Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cereal-derived food products commonly consumed in Turkey

Occurrence, evaluation, and human health risk assessment of ochratoxin a in infant formula and cereal-based baby food: a global literature systematic review

This study reviews global levels of ochratoxin A (OTA) in infant formula and cereal-based foods, using Monte Carlo simulation to assess risks. The review found 24 studies on global OTA levels in infant food and cereal-based products, using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Embase until March 2024. We estimated OTA exposure in infant food based on concentration, intake and body weight. The exposure and hazard quotient margin were calculated using BMDL10 and TDI values. Monte Carlo simulation evaluated human health risks from OTA in infant formula and cereal-based foods. A global study from 14 countries shows varying levels, surpassing EU limits in Tunisia, Ecuador, the USA, and generally in Africa, notably in infant cereals, which had higher levels than formula. Globally, OTA was present in 29.3% of the 3348 samples analyzed, with Lebanon at 95.2% and Brazil at 0%. Analysis indicates only non-carcinogenic risk for infants. While health risks for infants are mostly low, ongoing research and monitoring are vital to minimize OTA exposure in infant food.

Occurrence of the two major regulated mycotoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1, in cereal and cereal-based products in Europe and toxicological effects: A review

Among cereal contaminants, mycotoxins are of concern due to their importance in terms of food and feed safety. The difficulty in establishing a diagnosis for mycotoxicosis relies on the fact that the effects are most often subclinical for chronic exposure and the most common scenario is multi-contamination by various toxins. Mycotoxin co-occurrence is a major food safety concern as additive or even synergic toxic impacts may occur, but also regarding current regulations as they mainly concern individual mycotoxin levels in specific foods and feed in the food chain. However, due to the large number of possible mycotoxin combinations, there is still limited knowledge on co-exposure toxicity data, which depends on several parameters. In this context, this systematic review aims to provide an overview of the toxic effects of two regulated mycotoxins, namely ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1. This review focused on the 2012-2022 period and analysed the occurrence in Europe of the selected mycotoxins in different food matrices (cereals and cereal-derived products), and their toxic impact, alone or in combination, on in vitro intestinal and hepatic human cells. To better understand and evaluate the associated risks, further research is needed using new approach methodologies (NAM), such as in vitro 3D models. KEY CONTRIBUTION: Cereals and their derived products are the most important food source for humans and feed for animals worldwide. This manuscript is a state of the art review of the literature over the last ten years on ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 mycotoxins in these products in Europe as well as their toxicological effects, alone and in combination, on human cells. Future perspectives and some challenges regarding the assessment of toxicological effects of mycotoxins are also discussed.

Comprehensive identification and risk assessment of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in infant foods and related raw materials and risk management advice: A case study of an infant food company in China

This study evaluated muti-mycotoxins in 199 samples including processed infant foods and raw materials collected randomly from an infant food company and assessed their role in dietary exposure in infants and young children via probabilistic risk assessment. Approximately 79.6 % (74/93) of the processed infant foods and 65.1 % (69/106) of the raw materials were contaminated by mycotoxins, with a mean occurrence level of 3.66-321.8 µg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were the more prevalent mycotoxins detected, based on their higher frequencies and levels across samples. Co-occurrence of more than two mycotoxins was detected in 61.3 % (57/93) of the processed infant foods and 53.8 % (57/106) of the raw materials. Wheat flour and derived products (e.g., infant noodles and infant biscuits) were contaminated with higher contamination levels and a greater variety of mycotoxins than other samples (e.g., infant cereal and rice grains). The estimated daily exposure to OTA, DON, ZEN, and TEN was lower than the corresponding reference health-based guidance values, indicating acceptable health risks. However, the estimated dietary exposure to alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) exceeded the corresponding thresholds of toxicological concern values, indicating potential dietary intake risks. Among the various samples, cereals and cereal-based infant foods emerged as the primary contributors to mycotoxin exposure. Further research is advised to address the uncertainties surrounding the toxicity associated with emerging Alternaria mycotoxins and to conduct cumulative risk assessments concerning multiple mycotoxin exposure in infants and young children.

Occurrence of pre- and postharvest multi-mycotoxins in durum wheat grains collected in 2020 and 2021 in two climatic regions of Tunisia

Twenty two mycotoxins in 136 durum wheat collected from Tunisia in 2020 and 2021 were investigated. Mycotoxins were analyzed by UHPLCMS/MS. In 2020, 60.9% of the samples were contaminated with Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and/or enniatin. Whereas, in 2021, 34.4% were contaminated by enniatins. AFB1 was detected only in 2020, in the continental region (6/46) and all samples exceeded limits. AFB1 was detected in stored wheat (24-37.8 µg/kg) but also in pre-stored wheat (17-28.4 µg/kg) and in one sample collected in the field (21 µg/kg). Enniatin A1, enniatin B and enniatin B1 were detected in wheat collected in the field (30-7684 µg/kg), pre-storage (42-1266 µg/kg) and storage (65.8-498.2 µg/kg) from the continental region also, in sample collected in pre-storage (31.3-1410 µg/kg) and at harvest (48- 1060 µg/kg). Samples had a water activity less than 0.7 and moisture content ranged between 09-14%. AFB1 level represent a health risk to the Tunisian consumers.

Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins in Thyme and Thyme-Based Products Marketed in Lebanon

This study aimed at evaluating the incidence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in thyme and thyme-based products, related dietary exposure, and cancer risk for regular and high consumption. A total of 160 samples were collected, and 32 composite samples were analyzed. AFB1 and OTA were respectively found in 84% (27/32) and 38% (12/32) of the samples. AFB1 exceeded the limits in 41% (13/32) and 25% (8/32) of the samples according to the Lebanese and European standards, respectively. OTA was unacceptable in only 6% (2/32) and 3% (1/32) of the samples according to the Lebanese and European standards, respectively. AFB1 and OTA daily exposure was shown to be 4.270 and 1.345 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. AFB1 was shown to be associated with 0.41 and 0.35 additional cancer cases per 100,000 persons per year for regular consumption, respectively; while for high consumption, an increase of 0.911 and 0.639 cancer cases per 100,000 person per year was noted, respectively. The margin of exposure (MOE) for OTA was >10,000 for the non-neoplastic effect and >200 for the neoplastic effect, representing no toxicological concerns for consumers.

Mycotoxicological monitoring of breakfast and infant cereals marketed in Brazil

A mycotoxicological survey was conducted in breakfast (n = 172) and infant (n = 43) cereals commercialized in Brazil. Samples were collected in 2018 for analyses of: aflatoxins (AFs) B₁ (AFB₁), B₂, G₁ and G₂; fumonisins (FBs) B₁ (FB₁) and B₂; zearalenone (ZEN); the trichothecenes (TRCs) deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, nivalenol, fusarenon X, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol; and ochratoxin A. FB₁ was the most prevalent metabolite in breakfast cereals, being detected in 26.7% of the samples (mean 105 μg/kg); ZEN had the second highest positivity, 14.8% (mean 17 μg/kg), followed by DON with 10% (mean 44 μg/kg). In infant cereals, FB₁ also had the highest incidence, 27.8% (mean 55 μg/kg), followed by DON with 10.3% (mean 36 μg/kg) and ZEN with 6.9% (mean 3 μg/kg). Mycotoxins contamination was found in 31.4% (n = 54) of the breakfast cereals and in 18.6% (n = 8) of the infant cereals. In these positive samples, co-occurrence of two or three mycotoxins was detected in 31.5% (n = 17) of the breakfast cereals and in 25% (n = 2) of the infant cereals. The mycotoxins found co-contaminating the breakfast cereals belong to the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium; ZEN, followed by AFB₁, were the most prevalent ones. As for the infant cereals, the associated fungal metabolites are produced by the genus Fusarium; the highest incidence was seen for ZEN. Low contamination and positivity of mycotoxins were found herein; nonetheless, in some samples these substances were present at levels which transgress those preconized in the Brazilian legislation. Therefore, mycotoxicological monitoring of this type of product throughout the nation is crucial in order to identify the potential risk to which the Brazilian population is exposed, particularly the children.

Tunable solvency mixtures of tetrahydrofuran:water for efficient and fast extraction/clean-up of trace contaminants

In this study, we investigated the potential of mixtures of tetrahydrofuran (THF) and water as tunable solvents for the microextraction of contaminants in solid and in liquid matrices. These two miscible solvents have very different dielectric constant and Hildebrand solubility parameters, so that tunable mixtures spanning a wide range of dispersion and hydrogen bonding forces could be easily prepared by simply changing their composition. In this way, rapid and more efficient extraction methods can be developed. A liquid-liquid and a solid-liquid microextraction method for the determination of bisphenol A (BPA) in urine and ochratoxin A (OTA) in cereal baby food were developed as a proof of concept. Both, the chemical composition and the relative solvency of the THF-water mixtures, expressed as Teas solubility parameters, were studied in order to gain some insights into the chemical interactions governing analyte extraction. For urine, the salting-out extraction with THF:water and NaCl was evaluated, a process which is still scarcely investigated for analytical purposes. These methods featured good recoveries (above 95%), satisfactory standard deviation (5-6%) and good sensitivity (detection limits of 0.l μg L^-1 for BPA and of 0.l ng g^-1 for OTA) with the advantages of simplicity, rapidity and low consumption of reagents. Recoveries for other compounds and matrices (bisphenols ad phosphorus flame retardants in dust and in tap water, dyes in tap water and OTA in powder milk) were also assessed to prove the wide potential of these tunable solvent mixtures.

Occurrence and Safety Evaluation of Ochratoxin A in Cereal-based Baby Foods Collected from Iranian Retail Market

Contamination of agricultural commodities with ochratoxin A (OTA) is a worldwide concern in recent decades. Consumption of OTA-contaminated baby foods exerts health implications especially in children as the most vulnerable subpopulations. In the current study, for the first time in Iran, 64 baby foods (rice, wheat, and multigrain) samples from five different brands available in the Iranian market were analyzed to determine OTA level, using a HPLC with fluorescence detector. Overall, OTA was observed in 41% of analyzed samples with a mean and maximum level of 0.42 ± 0.27 and 1.1 μg/kg, respectively. OTA levels in five of 64 samples (7.8 %) were higher than the permissible limit recommended by European Commission (permissible limit: 0.5 μg/kg) and OTA levels in two of 64 samples (3.1%) were higher than the standard set by Iranian standard organization (1 μg/kg). The highest OTA contamination was observed in rice-based baby food cereals (1.1 μg/kg; 57% of the samples), followed by wheat-based (23%) and multigrain (20%) samples. OTA intake in infants (≥9 months old) was more than established provisional tolerable weekly intake by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (100 and 120 ng OTA per kg of body weight, respectively). OTA content in baby food and cereals, as well as other raw foodstuff should be investigated comprehensively to reduce the exposure rate of young children to OTA.

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in flour: a survey of the Serbian retail market

This report presents data on the occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A in different types of flour marketed in Serbia. A total of 114 samples of wheat, buckwheat, rye, oat, barley, rice, millet and corn flour were collected in the period 2012-2016 and analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Among flours other than corn, AFB1 was quantified only in rice, while ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in 29% of the samples. In corn flours the percentage of positive samples varied greatly over the years: AFB1 7.1-80.0%, OTA 30.0-40.6%, with a co-occurrence of 7.1-34.4%. Overall 5.2% of flours other than corn and 10.7% of corn flours exceeded the maximum levels (MLs) for AFB1 and/or OTA. The highest recorded levels were 8.80 μg kg^-1 of AFB1 (corn) and 23.04 μg kg^-1 of OTA (rye). Overall mean contamination levels of corn flours were 0.53 μg kg^-1 of AFB1 and 0.46 μg kg^-1 of OTA.

Worldwide Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Food Products: Public Health Perspectives of Their Co-occurrence

Cereal grains and their processed food products are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. Among many, five major mycotoxins of aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone are of significant public health concern as they can cause adverse effects in humans. Being airborne or soilborne, the cosmopolitan nature of mycotoxigenic fungi contribute to the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins. On the basis of the global occurrence data reported during the past 10 years, the incidences and maximum levels in raw cereal grains were 55% and 1642 μg/kg for aflatoxins, 29% and 1164 μg/kg for ochratoxin A, 61% and 71,121 μg/kg for fumonisins, 58% and 41,157 μg/kg, for deoxynivalenol, and 46% and 3049 μg/kg for zearalenone. The concentrations of mycotoxins tend to be lower in processed food products; the incidences varied depending on the individual mycotoxins, possibly due to the varying stability during processing and distribution of mycotoxins. It should be noted that more than one mycotoxin, produced by a single or several fungal species, may occur in various combinations in a given sample or food. Most studies reported additive or synergistic effects, suggesting that these mixtures may pose a significant threat to public health, particularly to infants and young children. Therefore, information on the co-occurrence of mycotoxins and their interactive toxicity is summarized in this paper.

Simultaneous determination of six mycotoxins in peanut by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins, which may contaminate peanut and peanut products, are responsible for many diseases to humans. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) are considered the most relevant groups of mycotoxins found in food. This work aimed to develop a high-performance liquid chromatography method with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) combined with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) method for the simultaneous determination of the six mycotoxins in peanuts. The six mycotoxins were simultaneously determined under their best wavelength by means of changing wavelength.

RESULTS

Under the optimum conditions, the linear ranges were 1-100 ng mL^-1 for AFB1, AFG1 and OTA, 0.3-30 ng mL^-1 for AFB2 and AFG2, 5-1000 ng mL^-1 for ZEN, with the correlation coefficient (R² ) of 0.9969-0.9997. Limits of detection (LODs) were 0.10, 0.10, 0.30, 0.03, 0.03 and 1.0 µg kg^-1 , respectively, and the mean recoveries were in the range of 83.1% to 99.3% with RSD < 10% (n = 6, independent analysis). Thirteen (46%) of these tested samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin.

CONCLUSION

The proposed method was demonstrated to be simple, highly selective, accurate, reliable, and was successfully applied to simultaneously analyse the six mycotoxins in real peanut samples from China. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 in breakfast cereals marketed in Serbia - occurrence and health risk characterisation

The present paper reports data on the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in breakfast cereals marketed in Serbia and interprets consequent dietary exposure. A total of 136 samples was collected in 2012 and 2015 and analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. OTA was detected in 20.7% of the samples in 2012 and 13.0% in 2015, with 3.6% and 0% of the samples above the EU maximum level, respectively. AFB1 was found in low concentrations in 11.1% of the samples collected in 2015, mainly corn based. Comparison of estimated exposure of Serbian adult population with respective toxicological reference values showed no concern for public health.

Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Infant Foods in the United States

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a possible human carcinogen and occurs frequently in cereal grain, soy, and other agricultural commodities. Infants and young children may be more susceptible to contaminants than adults because of their lower body weight, higher metabolic rate, reduced ability to detoxify food toxicants, and more restricted diet. The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence and levels of OTA in infant formula and infant cereal products available in the U.S. market. In the present study, 98 powdered infant formula (milk- and soy-based) samples and 155 infant cereal (barley-, rice-, oat-, wheat-, and mixed grain-based) products were collected from different retail locations in the United States over a 2-year period. OTA levels were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Although OTA was not detected in any of the infant formula samples, 47 (30%) of 155 infant cereals were contaminated with OTA in the range of 0.6 to 22.1 ng/g. At present, there is no regulatory limit for OTA in the United States. However, all of the positive samples were above the maximum level set by the European Commission (0.5 ng/g) for OTA in baby foods. OTA was detected in all types of infant cereals, but the highest incidence and concentrations were found in oat-based infant cereals (59%), followed by mixed grain cereals (34%). Increased surveillance and monitoring of OTA levels in grains used in infant foods may be needed to reduce exposure of infants and young children to OTA from cereal products.

Ochratoxin A Concentrations in a Variety of Grain-Based and Non-Grain-Based Foods on the Canadian Retail Market from 2009 to 2014

The extent of ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination of domestically produced foods sold across Canada was determined from 2009 to 2014 with sampling and testing occurring each fiscal year. Cereal-based, fruit-based, and soy-based food samples (n = 6,857) were analyzed. Almost half of the samples (3,200; 47%) did not contain detectable concentrations of OTA. The remaining 3,657 samples contained OTA at 0.040 to 631 ng/g. Wheat, oats, milled products of other grains (such as rye and buckwheat), and to a lesser extent corn products and their derived foods were the most significant potential sources of OTA exposure for the Canadian population. Wine, grape juice, soy products, beer, dairy-based infant formula, and licorice candy were not significant contributors to OTA consumption. Spices had the highest OTA concentrations; but because so little is ingested, these foods are not considered to be a significant source of OTA. In contrast, infant formulas and cereals can be important dietary sources of OTA. Infant cereals containing oats and infant formulas containing soy had detectable concentrations of OTA, some of which exceeded the proposed Canadian guidelines. The prevalence and concentrations of OTA in major crops (wheat, corn, and oats) varied widely across years. Because these foods were purchased at retail stores, no information was available on the OTA concentrations in the raw materials, the storage conditions before purchase of the samples, or the origin of the ingredients (may include blends of raw materials from different years and/or different geographical regions of Canada); therefore, impact of these factors could not be assessed. Overall, 2.3% of the samples exceeded the proposed Canadian OTA regulatory limits and 2.7% exceeded the current European Union (EU) OTA regulatory limits. These results are consistent with a Health Canada exposure assessment published in 2010, despite the inclusion of a wider range of products and confirm the safety of foods widely available across Canada.

Patulin and ochratoxin A co-occurrence and their bioaccessibility in processed cereal-based foods: A contribution for Portuguese children risk assessment

Patulin (PAT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are well known enteropathogenic mycotoxins that are present in several foodstuffs. Processed cereal-based foods are among the first solid foods eaten by children, a particularly vulnerable population group. There is a lack of knowledge related to the co-occurrence of PAT and OTA in food intended for children consumption and their potential interactions during the digestion process. The present study aims to evaluate, for the first time, the co-occurrence of PAT and OTA in processed cereal-based foods for children consumption, the bioaccessibility of these two mycotoxins, and the contribution of the bioaccessibility data for human health risk assessment. PAT and OTA incidence were 75% and 50%, respectively. These mycotoxins co-occurred in 40% of analysed samples. Bioaccessibility assays revealed mean values of 52% and 56% for PAT, alone and combined with OTA; and 100% and 106% for OTA, alone and combined with PAT. Considering the human health risk assessment, and taking into account the co-occurrence and the bioaccessibility results, this study indicates a tolerable exposure to these mycotoxins representing a low risk for Portuguese children. The present work reinforces the importance of a holistic approach for risk assessment which gathers data from occurrence, exposure and bioaccessibility.

RNA-Seq Reveals OTA-Related Gene Transcriptional Changes in Aspergillus carbonarius

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin harmful for animals and humans. Aspergillus carbonarius is the main responsible for OTA contamination of grapes and derived products. Gene transcriptional profiling of 4 A. carbonarius strains was carried out by RNA-Seq analysis to study transcriptome changes associated with OTA production. By comparing OTA inducing (OTAI) vs. non-inducing (OTAN) cultural conditions, a total of 3,705 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (fold change > |2| and FDR ≤ 0.05) were identified. Several genes involved in primary metabolic processes, with particular regard to carbohydrate and amino acid metabolisms, secondary metabolic processes, transport, response to stress and sporulation were up-regulated by OTAI conditions at all the analysed sampling times (4, 6 and 8 DAI) or starting from 6 DAI. Highly up-regulated DEGs encoding enzymes involved in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, oxidoreductases, transporters and transcription factors were examined for their potential involvement in OTA biosynthesis and related metabolic pathways. Differential expression of genes encoding polyketide synthases (pks), non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (nrps) and chloroperoxidase (cpo) was validated by RT-qPCR. Among clusters of co-regulated genes involved in SM biosynthesis, one putative OTA-gene cluster, including both pks and nrps genes, was detected in the A. carbonarius genome.

Ochratoxin A in red pepper flakes commercialised in Turkey

The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in red pepper flakes commercialised in Turkey. A total of 75 samples were collected from different supermarkets and traditional bazaars in Istanbul during 2012-2013. OTA analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detection after immunoaffinity column clean-up. The method was linear in the range 0.05-40 μg kg(-1) (r(2) = 0.9997). Twenty-seven out of 31 (87.1%) packed red pepper flake samples contained OTA at concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 1.0 μg kg(-1), whereas 100% of the unpacked red pepper flake samples contained OTA, in the range 1.1-31.7 μg( )kg(-1). Overall, only 4 unpacked samples (5.3%) contained OTA, with a mean value of 23.4 μg kg(-1), which is higher than the European Union limit. It is suggested that OTA content should be carefully considered in red pepper flake samples especially marketed in unpacked form.

Risk analysis of main mycotoxins occurring in food for children: An overview

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi contaminating the food chain that are toxic to animals and humans. Children up to 12 years old are recognized as a potentially vulnerable subgroup with respect to consumption of these contaminants. Apart from having a higher exposure per kg body weight, they have a different physiology from that of adults. Therefore they may be more sensitive to neurotoxic, endocrine and immunological effects. For these reasons, a specific and up-to-date risk analysis for this category is of great interest. In this review, an accurate analysis of the main mycotoxins occurring in food intended for children (deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin and fumonisins) is presented. In particular, known mechanisms of toxicity and levels of exposure and bioaccessibility in children are shown. In addition, recent discoveries about the strategies of mycotoxins managing are discussed.

Aptamers: a promosing tool for ochratoxin A detection in food analysis

The contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins has become an increasingly serious problem. Mycotoxins represent a major risk to human and animal health, as well as economics. Herein, we focus on Ochratoxin A (OTA), which is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating feed and foodstuffs. OTA is a secondary metabolite produced by various Aspergillus and Penicillium strains. Upon ingestion, OTA has a number of acute and chronic toxic effects. It is nephrotoxic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, and carcinogenic (group 2B). As a consequence, some regulatory limits have been introduced on the levels of OTA in several commodities. The toxic nature of OTA demands highly sensitive and selective monitoring techniques to protect human and animal health. As alternative to traditional analytical techniques, biochemical methods for OTA analysis have attained great interest in the last few decades. They are mainly based on the integration of antibodies or aptamers as biorecognition elements in sensing platforms. However, aptamers have gained more attention in affinity-based assays because of their high affinity, specificity, stability, and their easy chemical synthesis. In this brief review, we present an overview of aptamer-based assays and their applications in OTA purification and detection, appeared in the literature in the last five years.