Microbial benefits and risks of raw milk cheese

Sources of propionic acid bacteria contamination in the milking parlor environment on Alpine Dairy Farms

High quality raw milk is an important prerequisite for the production of long ripened raw milk cheeses. This implies not only the absence of pathogenic microorganisms in raw milk, but also low levels of spoilage bacteria, including dairy propionic acid bacteria (dPAB), that can cause blowing and sensory defects in cheese, resulting in severe economic losses for producers. Raw milk contamination with dPAB has been primarily associated with improperly cleaned milking systems, but they have been detected in feed, soil, feces and on the teat skin. The objective of this study was to identify potential sources of raw milk contamination with dPAB in the barn and milking parlor environments. We also wanted to know more about the prevalence of the dPAB species in these environments and the levels of contamination. For this purpose, 16 small scale Alpine dairy farms were visited in August 2022: samples were taken from the barn environment (e.g., swab samples, air, feed, bedding), the milking system (swab samples, residual cleaning water, cleaning sponges, milk filters) and milk samples were collected at various sampling points along the milking system. Samples were analyzed for dPAB contamination, and results showed contamination at multiple sampling locations. We observed potential adverse effects of improperly set cleaning parameters of the milking system, as well as of farm specific practices. In addition, we identified cleaning water residues as an important source of contamination. Based on these findings, we propose potential mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of raw milk contamination with cheese spoilage bacteria, thereby contributing to a more sustainable food production.

Antilisterial activity of raw sheep milk from two native Epirus breeds: Culture-dependent identification, bacteriocin gene detection and primary safety evaluation of the antagonistic LAB biota

Raw milk from native small ruminant breeds in Epirus, Greece, is a valuable natural source of autochthonous lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains with superior biotechnological properties. In this study, two bulk milks (RM1, RM2) from two local sheep yards, intended for traditional Kefalotyri cheese production, were preselected for bacteriocin-like antilisterial activity by in vitro tests. Their antagonistic LAB biota was quantified followed by polyphasic (16S rRNA gene sequencing; IGS for Enterococcus; a multiplex-PCR for Leuconostoc) identification of 42 LAB (RM1/18; RM2/24) isolates further evaluated for bacteriocin encoding genes and primary safety traits. Representative isolates of the numerically dominant mesophilic LAB were Leuconostoc mesenteroides (10) in both RMs, Streptococcus parauberis (7) in RM2, and Lactococcus lactis (1) in RM1; the subdominant thermophilic LAB isolates were Enterococcus durans (8), E. faecium (6), E. faecalis (3), E. hirae (1), E. hermanniensis (1), Streptococcus lutetiensis (2), S. equinus (1) and S. gallolyticus (1). Based on their rpoB, araA, dsr and sorA profiles, six Ln. mesenteroides strains (8 isolates) were atypical lying between the subspecies mesenteroides and dextranicum, whereas two strains profiled with Ln. mesenteroides subsp. jonggajibkimchi that is first-time reported in Greek dairy food. Two RM1 E. faecium strain biotypes (3 isolates) showed strong, enterocin-mediated antilisterial activity due to entA/entB/entP possession. One E. durans from RM1 possessed entA and entP, while additional nine RM2 isolates of the E. faecium/durans group processed entA or entP singly. All showed direct (cell-associated) antilisterial activity only, as also both S. lutetiensis strains from RM2 did strongly. Desirably, no LAB isolate was β-hemolyrtic, or cytolysin-positive, or possessed vanA, vanB for vancomycin resistance, or agg, espA, hyl, and IS16 virulence genes. However, all three E. faecalis from RM2 possessed gelE and/or ace virulence genes. In conclusion, all Ln. mesenteroides strains, the two safe, enterocin A-B-P-producing E. faecium strains, and the two antilisterial S. lutetiensis strains should be validated further as potential costarter or adjunct cultures in Kefalotyri cheese. The prevalence of α-hemolytic pyogenic streptococci in raw milk, mainly S. parauberis in RM2, requires consideration in respect to subclinical mastitis in sheep and the farm hygiene overall.

The Impact of Goat Milk Pretreatment with Pulsed Electric Fields on Cheese Quality

To reduce the microbial load in goat's milk, which is less thermally stable than cow's milk, an alternative processing method was used in this study. This involved treating the milk with pulsed electric fields (PEFs) (at 10 kV·cm-1, with 50 µs pulses for 3 Hz) and then heat-treating it at 63 °C for 6.0 s, as well as using heat treatment alone at 75 °C for 3.4 s. Cheeses were made using both types of milk treatment, and samples were collected after 5, 15, and 25 days of ripening for DNA extraction and purification, followed by high-throughput sequencing on the MiSeq Illumina sequencing platform. Analysis of the bacterial populations in the two types of cheese using various diversity indices revealed no significant differences in species richness and abundance, although there was a trend for the PEF-treated cheese to have a less diverse set of species with an uneven distribution of relative abundance. However, when examining the composition of the microbial communities in the two types of cheese using Weighted UniFrac analysis and Analysis of Similarities, there were significant differences in the presence and abundance of various species, which could have implications for the development of starter cultures. Concerning physicochemical properties (pH, aw, moisture content, total acidity and L, and a and b color parameters), the results also reveal that, generally, no significant differences were found, except for the color parameter, where cheeses treated with PEF demonstrated more whiteness (L) and yellowness (b) during ripening. Sensory scores for typicity (caprylic, goaty, and acetic) increased over time, but between treatments, only small differences were perceived by panellists in cheese with 5 days of ripening. Concerning texture firmness and cohesiveness, the PEF+HT samples presented lower values than the HT samples, even over storage time. In general, concerning quality parameters, similar behavior was observed between the treatments during the ripening period.

Dynamics of microbial communities associated with flavor formation during sour juice fermentation and the milk fan drying process

Milk fan is an acid-curd cheese with strong national characteristics (a traditional dairy product of the Bai nationality with a shape like a piece of paper) and a long history in Yunnan province, China. In our previous study, we characterized the microbial community diversity of milk fan, but the succession of microorganisms associated with flavor formation in milk fan is still unknown. Therefore, we examined the predominant microorganisms and their correlations with the formation of flavor in the fermentation of sour juice and drying of milk fan by gas chromatography mass spectrometry, high-throughput 16S rDNA sequencing, intergenic spacer sequencing and metatranscriptome analysis. We found that the relative abundances of Lactobacillus and Issatchenkia initially decreased and then increased with time during the fermentation of sour juice. However, the relative abundances of Acetobacter, Leuconostoc, Lactococcus, Geotrichum, and Dipodascus initially increased and then decreased. During the drying step, the relative abundances of Lactobacillus and Issatchenkia continuously increased and became the dominant microorganisms in the milk fan. The metatranscriptomes generated from the milk fan showed that "carbohydrate metabolism," "translation," and "signal transduction" were the main metabolic functions of the microbial communities. Rhodotorula and Yarrowia contained more differentially expressed genes than other genera, which indicated they may be associated with the production of the characteristic flavor. Furthermore, a Pearson correlation analysis showed that Lactococcus, Rhodotorula, Candida, Cutaneotrichosporon, and Yarrowia were significantly positively correlated with more aroma-active compounds, mainly ethyl acetate, 2-heptanone, isovaleraldehyde, butyric acid, nonanal, and hexanal. In conclusion, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the flavor production mechanism during the production of milk fan.

Chemical, microbiological, textural, and sensory characteristics of pilot-scale Caciofiore cheese curdled with commercial Cynara cardunculus rennet and crude extracts from spontaneous and cultivated Onopordum tauricum

The aim of this study was the chemical, microbiological, textural, and sensory characterization of pilot-scale prototypes of an Italian ewe's raw milk cheese (Caciofiore) curdled with commercial Cynara cardunculus rennet, used as a control, and crude extracts obtained from flowers of either spontaneous or cultivated Onopordum tauricum. Hence, the control and experimental cheese prototypes produced in two rounds of cheesemaking trials were assayed, at the end of their 60-day maturation, for the following features: pH, titratable acidity, dry matter, fat, total and soluble nitrogen (TN and SN, respectively), ash, salt, protein, lactose, viable plate counts and composition of the bacterial and fungal populations, color, texture, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and olfactory attributes by sensory analysis (the latter for the sole prototypes curdled with the commercial rennet and the extract obtained from cultivated O. tauricum). The data overall collected showed a very low impact of the type of thistle rennet on the analyzed cheese traits, with significant differences being exclusively found for SN/TN%, titratable acidity, color, and adhesiveness. By contrast, a higher impact of the cheesemaking round was seen, with significant differences being observed for salt content, load of presumptive lactobacilli, thermophilic cocci, and Escherichia coli, and levels of the following VOCs: 2,3-butanedione, 2-pentanone, 1-butanol, 2-heptanone, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-heptanol, 2-nonanone, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-methyl propanoic acid, butanoic acid, and 3-methyl butanoic acid. Sensory analysis revealed a strong ewe's cheese odor, accompanied by other olfactory notes, such as pungent, sour curd, sweet, and Parmesan cheese-like notes, in all the analysed cheese prototypes. Moreover, key odor active compounds, including butanoic acid, ethyl butanoate, 2,3-butanedione, 1-octen-3-one, and dimethyl trisulfide, were identified by GC-olfactometry analysis. Regarding the odor attributes as determined by sensory analysis, again the type of rennet had an almost negligible impact, with significant differences being only perceived for 1 or 2 out of 20 odor attributes, depending on the analytical conditions applied. Although some aspects deserve further investigation, the results herein collected confirm that O. tauricum can be regarded as an alternative source of thistle rennet for the manufacture of Caciofiore cheese, and more in general, Mediterranean ewe's milk cheeses.

The characterization of the non-starter lactic acid bacteria and yeast microbiota and the chemical and aromatic properties of traditionally produced Turkish White Cheese

Turkish White Cheese is a brined (or pickled) cheese with a salty, acidic flavor and a soft or semi-hard texture. It is the most produced and consumed type of cheese in Turkey. The purpose of this study was to determine the non-starter lactic acid bacteria and yeast microbiota of traditionally produced Turkish White Cheese and analyze the chemical properties and the aroma profile of the cheese. The results of the study identified 27 distinct strains belonging to 14 the non-starter lactic acid bacteria species and 49 different strains belonging to 11 yeast species. Lactobacillus plantarum was found to be the dominant species among the lactic acid bacteria, while Candida zeylanoides was the dominant yeast species in the White Cheese samples. In addition, Kluyveromyces lactis and Debaryomyces hansenii were prominent yeast species in cheese samples. Turkish White Cheese samples had different aromatic properties. The study is highly significant as it anaylzed both non-starter lactic acid bacteria and yeast microbiota of traditionally produced Turkish White Cheese through molecular methods. It also determined and analyzed a number of chemical and aromatic properties of White Cheese.

Tracking microbial quality, safety and environmental contamination sources in artisanal goat cheesemaking factories

A harmonised microbiological survey was performed in two artisanal factories of raw goat milk cheeses (A and B) located in the Andalusian region (Spain). A total of 165 different control points or samples (raw materials, final products, food-contact surfaces [FCS], and air) were examined as microbial and pathogen sources of contamination of artisanal goat raw milk cheeses. For raw milk samples analysed from both producers, the concentrations of aerobic-mesophilic bacteria (AMB), total coliforms, coagulase-positive Staphylococcus spp. (CPS), lactic-acid bacteria (LAB) and moulds and yeasts ranged between 3.48 and 8.59, 2.45-5.48, 3.42-4.81, 4.99-8.59 and 3.35-6.85 log cfu/mL respectively. For the same microbial groups, the analysis of raw milk cheeses revealed concentrations ranging from 7.82 to 8.88, 2.00-6.82, 2.00-5.28, 8.11-9.57 and 2.00-5.76 log cfu/g, respectively. Although the raw material analysed from producer A presented higher microbial loads and between-batch variability, it was B the producer with the most loaded final products. Regarding the microbial air quality, the fermentation area, storage room, milk reception and packaging room were the most AMB loaded places, while the ripening chamber was the area with higher fungal loads in bioareosol from both producers. Conveyor belts, cutting machine, storage boxes and brine tank were highlighted as the most contaminated FCS evaluated. Staphylococcus aureus was the only pathogen detected within the set of 51 isolates from samples as revealed by MALDI-TOF and molecular PCR, with a prevalence of 12.5% for samples from the producer B. The public health risk attributed to the consumption of artisanal goat cheese should not be neglected, and may consider the whole cheesemaking processing chain, from microbiological quality of raw milk to the ready-to-eat final product, especially concerning the presence of S. aureus.

Biocontrol of Pathogen Microorganisms in Ripened Foods of Animal Origin

Ripened foods of animal origin comprise meat products and dairy products, being transformed by the wild microbiota which populates the raw materials, generating highly appreciated products over the world. Together with this beneficial microbiota, both pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli, Candida spp., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp., can contaminate these products and pose a risk for the consumers. Thus, effective strategies to hamper these hazards are required. Additionally, consumer demand for clean label products is increasing. Therefore, the manufacturing sector is seeking new efficient, natural, low-environmental impact and easy to apply strategies to counteract these microorganisms. This review gathers different approaches to maximize food safety and discusses the possibility of their being applied or the necessity of new evidence, mainly for validation in the manufacturing product and its sensory impact, before being implemented as preventative measures in the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programs.

Prevalence, antibiotic resistance patterns, and biofilm formation ability of Enterobacterales recovered from food of animal origin in Egypt

Background and Aim: The majority of animal-derived food safety studies have focused on foodborne zoonotic agents; however, members of the opportunistic Enterobacteriaceae (Ops) family are increasingly implicated in foodborne and public health crises due to their robust evolution of acquiring antimicrobial resistance and biofilms, consequently require thorough characterization, particularly in the Egyptian food sector. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the distribution and prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae family members in animal-derived foods, as well as their resistance to important antimicrobials and biofilm-forming potential. Materials and Methods: A total of 274 beef, rabbit meat, chicken meat, egg, butter, and milk samples were investigated for the presence of Enterobacteriaceae. All isolated strains were first recognized using traditional microbiological techniques. Following that, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry was used to validate the Enterobacteriaceae's identity. The isolated enterobacteria strains were tested on disk diffusion and crystal violet quantitative microtiter plates to determine their antibiotic resistance and capacity to form biofilms. Results: There have been thirty isolates of Enterobacteriaceae from seven different species and four genera. Out of the three food types, Pseudomonas aeruginosa had the highest prevalence rate (4.1%). With three species, Enterobacter genera had the second-highest prevalence (3.28%) across five different food categories. In four different food types, the Klebsiella genera had the second-highest distribution and third-highest incidence (2.55%). Almost all isolates, except three Proteus mirabilis, showed prominent levels of resistance, particularly to beta-lactam antibiotics. Except for two Enterobacter cloacae and three P. mirabilis isolates, all isolates were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR) or extensively multidrug-resistant (XDR). The multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) of the majority of isolates dropped between 0.273 and 0.727. The highest MARI was conferred by Klebsiella pneumoniae, at 0.727. Overall, 83.33% of the isolates had strong biofilm capacity, while only 16.67% exhibited moderate capacity. Conclusion: The MDR, XDR, and strong biofilm indicators confirmed in 83.33% of the currently tested Enterobacteriaceae from animal-derived foods suggest that, if not addressed, there may be rising risks to Egypt's economy and public health.

Multifactorial Microvariability of the Italian Raw Milk Cheese Microbiota and Implication for Current Regulatory Scheme

Raw milk cheese manufactory is strictly regulated in Europe by the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) quality scheme, which protects indigenous food products based on geographical and biotechnological features. This study encompassed the collection of 128 raw milk cheese samples across Italy to investigate the resident microbiome correlated to current PDO specifications. Shotgun metagenomic approaches highlighted how the microbial communities are primarily linked to each cheesemaking site and consequently to the use of site-specific Natural Whey Cultures (NWCs), defined by a multifactorial set of local environmental factors rather than solely by cheese type or geographical origin that guide the current PDO specification. Moreover, in-depth functional characterization of Cheese Community State Types (CCSTs) and comparative genomics efforts, including metagenomically assembled genomes (MAGs) of the dominant microbial taxa, revealed NWCs-related unique enzymatic profiles impacting the organoleptic features of the produced cheeses and availability of bioactive compounds to consumers, with putative health implications. Thus, these results highlighted the need for a profound rethinking of the current PDO designation with a focus on the production site-specific microbial metabolism to understand and guarantee the organoleptic features of the final product recognized as PDO. IMPORTANCE The Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) guarantees the traceability of food production processes, and that the production takes place in a well-defined restricted geographical area. Nevertheless, the organoleptic qualities of the same dairy products, i.e., cheeses under the same PDO denomination, differ between manufacturers. The final product's flavor and qualitative aspects can be related to the resident microbial population, not considered by the PDO denomination. Here, we analyzed a complete set of different Italian cheeses produced from raw milk through shotgun sequencing in order to study the variability of the different microbial profiles resident in Italian PDO cheeses. Furthermore, an in-depth functional analysis, along with a comparative genomic analysis, was performed in order to correlate the taxonomic information with the organoleptic properties of the final product. This analysis made it possible to highlight how the PDO denomination should be revisited to understand the effect that Natural Whey Cultures (NWCs), used in the traditional production of raw milk cheese and unique to each manufacturer, impacts on the organoleptic features of the final product.

Artisanal Household Milk Pasteurization Is Not a Determining Factor in Structuring the Microbial Communities of Labneh Ambaris: A Pilot Study

Labneh Ambaris is a traditional Lebanese dairy product traditionally made using raw goat's milk in earthenware jars, but recently the use of artisanally pasteurized milk was introduced for safety reasons. In this study, 12 samples of labneh Ambaris were studied, six made using raw goat's milk and six others using artisanally pasteurized goat's milk. These samples were collected during fermentation and their microbial compositions were analyzed. The 16S V3-V4 and the ITS2 regions of the rDNA were sequenced by DNA metabarcoding analyses for the identification and comparison of bacterial and fungal communities, respectively. The samples had high microbial diversity but differences in samples microbiota were unrelated to whether or not milk was pasteurized. The samples were consequently clustered on the basis of their dominant bacterial or fungal species, regardless of the milk used. Concerning bacterial communities, samples were clustered into 3 groups, one with a higher abundance of Lactobacillus helveticus, another with Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens as the dominant bacterial species, and the third with Lentilactobacillus sp. as the most abundant species. Species belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family were detected in higher abundance in all raw milk samples than in artisanally pasteurized milk samples. As for fungal communities, the samples were clustered into two groups, one dominated by Geotrichum candidum and the other by Pichia kudriavzevii.

Serotype-dependent adhesion of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli to bovine milk fat globule membrane proteins

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are food-borne pathogens that can cause severe symptoms for humans. Raw milk products are often incriminated as vehicule for human STEC infection. However, raw milk naturally contains molecules, such as the milk fat globule membrane and associated proteins, that could inhibit pathogen adhesion by acting as mimetic ligands. This study aimed to: (i) evaluate the capability of STEC cells to adhere to bovine milk fat globule membrane proteins (MFGMPs), (ii) highlight STEC surface proteins associated with adhesion and (iii) evaluate the variation between different STEC serotypes. We evaluated the physicochemical interactions between STEC and milk fat globules (MFGs) by analyzing hydrophobic properties and measuring the ζ-potential. We used a plate adhesion assay to assess adhesion between MFGMPs and 15 Escherichia coli strains belonging to three key serotypes (O157:H7, O26:H11, and O103:H2). A relative quantitative proteomic approach was conducted by mass spectrometry to identify STEC surface proteins that may be involved in STEC-MFG adhesion. The majority of E. coli strains showed a hydrophilic profile. The ζ-potential values were between -3.7 and - 2.9 mV for the strains and between -12.2 ± 0.14 mV for MFGs. Our results suggest that non-specific interactions are not strongly involved in STEC-MFG association and that molecular bonds could form between STEC and MFGs. Plate adhesion assays showed a weak adhesion of O157:H7 E. coli strains to MFGMPs. In contrast, O26:H11 and O103:H2 serotypes attached more to MFGMPs. Relative quantitative proteomic analysis showed that the O26:H11 str. 21,765 differentially expressed five outer membrane-associated proteins or lipoproteins compared with the O157:H7 str. EDL933. This analysis also found strain-specific differentially expressed proteins, including four O26:H11 str. 21,765-specific proteins/lipoproteins and eight O103:H2 str. PMK5-specific proteins. For the first time, we demonstrated STEC adhesion to MFGMPs and discovered a serotype effect. Several outer membrane proteins-OmpC and homologous proteins, intimin, Type 1 Fimbriae, and AIDA-I-that may be involved in STEC-MFG adhesion were highlighted. More research on STEC's ability to adhere to MFGMs in diverse biological environments, such as raw milk cheeses and the human gastrointestinal tract, is needed to confirm the anti-adhesion properties of the STEC-MFG complex.

Raw goat's milk fermented Anbaris from Lebanon: insights into the microbial dynamics and chemical changes occurring during artisanal production, with a focus on yeasts

Anbaris is a raw goat milk product naturally fermented in terracotta jars. The aim of this research paper was to follow the dynamics underlying an artisanal production to understand the concomitant evolution of the microbial populations in relation to the chemical changes occurring within the product, make sure of the sanitary conditions prevailing during the production and uncover for the first time its culturable yeast populations. Throughout the fermentation process, Anbaris was endowed with high acidity and included high microbial populations counts of LAB and yeasts that were rapidly installed within the product and maintained as regular new milk additions were made, contributing to lipolytic and proteolytic activities. Salt content varied according to the arbitrary salt additions made during the process but was high in the end product while protein and fat contents varied inversely to moisture. Frequent additions of Enterobacteriaceae and Coliforms contaminated milk samples seemingly fueled a contamination of the product during its manufacturing and in the final fresh Anbaris. Seven species of culturable yeasts, Pichia kudriavzevii, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Debaryomyces hansenii, Candida parapsilosis and Kazachstania exigua were found during the production. The first two dominated the process in terms of frequency of occurrence and abundance at the different stages and might be signature species of the product. The same lineage of K. marxianus isolates was maintained throughout the fermentation and sample specific patterns were observed. Strains of this species exhibited low diversity within our product, and more globally in the Lebanese dairy products we studied.

Strain- and serotype-dependent affinity of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli for bovine milk fat globules

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are widely detected in raw milk products intended for human consumption. Although STEC are a worldwide public health problem, the pathogenicity of STEC in cheese remains unclear. In fact, bacterial association with compounds in raw milk cheeses could reduce their pathogenicity. A previous study showed the association of 2 STEC strains with raw milk cream in a natural creaming assay. Different concentrations of each strain were required to saturate the cream. In this study, we hypothesized that all STEC strains could be associated with milk fat globules (MFG) in raw milk and that the bacterial load required for saturation of the cream is serotype dependent. We evaluated the affinity of STEC strains belonging to the O157:H7, O26:H11, and O103:H2 serotypes for bovine raw milk cream and analyzed saturation of the cream layer by natural creaming assay. We used 12 STEC strains and 3 strains belonging to another pathotype to assess the effects of serotypes on this phenomenon. We performed sucrose density gradient centrifugation assays with 2 STEC model strains to confirm the results obtained by natural creaming. The localization of STEC within MFG-enriched creams was observed by confocal and electron microscopy. We recovered approximately 10 times more STEC from the cream layer after natural creaming than from raw bovine milk. The concentration of STEC required to saturate the cream layer (the saturation concentration) was estimated for each strain by nonlinear regression, highlighting a strain and serotype effect. Moreover, the concentration of STEC in the cream was milk fat level dependent. However, even in nonsaturating conditions, a high level of STEC was still present in the aqueous phase, after fat separation. Thus, natural creaming should not be used as the sole preventive measure to remove STEC from naturally contaminated raw milk. The results of our study suggest that cream saturation is a complex mechanism, most likely involving specific interactions between STEC and raw MFG.

Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Milk Fat Globules

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are zoonotic Gram-negative bacteria. While raw milk cheese consumption is healthful, contamination with pathogens such as STEC can occur due to poor hygiene practices at the farm level. STEC infections cause mild to serious symptoms in humans. The raw milk cheese-making process concentrates certain milk macromolecules such as proteins and milk fat globules (MFGs), allowing the intrinsic beneficial and pathogenic microflora to continue to thrive. MFGs are surrounded by a biological membrane, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), which has a globally positive health effect, including inhibition of pathogen adhesion. In this review, we provide an update on the adhesion between STEC and raw MFGs and highlight the consequences of this interaction in terms of food safety, pathogen detection, and therapeutic development.

Approaching the sensory profile of Paipa cheese, the Colombian ripened cheese with protected designation of origin

Abstract Paipa cheese is the unique Colombian ripened cheese produced from raw milk that has a protected designation of origin (PDO); nonetheless, to date, the dairy product lacks a defined sensory profile, since no study has been previously performed. The aim of this study was to approach the definition of the sensory attributes of the Paipa cheeses that are produced within the PDO region in order to establish the organoleptic aspects of the PDO regulation. A trained panel of five members used the multidimensional approach as a descriptive sensory analysis to establish the sensory profile of Paipa cheese; such analysis was complemented with the method used for PDO cheeses were three cheese producers, two government delegates, one gastronomy expert and two Paipa cheese researchers participated in the descriptive sensory analysis. A microbiological assessment (mesophilic aerobic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, total and fecal coliforms, coagulase-positive Staphylococci, Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes) of cheese samples was carried out prior to sensory analysis to guarantee the safety of the samples. The descriptive sensory analysis was performed with 17 cheese samples that represented 77% of Paipa cheese produced in the PDO region. 82 sensory descriptors were identified and 47 were finally established (seven descriptors for appearance, 15 for odor, 15 for taste and 10 for texture) for describing the sensory profile of Paipa cheese. Due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria, the texture and taste profiles of Paipa cheese were based only on three samples. Sensory profiles of cheese samples were highly heterogeneous and it may be a consequence of the variations among raw milk used and/or manufacturing practices of cheese producers. Therefore, in order to find the sensory identity of Paipa cheese and guarantee quality and safety, cheese production and raw milk characteristics must be defined and regulated among milk and Paipa cheese producers.

Coxiella burnetii abortion in a dairy farm selling artisanal cheese directly to consumers and review of Q fever as a bovine abortifacient in South America and a human milk-borne disease

Coxiella burnetii is a highly transmissible intracellular bacterium with a low infective dose that causes Q fever (coxiellosis), a notifiable zoonotic disease distributed worldwide. Livestock are the main source of C. burnetii transmission to humans, which occurs mostly through the aerogenous route. Although C. burnetii is a major abortifacient in small ruminants, it is less frequently diagnosed in aborting cattle. We report a case of C. burnetii abortion in a lactating Holstein cow from a dairy farm producing and selling artisanal cheese directly to consumers in Uruguay, and review the literature on coxiellosis as a bovine abortifacient in South America and as a milk-borne disease. The aborted cow had severe necrotizing placentitis with abundant intratrophoblastic and intralesional C. burnetii confirmed by immunohistochemistry and PCR. After primo-infection in cattle, C. burnetii remains latent in the lymph nodes and mammary glands, with milk being a significant and persistent excretion route. Viable C. burnetii has been found in unpasteurized milk and cheeses after several months of maturing. The risk of coxiellosis after the consumption of unpasteurized dairy products, including cheese, is not negligible. This report raises awareness on bovine coxiellosis as a potential food safety problem in on-farm raw cheese manufacturing and sales. The scant publications on abortive coxiellosis in cattle in South America suggest that the condition has probably gone underreported in all countries of this subcontinent except for Uruguay. Therefore, we also discuss the diagnostic criteria for laboratory-based confirmation of C. burnetii abortion in ruminants as a guideline for veterinary diagnosticians.

Enterobacteriaceae in food safety with an emphasis on raw milk and meat

There has been a growing interest in traditional dairy (such as raw milk cheeses) and meat products, in recent years. However, these products are suitable and nutrient medium and may be easily contaminated by microorganisms such as Enterobacteriaceae. Enterobacteriaceae are considered to be the indicator bacteria for microbiological quality of food and hygiene status of a production process. Additionally, the food contaminated by Enterobacteriaceae poses a microbiological risk for consumers. In fact, the contamination of raw milk and meat by Enterobacteriaceae amid manufacturing may easily occur from various environmental sources, and this group of bacteria is frequently detected in dairy and meat products. Therefore, monitoring the microbiological quality of the used raw material and maintaining high standards of hygiene in the production process are mandatory for a high quality of traditional products and the safety of the potential consumers. The goal of this review is to present the most recent survey on Enterobacteriaceae growth, number, and distribution in raw milk cheeses and meat, as well as to discuss the sources of contamination and methods of control. KEY POINTS: • Enterobacteriaceae: role and importance in milk and meat products, EU legal regulations • Dynamics, distribution, and survival of Enterobacteriaceae in milk and meat • Mechanisms of control of Enterobacteriaceae in dairy products.

Probabilistic modelling of Escherichia coli concentration in raw milk under hot weather conditions

Climate change is one of the threats to the dairy supply chain as it may affect the microbiological quality of raw milk. In this context, a probabilistic model was developed to quantify the concentration of Escherichia coli in raw milk and explore what may happen to France under climate change conditions. It included four modules: initial contamination, packaging, retailing, and consumer refrigeration. The model was built in R using the 2nd order Monte Carlo mc2d package to propagate the uncertainty and analysed its impact independently of the variability. The initial microbial counts were obtained from a dairy farm located in Saudi Arabia to reflect the impact of hot weather conditions. This country was taken as representative of what might happen in Europe and therefore in France in the future due to climate change. A large dataset containing 622 data points was analysed. They were fitted by a Normal probability distribution using the fitdistrplus package. The microbial growth was determined across various scenarios of time and temperature storage reflecting the raw milk supply-chain in France. Existing growth rate data from literature and ComBase were analysed by the Ratkowsky secondary model. Results were interpreted using the nlstools package. The mean E. coli initial concentration in raw milk was estimated to be 1.31 [1.27; 1.35] log CFU/ mL and was found to increase at the end of the supply chain as a function of various time and temperature conditions. The estimations varied from 1.73 [1.42; 2.28] log CFU/mL after 12 h, 2.11 [1.46; 3.22] log CFU/mL after 36 h, and 2.41 [1.69;3.86] log CFU/mL after 60 h of consumer storage. The number of milk packages exceeding the 2-log French hygiene criterion for E. coli increased from 10% [8;12%] to 53% [27;77%] during consumer storage. In addition, the most significant factors contributing to the uncertainty of the model outputs were identified by running a sensitivity analysis. The results showed that the uncertainty around the Ratkowsky model parameters contributed the most to the uncertainty of E. coli concentration estimates. Overall, the model and its outputs provide an insight on the possible microbial raw milk quality in the future in France due to higher temperatures conditions driven by climate change.

Comparison of the microbial, physicochemical, and sensorial properties of raw and pasteurized Lighvan cheeses during ripening time

Traditional cheeses which are normally produced from raw milk are very popular due to their intense and unique taste and aroma. However, high microbial contamination of raw milk due to manual milking and secondary contamination may lead to many diseases in humans in Iran. Lighvan is a traditional starter-free locally made Iranian cheese that is made from raw ewe's milk. Since the use of raw milk in the preparation of cheese produces serious health problems, due to the limited ripening period of this type of cheese, this study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of preparing Lighvan cheese from pasteurized milk. For this purpose, different characteristics of cheese prepared with pasteurized milk were compared with raw milk cheese. The results showed a reduction in the microbial population over the ripening time in both types of cheeses. However, coliforms and Escherichia coli were seen in raw milk cheeses until the last day of ripening. Regarding chemical analyses, the water-soluble nitrogen fraction and lipolysis products increased during ripening. Moreover, the raw milk cheeses indicated a higher lipolysis index than the pasteurized ones. According to the obtained results from the sensory evaluation, the raw milk cheese indicated higher acceptability compared with the pasteurized milk cheese. However, since the presence of E. coli makes the cheese inedible, it seems that the pasteurization of milk is mandatory for the production of this type of cheese.

Microbiological Characteristics and Behavior of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcal Toxin during Making and Maturing Cotija Cheese

Cotija cheese is an artisanal matured Mexican cheese from unpasteurized milk. This work determined the microbiological characteristics and behavior of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and staphylococcal toxin during cheese elaboration and ripening. Sixteen 20-kg cheeses were used, eight inoculated with 6 log CFU/mL of each pathogen, and eight uninoculated, and samples were taken at each stage of the process. In the uninoculated samples, the survival of S. aureus and L. monocytogenes decreased after 30 days of ripening. The average counts of S. aureus in milk, curd, and serum were 7 log MPN /mL, and 8.7 log MPN /g in cheese, decreasing from day 15. Salmonella spp. counts (initial inoculum: 7.2 log MPN /mL) decreased after 24 h, and L. monocytogenes counts (8.7 log MPN/g at 24 h) decreased from day 15 in the cheese. Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were not detected in any sample after 60 days of ripening, unlike S. aureus, which was detected at the end of the study. Lactic acid bacteria counts were 9 log CFU/mL in milk and whey and 7.2 log CFU/g in cheese. Pathogens behavior during the ripening process reduces the health risks by consuming products made with unpasteurized milk when subjected to ripening.

Shifts in diversity and function of bacterial community during manufacture of Rushan

Rushan is a traditional dairy product consumed by the Bai people in the Yunnan Province of China, and its production still follows the traditional procedure of backslopping. However, how the microbial composition of raw materials and processing shape the microorganisms in Rushan have not been systemically reported. In this study, high-throughput sequencing technique was applied to analyze the microbial compositions of raw milk, fresh Rushan, curd whey, acid whey, and dry Rushan at the phylum, family, genus, and Lactobacillus species levels. The results indicated that Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus were dominant genera in Rushan, whereas Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Lactobacillus helveticus were the 2 abundant species at the Lactobacillus species level. The network analysis indicated that raw milk mainly contributed to the microbial diversity of Rushan, whereas acid whey made a great contribution to shaping the relative abundance of microbes in Rushan and dramatically increased acid-producing genera, such as Lactobacillus and Acetobacter. The variation in microbial composition led to an increase in the relative abundance of pathways related to energy supply, acid production, fatty acid accumulation, cysteine, methionine, and lysine accumulation. The volatile profile of Rushan was rich in esters and acids, and the high relative abundance of Lactobacillus might be associated with reduction of amino acid metabolism, degradation of unpleasant flavored xylene, and accumulation of decanoic, dodecanoic, and tetradecanoic acids in the products. The accumulation of medium long-chain fatty acids might result from the relative abundance of FabF, FabZ, and FabI, particularly from Lactobacillus amylolyticus and Lacticaseibacillus paracasei.

Escherichia coli Specific Virulence-Gene Markers Analysis for Quality Control of Ovine Cheese in Slovakia

Shiga toxin-producing and extra-intestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) have the potential to spread through faecal waste, resulting in contamination of food and causing foodborne disease outbreaks. With the aim of characterizing unpasteurized ovine cheese in Slovakia, a total of 92 E. coli strains were examined for eleven representative virulence genes typical for (extra-)intestinal pathogenic E. coli and phylogenetic grouping. Phylogenetic groups B1 (36%) and A (32%) were the most dominant, followed by groups C (14%) and D (13%), while the lowest incidence was recorded for F (4%), and E (1%), and 43 (47%) samples carried at least one virulent gene, i.e., potential pathogens. Isolates present in groups E, F and D showed higher presence of virulence genes (100%, 75%, and 67%), versus 55%, 39%, and 28% in commensal B1, C, and A, respectively. Occurrence of papC and fyuA (both 24%) was highest, followed by tsh, iss, stx2, cnf1, kpsII, cvaC, stx1, iutA and eaeA. Nine E. coli strains (almost 10% of all tested and around 21% of our virulence-gene-associated isolates) harboured stx1, stx2 or eae. Ovine cheeses in Slovakia are highly contaminated with E. coli including potentially pathogenic strains capable of causing intestinal and/or extra-intestinal diseases, and thus may pose a threat to public health while unpasteurized.

Study of the microbial diversity of a panel of Belgian artisanal cheeses associated with challenge studies for Listeria monocytogenes

High throughput sequencing could become a powerful tool in food safety. This study was the first to investigate artisanal cheeses from Belgium (31 batches) using metagenetics, in relation to Listeria monocytogenes growth data acquired during a previous project. Five cheese types were considered, namely unripened acid-curd cheeses, smear- and mold-ripened soft cheeses, and Gouda-type and Saint-Paulin-type cheeses. Each batch was analyzed in triplicate the first and the last days of storage at 8 °C. Globally, 2697 OTUs belonging to 277 genera and to 15 phyla were identified. Lactococcus was dominant in all types, but Streptococcus was co-dominant in smear-ripened soft cheeses and Saint-Paulin-type cheeses. The dominant population was not always associated with added starter cultures. Bacterial richness and diversity were significantly higher in both types of soft cheeses than in other categories, including particular genera like Prevotella, Faecalibacterium and Hafnia-Obesumbacterium in mold-ripened cheeses and Brevibacterium, Brachybacterium, Microbacterium, Bacteroides, Corynebacterium, Marinilactibacillus, Fusobacterium, Halomonas and Psychrobacter in smear-ripened soft cheeses. A strong correlation was observed between no growth of L. monocytogenes in a smear-ripened cheese and the presence of an unknown Fusobacterium (relative abundance around 10%). This in silico correlation should be confirmed by further experiments in vitro and in situ.

Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance of Bacteria Staphylococcus chromogenes Isolated from Sheep's Milk and Cheese

Antimicrobial and multidrug resistance is detected in nonaureus staphylococci, including Staphylococcus chromogenes, which commonly causes intramammary infections. Recent clinical studies point to the presence of methicillin-resistant S. chromogenes. Therefore, this study aims to determine the prevalence of this species in samples of sheep‘s milk and cheeses made from them. Isolates were identified by polymerase chain reaction and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF). A total of 208 staphylococcal isolates were identified. Of these, 18% were identified as S. chromogenes. The antimicrobial resistance of the identified isolates was determined using the agar dilution method against penicillin, ceftaroline, teicoplanin, gentamicin, erythromycin, tetracycline, and ofloxacin. The highest resistance was found to penicillin (95%), tetracycline (86%), and oxacillin (81%). The highest sensitivity was confirmed for gentamicin (55%). The study also confirmed the presence of methicillin resistant staphylococcal isolates (30%) based on the phenotypic manifestation of antimicrobial resistance and detection of the presence of the mecA gene. The study shows that the tested isolates (62%) were multidrug resistant. Resistance to two antibiotics was most often found (39%).

Fate of Salmonella spp. in the Fresh Soft Raw Milk Cheese during Storage at Different Temperatures

The aim of this study was to determine the survival kinetics of Salmonella spp. in unripened, fresh raw milk cheese during storage at 5, 15 and 25 °C. Microbiological (coliforms and E. coli, S. thermophilus, Lactococcus sp., total microbial count and Enterobacteriaceae) and physicochemical (pH and a_w) characteristics were also determined. Two primary models were used to estimate the kinetic parameters of Salmonella spp., namely Weibull and Baranyi and Roberts (no lag) models. Additionally, goodness-of-fit of the primary models was assessed by calculating the R-Square and mean square error. Salmonella spp. growth in the unripened raw milk cheese was inhibited during storage, but nevertheless bacteria survived at 5 °C for 33 days (2.5 log cfu/g) and 15 °C for 18 days (1.8 log cfu/g). A decrease in the number of Salmonella spp. populations from an initial concentration 6.6 log cfu/g to below a detection limit was observed at 25 °C after 7 days of storage of contaminated cheese samples. It was concluded that the storage temperature significantly influenced the inactivation rate of Salmonella spp. in fresh raw milk cheese and proceeded faster at 25 °C compared to remaining storage temperatures.

Assessment of Quality and Safety of Farm Level Produced Cheeses from Sheep and Goat Milk

Consumption of sheep’s and goat’s milk and cheese is currently increasing. The production process of these types of cheese is being carried out by traditional domestic production at farm level. However, knowledge in the field of hygiene, technology and health safety of cheeses are still insufficient. This study aimed to examine the physical and chemical quality and microbiological safety of sheep’s and goat’s milk and cheeses made from them. The month of milking influenced the content of milk components (p < 0.001) in sheep’s milk and goat’s milk, but no changes in SCC content during the examined period were found (p > 0.05). Level of contamination by Enterobacteriaceae sp. and coagulase-positive staphylococci was lower than 5 log CFU/mL in sheep’s and goat’s milk. During the ripening time, the number of lactic acid bacteria significantly raised (p < 0.001). Ripening time statistically changed (p < 0.001) not just the microbial safety of cheeses but also the color (p < 0.01). Under the applicable regulations, the analyzed samples were evaluated as suitable for human consumption.

Quality assessment of artisanal cheeses in the northwest region of Paraná

Artisanal unripened cheeses produced in northwestern Paraná, Brazil, were studied for microbiological quality and sensory quality. The cheeses analyzed showed high counts of aerobic mesophilic microorganisms and S. aureus. However, even with the results showing poor microbiological quality, from a sensory point of view, consumers considered cheeses acceptable (high acceptance index). The results may indicate that there is still a lack of training and knowledge of production procedures to reduce microbiological contamination of artisanal cheese produced in northwestern Paraná.

Quantitative Microbiological Analysis of Artisanal Stretched Cheese Manufacture

To evaluate the behavior of the relevant microbial populations during stretched cheese production, quantitative microbiological analysis was performed during the critical steps of the preparation. The obtained data distributions proved statistically significant increases in all indicators, on average by 4.55 ± 0.64 log CFU/g of presumptive lactococci counts, 4.06 ± 0.61 of lactobacilli, 1.53 ± 0.57 log CFU/g of coliforms, 2.42 ± 0.67 log CFU/g of Escherichia coli, 1.53 ± 0.75 log CFU/g of yeasts and molds, and 0.99 ± 0.27 log CFU/g of presumptive Staphylococcus aureus, from the early stage of milk coagulation until curd ripening (0–24 h). The following steaming/stretching process caused reductions in viable counts with the most significant inactivation effect on coliform bacteria, including E. coli (−4.0 ± 1.0 log CFU/g). Total viable counts and yeasts and molds showed 2 and almost 3 log reduction (−2.2 ± 1.1 log CFU/g and −2.6 ± 0.9 log CFU/g), respectively. The lowest decreases in presumptive S. aureus counts were estimated at the level of −1.50 ± 0.64 log CFU/g. The counts of yeasts and molds showed the best indicatory function during the entire storage period of vacuum-packaged cheeses at 6 °C.

Shifts of microbiota during cheese production: impact on production and quality

The high-throughput DNA sequencing (HTS) method is used to identify microbes in cheese and their potential functional properties. The technique can be applied to the microbiota of the cheese processing environment, raw milk, curd, whey, and starter cultures, and be used to improve the quality, safety, and other physicochemical properties of the final product. The HTS method is also utilized to study the microbiota shift of different types of cheeses during processing, as the composition and functional properties of the microbiome provide unique characteristics to different cheeses. Although there are several reviews that focused on microbiota of various types of cheeses, this review focuses on evaluating the microbiota shift of different types of cheese production and highlights key bacteria in each step of the processing as well as microbiota of various types of cheeses. KEY POINTS: • High-throughput sequencing can be applied to identify microbiota in cheese. • Microbiota in cheese is changed during making process and aging. • Starter culture plays an important role to establish microbiota in cheese.

Kinetic modeling of inactivation of foodborne bacterial pathogens in serrano artisanal cheese during ripening

Abstract Serrano artisanal cheese is a traditional raw milk dairy product from southern Brazil. For safe consumption of raw milk products, ripening is a critical period for reducing populations of pathogenic and spoilage microorganism and, then, the knowledge on inactivation kinetics of microorganisms is necessary to guarantee food safety and quality. In the present work, inactivation kinetics of foodborne bacterial pathogens required by Brazilian regulations in serrano artisanal cheeses were statistically evaluated during ripening. The Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, coagulase-positive strain of Staphylococcus aureus and fecal coliforms were analyzed for up to 60 days. Experimental data were fitted using first-order model, Weibull and log-linear + shoulder models. Results showed no presence of Salmonella spp. and L. monogyatogenes in the cheeses through the studied period. The first-order and Weibull models presented good performance to represent coagulase-positive strain of S. aureus and fecal coliforms during ripening, although Weibull distribution showed better outcomes to experimental data. Log-linear+shoulder equation was discarded to describe the reduction of microorganism counts for physical criteria. Kinetics showed an initial resistance of fecal coliforms to be inactivated, unlike to coagulase-positive strain of S. aureus population. Modeling analysis allowed estimating serrano artisanal cheese ripening period to be longer than 33 days for achieving a safe product according to the Brazilian Regulatory Standards.

Bacterial Succession through the Artisanal Process and Seasonal Effects Defining Bacterial Communities of Raw-Milk Adobera Cheese Revealed by High Throughput DNA Sequencing

The bacterial community of the artisanal Adobera cheese from Los Altos de Jalisco was described through high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA gene libraries. Samples were collected in two different seasons (dry and rainy) during four key steps of the manufacturing process (raw milk, fresh curd, matured curd, and cheese). Bacterial diversity was higher in early steps in comparison with the final elaboration stages. Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were the most abundant phyla, strongly represented by the Streptococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae and Lactobacillaceae families, and core bacteria genera such as Streptococcus spp., Lactococcus spp., and Lactobacillus spp. Undesirable bacteria, including Pseudomonas spp. and Acinetobacter spp., were also detected in raw milk but almost undetectable at the end of the cheese manufacturing process, and seemed to be displaced by lactic-acid bacteria-related genera. Seasonal effects were observed on the community structure but did not define the core microbiota composition. Predictive metabolism was related to membrane transport, and amino-acid, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism pathways. Our results contribute to deduce the role of bacteria involved in Adobera cheese manufacturing in terms of the metabolism involved, cheese microbial safety, and how undesirable bacterial populations could be regulated by process standardization as a potential tool to improve safety.

Occurrence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus spp. on Brazilian Dairy Farms that Produce Unpasteurized Cheese

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus spp. (MRS) have been identified in several foods, including dairy products. Studies are needed about their occurrence and genetic diversity in the dairy production chain in order to gain a better understanding of their epidemiology and control. This study therefore focuses on isolating and characterizing MRS strains detected in milk used in the production of Brazilian artisanal unpasteurized cheeses. To this end, samples were collected from bovine feces, the hands of milkmen, milking buckets, sieves, unpasteurized milk, whey, water, artisanal unpasteurized cheeses, cheese processing surfaces, cheese handlers, cheese trays, cheese molds, and skimmers at five dairy farms located in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Colonies suggestive of Staphylococcus spp. were subjected to multiplex PCR to confirm the presence of Staphylococcus aureus and to detect the mecA gene. Sixteen isolates containing mecA gene were detected in samples from unpasteurized cheese and from cheese handlers. None of these isolates were positive to enterotoxin genes. These 16 isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests, which revealed they were resistant to oxacillin, penicillin, and cefepime. Using gene sequencing, the MRS isolates were identified as S. haemolyticus, S. hominis, and S. epidermidis. Furthermore, isolates from cheese handlers’ hands and artisanal unpasteurized cheese presented high genetic similarity by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD-PCR) analysis, which indicates cross contamination during cheese production. Thus, we found that people directly involved in milking and cheese processing activities at small dairy farms are a potential source of contamination of MRS strains in unpasteurized milk and cheese, representing a risk to public health.

Survival of Selected Pathogenic Bacteria during PDO Pecorino Romano Cheese Ripening

This study was conducted to assess, for the first time, the survival of the pathogenic bacteria Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Staphylococcus aureus during the ripening of protected designation of origin (PDO) Pecorino Romano cheese. A total of twenty-four cheese-making trials (twelve from raw milk and twelve from thermized milk) were performed under the protocol specified by PDO requirements. Sheep cheese milk was first inoculated before processing with approximately 106 colony-forming unit (CFU) mL−1 of each considered pathogen and the experiment was repeated six times for each selected pathogen. Cheese composition and pathogens count were then evaluated in inoculated raw milk, thermized milk, and cheese after 1, 90, and 150 days of ripening. pH, moisture, water activity, and salt content of cheese were within the range of the commercial PDO Pecorino Romano cheese. All the cheeses made from raw and thermized milk were microbiologically safe after 90 days and 1 day from their production, respectively. In conclusion, when Pecorino Romano cheese is produced under PDO specifications, from raw or thermized milk, a combination of factors including the speed and extent of curd acidification in the first phase of the production, together with an intense salting and a long ripening time, preclude the possibility of growth and survival of L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and E. coli O157:H7. Only S. aureus can be still detectable at such low levels that it does not pose a risk to consumers.

Everybody loves cheese: crosslink between persistence and virulence of Shiga-toxin Escherichia coli

General cheese manufacturing involves high temperatures, fermentation and ripening steps that function as hurdles to microbial growth. On the other hand, the application of several different formulations and manufacturing techniques may create a bacterial protective environment. In cheese, the persistent behavior of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) relies on complex mechanisms that enable bacteria to respond to stressful conditions found in cheese matrix. In this review, we discuss how STEC manages to survive to high and low temperatures, hyperosmotic conditions, exposure to weak organic acids, and pH decreasing related to cheese manufacturing, the cheese matrix itself and storage. Moreover, we discuss how these stress responses interact with each other by enhancing adaptation and consequently, the persistence of STEC in cheese. Further, we show how virulence genes eae and tir are affected by stress response mechanisms, increasing either cell adherence or virulence factors production, which leads to a selection of more resistant and virulent pathogens in the cheese industry, leading to a public health issue.

Bioactive characteristics of a semi-hard non-starter culture cheese made from raw or pasteurized sheep's milk

In this study, the effect of pasteurization and use of starter cultures on physicochemical, microbiological and functional properties of a traditional Iranian semi-hard cheese (Lighvan cheese) was evaluated during stages of ripening (1, 60, 120 days). Profiles of polar metabolites were analyzed by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS). Considerable free amino acids such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were found in samples that have higher microbial communities i.e. raw sheep's milk without use of starter cultures and pasteurized sheep's milk cheese with co-culture. However, GABA was not found in pasteurized sheep's milk cheese without starter culture during ripening. Conclusively, the application of the starter culture could reduce the ripening time of sheep's milk cheese and could be an appropriate approach to increase the functionality of the sheep's milk cheese.

Microbiological Characteristics of Gouda Cheese Manufactured with Pasteurized and Raw Milk during Ripening Using Next Generation Sequencing

Gouda cheese, one of most popular cheeses in the Korea, has been produced from only pasteurized milk in Korean dairy farms. Recently, it has become legally possible to produce ripened cheese manufactured with raw milk in Korea. In the present study, we investigated the physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of Gouda cheese manufactured with raw (R-GC) or pasteurized milk (P-GC) during manufacturing and ripening. Particularly, this study characterized the bacterial community structure of two cheese types, which are produced without pasteurization during ripening based on next generation sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons. During ripening, protein and fat content increased slightly, whereas moisture content decreased in both P-GC and R-GC. At the 6 wk of ripening, R-GC became softer and smoother and hence, the values of hardness and gumminess, chewiness in R-GC was lower than that of P-GC. Metagenomic analysis revealed that the bacterial genera used a starter cultures, namely Lactococcus and Leuconostoc were predominant in both P-GC and R-GC. Moreover, in R-GC, the proportion of coliform bacteria such as Escherichia, Leclercia, Raoultella, and Pseudomonas were detected initially but not during ripening. Taken together, our finding indicates the potential of manufacturing with Gouda cheese from raw milk and the benefits of next generation sequencing for microbial community composition during cheese ripening.