic waste management through bio-recycling/up-cycling. The crucial first step in the biodegradation of polyethylene plastic is oxidation of the polymer. This has traditionally required abiotic pre-treatment, but now Bertocchini and colleagues report two wax worm enzymes capable of catalyzing this oxidation and subsequent degradation at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sanluis-Verdes
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain
| | - P Colomer-Vidal
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain
| | - F Rodriguez-Ventura
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Bello-Villarino
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - E Ruiz-Lopez
- Department of Structural Biology, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (IBMB)-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - R Illanes-Vicioso
- Department of Structural Biology, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (IBMB)-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - P Castroviejo
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and PCT, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | | | - M Montoya
- CIB-CSIC, Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Madrid, Spain
| | - P Falabella
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
| | - C Pesquera
- Department of Chemistry and Process & Resource Engineering, Inorganic Chemistry Group-University of Cantabria, Nanomedicine-IDIVAL, Santander, Spain
| | - L Gonzalez-Legarreta
- Department of Chemistry and Process & Resource Engineering, Inorganic Chemistry Group-University of Cantabria, Nanomedicine-IDIVAL, Santander, Spain
| | - E Arias-Palomo
- CIB-CSIC, Department of Structural and Chemical Biology, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Solà
- Department of Structural Biology, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (IBMB)-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - T Torroba
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and PCT, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | - C F Arias
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain.
| | - F Bertocchini
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas-Margarita Salas (CIB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Madrid, Spain.
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13
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Przemieniecki SW, Kosewska A, Kosewska O, Purwin C, Lipiński K, Ciesielski S. Polyethylene, polystyrene and lignocellulose wastes as mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) diets and their impact on the breeding condition, biometric parameters, metabolism, and digestive microbiome. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 832:154758. [PMID: 35339543 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the extent to which a diet of oatmeal and polymers affects the development of mealworms, their microbiome, the biochemical activity of their digestive system, and their feed-metabolizing capacity. With a polystyrene diet, feed loss was most significant, as indicated by FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) of frass, which showed that polystyrene was the only compound that was chemically modified. Compared to the control diet, mealworm larvae developed best on polyethylene regranulate (PE-reg), quickly transiting from one developmental stage to another with minor mass loss. A lignocellulose-based diet was the least beneficial for mealworm development. A polystyrene diet was most beneficial in terms of the protein content in larvae, but the contents and quality (usefulness as food) of fatty acids in the insects fed these wastes were significantly lower than in the control insects. For each diet, specific microbial cultures formed, and the presence of protozoa and various biochemical activities suggested different survival strategies and assimilation mechanisms facilitating survival. Despite profound changes in the microbiota and biochemistry of the digestive tract of mealworms fed waste-based diets, this study indicates their potential for utilizing PE-reg and polystyrene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Wojciech Przemieniecki
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Entomology, Phytopathology and Molecular Diagnostics, Prawocheńskiego 17, 10-720 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Kosewska
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Entomology, Phytopathology and Molecular Diagnostics, Prawocheńskiego 17, 10-720 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Olga Kosewska
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Entomology, Phytopathology and Molecular Diagnostics, Prawocheńskiego 17, 10-720 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Cezary Purwin
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Lipiński
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Sławomir Ciesielski
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Słoneczna 45G, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
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14
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Tenebrio molitor Larvae-Based Magnetic Polyurea Employed as Crude Oil Spill Removal Tool. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15145063. [PMID: 35888532 PMCID: PMC9324184 DOI: 10.3390/ma15145063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Renewable resources constitute an extremely rich and varied set of molecules and polymers produced by natural biological activities. Within the applications of these polymers, a very important application is the use of these materials as a sorber for oils or oil spills. The advantage of these nanocomposites is the fact that they integrate different component materials and their properties into a single component material. They have several applications, ranging from environmental remediation to the development of advanced medical applications. This work proposed using magnetic polyurea composites based on an animal substrate from Tenebrio molitor larvae to perform oil spill clean-up operations under a magnetic field in the presence of 1% and 3% of magnetite to be tested as magnetic crude oil sorber. The obtained materials were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Scanning Differential Calorimetry (DSC), and Low-Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (LF-NMR 1H). The sorber material is simple to prepare and inexpensive. The use of magnetite as a magnetic charge allowed for the efficient removal of oil from water with about 28 g of oil per gram of sorber. These results are very promising and encouraging for future environmental recovery studies involving magnetite and sustainable polymers.
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15
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Helmberger MS, Miesel JR, Tiemann LK, Grieshop MJ. Soil Invertebrates Generate Microplastics From Polystyrene Foam Debris. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2022; 22:6528469. [PMID: 35157762 PMCID: PMC8843084 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieac005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
To fully understand microplastics' impact on soil ecosystems, one must recognize soil organisms as not just passively enduring their negative effects, but potentially contributing to microplastics' formation, distribution, and dynamics in soil. We investigated the ability of four soil invertebrates, the cricket Acheta domesticus L. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), the isopod Oniscus asellus L. (Isopoda: Oniscidae), larvae of the beetle Zophobas morio Fabricius (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), and the snail Cornu aspersum Müller (Stylommatophora: Helicidae) to fragment macroscopic pieces of weathered or pristine polystyrene (PS) foam. We placed invertebrates into arenas with single PS foam pieces for 24 h, then collected and assessed the microplastic content of each invertebrate's fecal material, its cadaver, and the sand substrate of its arena via hydrogen peroxide digestion, filtration, and fluorescent staining. All taxa excreted PS particles, though snails only to a tiny extent. Beetle larvae produced significantly more microplastics than snails, and crickets and isopods fragmented the weathered PS foam pieces more than the pristine pieces, which they left untouched. A follow-up experiment with pristine PS foam assessed the effect of different treatments mimicking exposure to the elements on fragmentation by isopods. PS foam pieces soaked in a soil suspension were significantly more fragmented than untreated pieces or pieces exposed to UV light alone. These findings indicate that soil invertebrates may represent a source of microplastics to the environment in places polluted with PS foam trash, and that the condition of macroplastic debris likely affects its palatability to these organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica R Miesel
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Lisa K Tiemann
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Matthew J Grieshop
- Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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16
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CF SF, Rebello S, Mathachan Aneesh E, Sindhu R, Binod P, Singh S, Pandey A. Bioprospecting of gut microflora for plastic biodegradation. Bioengineered 2021; 12:1040-1053. [PMID: 33769197 PMCID: PMC8806249 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2021.1902173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The problem of plastic prevalence and associated pollution has grasped the entire planet drastically, putting all fields of science on the stake seeking remedies to this global havoc. To address this crisis, with a single remediation strategy is often found to be baseless, thereby much interest has been evoked in the development of multidisciplinary approaches - involving physico-chemical and biological strategies to nullify the aftermath of plastic pollution in all possible means. Even amidst, the availability of different approaches, the use of biological methods to combat plastic degradation has gained momentum. The most frequently used plastics appear in wide forms such as polyethylene plastic bags, polypropylene-based bottles, polyvinyl chloride pipes and polystyrene styrene cups. Plastic nicknamed as one of the toughest polymers viz. polycarbonate, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and Polydicyclopentadiene; quite often are called so as they resist degradation in normal environmental strategies. They are often degraded in non-hostile and harsh environments of pH, temperature, radiation etc. However, not always it is possible to create such harsh environments for plastic degradation. In such a scenario, the use of gut microbes that can withstand the harsh atmosphere of gut environment could serve as promising candidates for plastic biodegradation. The current article envisages the various gut microbes of various biological agents and their role in plastic remediation. The current review compiles the techniques available for plastic remediation, the microbial prospects of plastic remediation, its challenges, and possible breakthroughs to effective plastic remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Raveendran Sindhu
- Microbial Processes and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, TrivandrumIndia
| | - Parameswaran Binod
- Microbial Processes and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, TrivandrumIndia
| | - Suren Singh
- Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR – Indian Institute for Toxicology Research, LucknowIndia
| | - Ashok Pandey
- Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR – Indian Institute for Toxicology Research, LucknowIndia
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, LucknowIndia
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17
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Tsochatzis ED, Berggreen IE, Nørgaard JV, Theodoridis G, Dalsgaard TK. Biodegradation of expanded polystyrene by mealworm larvae under different feeding strategies evaluated by metabolic profiling using GC-TOF-MS. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 281:130840. [PMID: 34023760 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated the biodegradation of polystyrene (PS) plastic by mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) on different diets followed by untargeted screening of larvae gut intestine tissue and frass (manure and feed residuals) to investigate the existence of polymer-generated organic residues. Three different diets, consisting of PS, rolled barley and water were tested. PS degradation rates ranged from 16% to 23% within 15 days, with no statistical differences in survival rates. The larvae fed with ad libitum barley:PS (20:1 w/w) and water had the highest growth rate, while higher PS consumption was observed for barley:PS of 4:1 w/w. A GC-TOF-MS analysis revealed no contaminating substances in the gut intestine tissue, nor styrene or PS oligomers, whilst several bioactive compounds and traces of alkanes, mostly with small carbon chains, were present. Metabolomics analysis on the collected frass, either on the lipophilic (CHCl3) or the polar fraction (MeOH-H2O) was performed. Styrene and PS oligomers (dimers, trimers) were identified, though in a relatively low total amount, up to a total of 346.0 ng/mg 2,4 di-tert butylphenol was identified in both frass and tissue, coming from the PS polymer (Non-intentionally added substances; NIAS). Finally, in the polar fraction of frass, bioactive molecules (fatty acids, amides) were identified, together with several hydrocarbons, mostly with longer carbon chains. The formation of these substances indicated enzymatic and biochemical activity in the larvae-gut intestine. It was shown that degrading and contaminating organic compounds occur at low levels, in both gut intestine and frass, during bio-degradation of PS.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Tsochatzis
- Department of Food Science, Aarhus University, Agro Food Park 48, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark; CiFOOD, Centre for Innovative Food Research, Aarhus University, Agro Food Park 48, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark.
| | - I E Berggreen
- Aarhus University, Department of Animal Science, Blichers Alle 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - J V Nørgaard
- Aarhus University, Department of Animal Science, Blichers Alle 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - G Theodoridis
- FoodOmicsGR Research Infrastructure, AUTh Node, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - T K Dalsgaard
- Department of Food Science, Aarhus University, Agro Food Park 48, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark; CiFOOD, Centre for Innovative Food Research, Aarhus University, Agro Food Park 48, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark; CBIO, Centre for Circular Bioeconomy, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8800, Tjele, Denmark
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