Technological and Enzymatic Characterization of Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Viili Natural Starters

Viili, a Finnish ropy fermented milk, is traditionally manufactured through spontaneous fermentation, by mesophilic lactic acid bacteria and yeast-like fungi, or back-slopping. This study evaluated four natural viili starters as sources of lactic acid bacteria for dairy production. Back-slopping activation of the studied viili samples was monitored through pH and titratable acidity measurements and enumeration of mesophilic lactic acid bacteria. Sixty lactic acid bacteria isolates were collected, molecularly identified, and assayed for acidification performance, enzymatic activities, production of exopolysaccharides (EPSs), presence of the histidine decarboxylase (hdcA) gene of Gram-positive bacteria, and production of bacteriocins. A neat predominance of Lactococcus lactis emerged among the isolates, followed by Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus lactis, and Lactococcus cremoris. Most isolates exhibited proteolytic activity, whereas only a few enterococci showed lipase activity. Five isolates identified as L. cremoris, L. lactis, and E. faecalis showed a good acidification performance. Most of the isolates tested positive for leucine arylamidase, whereas only one E. durans and two L. lactis isolates were positive for valine arylamidase. A few isolates also showed a positive reaction for beta-galactosidase and alpha- and beta-glucosidase. None of the isolates produced EPSs or bacteriocins. The hdcA gene was detected in five isolates identified as L. lactis and E. faecium. A few L. cremoris and L. lactis isolates for potential use as starter or adjunct cultures for dairy processing were finally identified.

Exploitation of Black Olive (Olea europaea L. cv. Piantone di Mogliano) Pomace for the Production of High-Value Bread

In this study, the morpho-textural features, total phenolic content (TPC), and antioxidant capacity (AOC) of bread fortified with olive (Olea europaea L.) pomace were evaluated. Fresh olive pomace was subjected to microbiological and chemical (TPC, AOC, and fiber) analyses; then, the same olive pomace was analyzed during 1 to 6 months of storage at 4 °C or -20 °C. All olive pomace samples were used in 10%, 15%, or 20% amounts to produce type 0 soft wheat (Triticum aestivum) and whole wheat bread samples. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the bread samples were also analyzed to assess the effect of the addition of the olive pomace on the flavor profile of the baked products. The TPC and AOC evaluation of olive pomace showed no differences among the analyzed samples (fresh, refrigerated, or frozen). Regarding the bread containing olive pomace, the specific volume was not affected by the amount or the storage methods of the added pomace. Bread samples produced with soft wheat flour showed the lowest hardness values relative to those produced with whole wheat flour, irrespective of the amount or storage method of the olive pomace. Regarding color, the crust and crumb of the bread samples containing 20% olive pomace were significantly darker. The bread samples containing 20% olive pomace had the highest TPC. The bread samples with fresh olive pomace were characterized by terpenoids, ketones, and aldehydes, whereas the bread samples containing refrigerated olive pomace were characterized by alcohols (mainly ethanol), acids, esters, and acetate. Finally, the bread samples with frozen olive pomace showed a volatile profile similar to that of bread produced with fresh olive pomace. Olive pomace was shown to be a suitable ingredient for producing bread with high nutritional value.

Tasting of traditional Polish fermented cucumbers: Microbiology, morpho-textural features, and volatilome

In the present study, naturally fermented and unpasteurized cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.) collected from 4 producers located in different regions of Poland were studied. The fermented cucumbers were characterized by significant nutritional features in terms of polyphenols content and antioxidant activity. Microbiological analyses revealed active bacterial populations of lactococci, thermophilic cocci, lactobacilli, and coagulase-negative cocci. The microbiological characterization of cucumber and brine samples through metataxonomic analysis allowed the dominant species to be detected, being Lactococcus and Streptococcus in cucumbers, and Lactiplantibacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Secundilactobacillus, and Lentilactobacillus in brine. The isolation activity offered a clear picture of the main active lactic acid bacteria at the end of fermentation, being Pediococcus parvulus and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum group. All the studied isolates showed a good attitude in fermenting a cucumber-based broth, thus suggesting their potential application as starter or adjunct cultures for guided cucumber fermentation. Moreover, for the same isolates, strong aminopeptidase activity (due to leucine arylamidase and valine arylamidase) was observed, with potential effect on the definition of the final sensory traits of the product. Only a few isolates showed the ability to produce exopolysaccharides in synthetic medium. Of note, the presence of the hdcA gene in some Pediococcus ethanolidurans isolates also confirmed the need for a thorough characterization of starter candidates to avoid undesired adverse effects on consumer's health. No isolate showed the production of bacteriocins against Listeria innocua used as surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes. Based on the results of Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry analysis, a rich and complex volatilome, composed by more than 80 VOCs, was recognized and characterized. In more detail, the detected compounds belonged to 9 main classes, being oxygenated terpenes, alcohols, terpenes, ketones, acids, aldehydes, esters, sulfur, and sesquiterpenes.

Search for carbapenem-resistant bacteria and carbapenem resistance genes along swine food chains in Central Italy

The presence of carbapenem-resistant bacteria and carbapenem resistance genes (CRGs) in livestock is increasing. To evaluate the presence of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) and the main CRGs along swine food chains of the Marche Region (Central Italy), samples of faeces, feed, and animal-food derived products were collected from seven small/medium, medium, and large-scale pig farms. A total of 191 samples were analysed using a culture-dependent method, with the aim of isolating CPE. Isolates were analysed for their resistance to carbapenems using a modified Hodge test and the microdilution method for the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination. Moreover, the extraction of microbial DNA from each sample was performed to directly detect selected CRGs via qPCR. Among the 164 presumptive resistant isolates, only one strain from a liver sample, identified as Aeromonas veronii, had an ertapenem MIC of 256 μg/mL and carried a carbapenemase- (cphA) and a β-lactamase- (blaOXA-12) encoding genes. A low incidence of CRGs was found; only nine and four faecal samples tested positive for blaNDM-1 and blaOXA-48, respectively. Overall, the importance of monitoring CPE and CRGs in livestock and their food chains should be stressed to control all potential non-human CPE and CRGs reservoirs and to determine safety levels for human health.

Spotlight on autochthonous microbiota, morpho-textural characteristics, and volatilome of a traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausage

The aim of the present study was to obtain information on the bacterial diversity of traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausages (Kiełbasa polska wędzona) manufactured by two artisanal producers using different selective growth media and a metataxonomic analysis. Physico-chemical and morpho-textural characteristics were also carried out, together with Microextraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPMEGC/MS) to study the volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The results overall obtained allowed a picture of the microbiota, the morpho-textural characteristics, and the volatilome of traditional Polish cold-smoked raw sausages (Kiełbasa polska wędzona) to be drawn for the first time. In more detail, viable counting revealed active populations of presumptive lactobacilli, enterococci, coagulase-negative cocci, and a few spoilage microorganisms typically occurring in raw meat products. The metataxonomic analysis revealed the dominance of Latilactobacillus sakei occurring with a relative frequency between 77% and 89%. Pediococcus pentosaceus, Weissella hellenica, and Leuconostoc carnosum were detected among the minority taxa. In the sausages herein studied, no histamine levels of concern were detected. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) performed on the Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs) did not show significant differences in the microbiota composition among producers. The HS-SPMEGC/MS analysis allowed the detection and identification of more than 90 volatile components belonging to ten main classes, namely: aldehydes, ketones, esters and acetates, acids, alcohols, phenols, furans, sulphur compounds, terpenoids, and benzene derivatives. The detected VOCs originated from spices, smoke, and microbial metabolism. The PCA of volatile compounds allowed differences between the sausage samples of the two producers to be identified.

Chemical, microbiological, textural, and sensory characteristics of pilot-scale Caciofiore cheese curdled with commercial Cynara cardunculus rennet and crude extracts from spontaneous and cultivated Onopordum tauricum

The aim of this study was the chemical, microbiological, textural, and sensory characterization of pilot-scale prototypes of an Italian ewe's raw milk cheese (Caciofiore) curdled with commercial Cynara cardunculus rennet, used as a control, and crude extracts obtained from flowers of either spontaneous or cultivated Onopordum tauricum. Hence, the control and experimental cheese prototypes produced in two rounds of cheesemaking trials were assayed, at the end of their 60-day maturation, for the following features: pH, titratable acidity, dry matter, fat, total and soluble nitrogen (TN and SN, respectively), ash, salt, protein, lactose, viable plate counts and composition of the bacterial and fungal populations, color, texture, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and olfactory attributes by sensory analysis (the latter for the sole prototypes curdled with the commercial rennet and the extract obtained from cultivated O. tauricum). The data overall collected showed a very low impact of the type of thistle rennet on the analyzed cheese traits, with significant differences being exclusively found for SN/TN%, titratable acidity, color, and adhesiveness. By contrast, a higher impact of the cheesemaking round was seen, with significant differences being observed for salt content, load of presumptive lactobacilli, thermophilic cocci, and Escherichia coli, and levels of the following VOCs: 2,3-butanedione, 2-pentanone, 1-butanol, 2-heptanone, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-heptanol, 2-nonanone, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-methyl propanoic acid, butanoic acid, and 3-methyl butanoic acid. Sensory analysis revealed a strong ewe's cheese odor, accompanied by other olfactory notes, such as pungent, sour curd, sweet, and Parmesan cheese-like notes, in all the analysed cheese prototypes. Moreover, key odor active compounds, including butanoic acid, ethyl butanoate, 2,3-butanedione, 1-octen-3-one, and dimethyl trisulfide, were identified by GC-olfactometry analysis. Regarding the odor attributes as determined by sensory analysis, again the type of rennet had an almost negligible impact, with significant differences being only perceived for 1 or 2 out of 20 odor attributes, depending on the analytical conditions applied. Although some aspects deserve further investigation, the results herein collected confirm that O. tauricum can be regarded as an alternative source of thistle rennet for the manufacture of Caciofiore cheese, and more in general, Mediterranean ewe's milk cheeses.

Impact of Different Drying Methods on the Microbiota, Volatilome, Color, and Sensory Traits of Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) Leaves

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) is a strongly aromatic herb of the Apiaceae family, whose full exploitation by the modern food industry is of growing interest. This study aimed at investigating the microbiological quality, volatile profile, and sensory traits of sea fennel spices produced using room-temperature drying, oven drying, microwave drying, and freeze drying. All the assayed methods were able to remove moisture up until water activity values below 0.6 were reached; however, except for microwave drying, none of the assayed methods were effective in reducing the loads of contaminating microorganisms. The metataxonomic analysis highlighted the presence of phytopathogens and even human pathogens, including members of the genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Alternaria, and Cryptococcus. When compared to fresh leaves, dried leaves showed increased L* (lightness) and c* (chroma, saturation) values and reduced hue angle. Dried leaves were also characterized by decreased levels of terpene hydrocarbons and increased levels of aldehydes, alcohols, and esters. For the sensory test, the microwave-dried samples obtained the highest appreciation by the trained panel. Overall, the collected data indicated microwave drying as the best option for producing sea fennel spices with low microbial loads, brilliant green color, and high-quality sensory traits.

Fermented fish and fermented fish-based products, an ever-growing source of microbial diversity: A literature review

Fermented fish and fermented fish-based products are part of the diet of many countries all over the world. Their popularity is not only due to the unique flavor, the distinct texture, and the good nutritional quality, but also to the easiness of the production process, that is commonly based on empirical traditional methods. Fish fermentation techniques ususally rely on the combination of some key steps, including salting, addition of spices or additives, and maintenance of anaerobic conditions, thus selecting for the multiplication of some pro-technological microorganisms. The objective of the present review was to provide an overview of the current knowledge of the microbial communities occurring in fermented fish and fish-based products. Specific information was collected from scientific publications published from 2000 to 2022 with the aim of generating a comprehensive database. The production of fermented fish and fish-based foods was mostly localized in West African countries, Northern European countries, and Southeast Asian countries. Based on the available literature, the microbial composition of fermented fish and fish-based products was delineated by using viable counting combined with identification of isolates, and culture-independent techniques. The data obtained from viable counting highlighted the occurrence of microbial groups usually associated with food fermentation, namely lactic acid bacteria, staphylococci, Bacillus spp., and yeasts. The identification of isolates combined with culture-independent methods showed that the fermentative process of fish-based products was generally guided by lactobacilli (Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Latilactobacillus sakei, and Latilactobacillus curvatus) or Tetragenococcus spp. depending on the salt concentration. Among lactic acid bacteria populations, Lactococcus spp., Pediococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Weissella spp., Enterococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and Vagococcus spp. were frequently identified. Staphylococcus spp. and Bacillus spp. confirmed a great adaptation to fermented fish-based products. Other noteworthy bacterial taxa included Micrococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Psychrobacter spp., Halanaerobium spp., and Halomonas spp. Among human pathogenic bacteria, the occurrence of Clostridium spp. and Vibrio spp. was documented. As for yeast populations, the predominance of Candida spp., Debaryomyces spp., and Saccharomyces spp. was evidenced. The present literature review could serve as comprehensive database for the scientific community, and as a reference for the food industry in order to formulate tailored starter or adjunctive cultures for product improvement.

Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) as an Emerging Crop for the Manufacturing of Innovative Foods and Nutraceuticals

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) is a perennial, strongly aromatic herb that has been used since ancient times in cuisine and folk medicine due to its renowned properties. Recently described as a "cash" crop, sea fennel is an ideal candidate for the promotion of halophyte agriculture in the Mediterranean basin due to its acknowledged adaptation to the Mediterranean climate, its resilience to risks/shocks related to climate changes, and its exploitability in food and non-food applications, which generates an alternative source of employment in rural areas. The present review provides insight into the nutritional and functional traits of this new crop as well as its exploitation in innovative food and nutraceutical applications. Various previous studies have fully demonstrated the high biological and nutritional potential of sea fennel, highlighting its high content of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, carotenoids, ω-3 and ω-6 essential fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and essential oils. Moreover, in previous studies, this aromatic halophyte showed good potential for application in the manufacturing of high-value foods, including both fermented and unfermented preserves, sauces, powders, and spices, herbal infusions and decoctions, and even edible films, as well as nutraceuticals. Further research efforts are needed to fully disclose the potential of this halophyte in view of its full exploitation by the food and nutraceutical industries.

Queijo Serra da Estrela PDO Cheese: Investigation into Its Morpho-Textural Traits, Microbiota, and Volatilome

Queijo Serra da Estrela is a PDO Portuguese cheese produced through coagulation of raw ewe’s milk using cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) flowers. The present research was aimed at depicting an up-to-date and comprehensive overview of the microbiota of Queijo Serra da Estrela cheese. To this end, viable counting and metataxonomic analysis were carried out on cheeses sampled from four Portuguese artisan producers. Physico-chemical and morpho-textural analyses were also performed, together with the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Finally, non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) isolated from the cheeses were characterized for their enzymatic activities using a semi-quantitative method. According to the metataxonomic analysis, Lactococcus lactis and Lactococcus piscium were the species occurring at the highest relative abundance. The isolates collected from the cheeses were assigned to Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus lactis, Levilactobacillus brevis, Latilactobacillus graminis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and the Lacticaseibacillus casei group. The enzymatic characterization of these cultures highlighted esterase, aminopeptidase, acid phosphatase, beta-galactosidase, alpha-glucosidase, and beta-glucosidase among the major enzymatic activities. Fungal populations were dominated by Debaryomyces hansenii and Kurtzmaniella zeylanoides; however, species rarely found in cheese (e.g., Candida boidinii, Vishniacozyma victoriae, and Starmerella) were also detected. The volatile compounds characterizing the analyzed cheeses were carboxylic acids and esters, followed by carbonyl compounds and alcohols.

Tetracycline Resistance Genes in the Traditional Swedish Sour Herring surströmming as Revealed Using qPCR

Antibiotic resistance (AR) represents a global concern for human health. To the best of the authors' knowledge, no study addressing AR in surströmming, a traditional Swedish fermented herring, has been performed to date. The aim of the present research was to study the prevalence of tet(O), tet(S), tet(W), tet(K), and tet(M) genes encoding for resistance to tetracycline using quantitative PCR (qPCR) applied to ready-to-eat surströmming samples collected from three producers located in Sweden. The tet(M) gene was found in all the analyzed samples, and it was also the most abundant among the tested tet genes; moreover, tet(O) was the least frequently detected gene. As a general trend, all the analyzed samples showed a high occurrence of the target genes, with slight variations among the producers. A principal component analysis did not reveal any separation among the samples or producers. All the collected data allowed for a drawing of a first picture of the occurrence of tetracycline resistance genes in ready-to-eat surströmming samples. Since no differences among the samples manufactured by the different producers were observed, it is likely that the detected genes were homogeneously spread among the microbial species shared by the herrings used as raw materials. Moreover, it can be hypothesized that the presence of the detected genes was also the result of a selective pressure of the natural marine environment on the herrings' gut microbiota and, hence, on the pro-technological microorganisms responsible for the fermentation of surströmming. However, the contribution of the manufacturers to the contamination of the processed herrings cannot be excluded.

Microbiological safety and stability of novel green sauces made with sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.)

Due to consumers' demand for ready-to-eat foods, in the last decades production of sauces has shifted from home-made to commercial practice. Besides to palatability and nutritional value, safety and stability are key issues of industrial sauces. The present study was aimed at evaluating the microbiological stability and safety of industrial-scale prototypes of two novel green sauces made with sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) as the main ingredient. To this end, accelerated shelf-life and microbial challenge tests were performed to assess: (i) the microbiological shelf-stability of the two sauces stabilized by heat treatments commonly applied at industrial scale to inactivate vegetative cells of spoilage microorganisms and pathogens in vegetable preserves (F₈₅⁷=2min or F₉₅⁷=5min); and (ii) the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in the sauce with pH = ∼ 4.6 and a_w < 0.92, subjected to mild pasteurization (F₇₅⁷=1or2min). The results overall collected through the accelerated shelf-life tests clearly demonstrated the microbiological shelf-stability during one month of storage at thermal abuse conditions of both the novel sauces assayed; moreover, the microbial challenge tests revealed that both mild heat treatments assayed were able to inactivate S. aureus; in addition, an inhibition of the growth of B. cereus was seen during storage at 37 °C. Results from this study are expected to be useful both from a scientific and technological standpoint, enabling efficient risk-based development of novel acidified food products.

Development of quantitative real-time PCR and digital droplet-PCR assays for rapid and early detection of the spoilage yeasts Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and Wickerhamomyces anomalus in bread

In the present study, for the first time, high sensitive quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and digital droplet polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) assays were developed to detect and quantify total eumycetes with potential application in several food matrices and to specifically determine the level of contamination by Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and Wickerhamomyces anomalus cells directly in bread. Among the candidate target genes used to develop the assays, car1 gene was chosen to detect the two spoilage yeasts S. fibuligera and W. anomalus. The specificity of the PCR assays was tested using purified genomic DNA from 36 bacterial and fungal strains. The sensitivity of the assays was defined by using tenfold serial dilutions of genomic DNA starting from 10⁶ cfu/mL to 1 cfu/mL of S. fibuligera and W. anomalus. Validation of the assays was achieved by enumeration of S. fibuligera and W. anomalus DNA copies from samples of artificially contaminated bread homogenates detecting up to 10 cfu/mL (0.06 ± 0.01 copies/μL) of W. anomalus by using ddPCR. In conclusion, the developed qPCR and ddPCR assays demonstrate strong performance in the early detection of S. fibuligera and W. anomalus in bread, representing promising tools for applying high-throughput approaches to regularly monitor bread quality.

Microbial communities and volatile profile of Queijo de Azeitão PDO cheese, a traditional Mediterranean thistle-curdled cheese from Portugal

The production of ovine or caprine milk cheeses with thistle rennet is a common practice in the Mediterranean basin. The aim of the present study was to obtain information on bacteria and yeast communities harboured by Queijo de Azeitão PDO cheese through viable counting and, for the first time, via metataxonomic analysis. Moreover, solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique was applied to characterize Queijo de Azeitão PDO cheese volatile compounds. Nine cheese samples were collected from three different artisan producers located in Portugal. The results of physico-chemical analyses showed significant differences between producers, with mean values ranging from 5.40 ± 0.25 (Producer 1) to 6.00 ± 0.22 (Producer 2). As for TTA, Producer 1 showed the highest mean value attesting at 18.04 ± 6.57 mL of 0.1 M NaOH used to reach pH 8.3. Regarding lactic acid concentration, Producer 1 showed the highest mean value attesting at 0.488 ± 0.106 g 100 g^-1, whereas, for acetic acid, no significant differences were evidenced among producers with values comprised between 0.141 ± 0.021 g 100 g^-1 and 0.245 ± 0.016 g 100 g^-1. No significant differences were observed between overall mean values of the three producers for viable counts of presumptive lactococci, thermophilic cocci, presumptive lactobacilli, thermophilic lactobacilli and total mesophilic aerobes with values in the order of 7-8 log cfu g^-1. Moreover, no significant differences were evidenced for viable counts of coagulase-negative cocci, enterococci, Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonadaceae. As for eumycetes, cheeses from Producer 1 showed the lowest mean value (2.78 ± 2.42 log cfu g^-1) in respect with values detected in cheeses from Producer 2 and 3. Concerning microbiota and mycobiota of the analyzed cheeses, the alpha diversity index did not show any significant difference between the three producers in terms of composition and complexity of the microbial population. A simple composition was apparently shared by the three producers, whose cheese manufactures were dominated by the presence of Leuconostoc mesenteroides (37% of the relative frequency in average), Lactococcus lactis (29%), Lacticaseibacillus zeae (4.7%), Lentilactobacillus kefiri (4.4%), Serratia spp. (3.5%), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (2.7%), and Latilactobacillus sakei (2.5%). The mycobiota composition showed the neat dominance of Yarrowia lipolytica (46.7% of the relative frequency in average), followed by Candida ethanolica (13.6%), Kurtzmaniella zeylanoides (9.4%), Geotrichum candidum (8.8%), Galactomyces geotrichum (8.7%), Kluyveromyces lactis (3.5%), and Geotrichum silvicola (2.7%). The volatile profile analysis allowed 24 different compounds to be identified: 7 acids, 7 esters, 4 alcohols, 3 ketones, 2 aromatic hydrocarbons, and 1 aldehyde. The most represented volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were 2-butanone, butanoic acid and hexanoic acid. A positive correlation between Len. kefiri and hexanoic acid and isopentyl isobutyrate was observed (P < 0.05), whereas Y. lipolytica displayed the highest number of positive correlations with 3-methyl-butanal, 2-pentanone and 2-pentanol (P < 0.05). To the authors' knowledge, this is the very first detection of Len. kefiri in a raw ewe's milk cheese coagulated with vegetable rennet.

Innovative Fermented Beverages Made with Red Rice, Barley, and Buckwheat

The increase in food intolerances, allergies, and food-based lifestyle choices has dramatically increased the consumer demand for healthy foods characterized by pleasant sensory traits. In such a context, innovative cereal-based beverages are characterized by high nutritional value, pleasant palatability, and potential healthy properties. In the present study, a pool of 23 lactic acid bacteria strains was preliminary assayed as monocultures for the fermentation of three ad hoc formulated cereal- (red rice and barley) and pseudocereal (buckwheat) -based substrates. Eight strains with the best performance in terms of acidification rate were selected for the formulation of three multiple strain cultures to be further exploited for the manufacture of laboratory-scale prototypes of fermented beverages. The compositional and microbiological features of the three experimental beverages highlighted their high biological value for further exploitation.

Evaluation of the inhibitory activity of essential oils against spoilage yeasts and their potential application in yogurt

Yeasts are the leading cause of spoilage in yogurt. Considering the high demand from consumers to use natural products as an alternative to additives, essential oils (EOs) could be a promising solution to guarantee high microbiological standards. The present study highlighted the in vitro antifungal potential of cinnamon, ginger, lemongrass, mandarin, orange, lemon and lime EOs against spoilage yeasts isolated from yogurts prepared with pasteurized buffalo milk. A total of 74 isolates represented by 14 different species of Candida, Rhodotorula, Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces and Yarrowia genera were subjected to a disc diffusion assay, showing lemongrass EO to have the highest antifungal activity (40.97 ± 9.86 mm), followed by cinnamon (38.46 ± 6.59 mm) and orange (12.00 ± 4.52 mm) EOs. Yarrowia lipolytica was less susceptible to lemongrass EO than Candida sake and Yarrowia deformans isolates. Ginger EO exhibited the lowest efficacy. A minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay showed the ability of lemongrass and cinnamon EOs to inhibit the growth of all selected isolates at concentrations between ≤0.31 and 1.25 μL/mL. Therefore, for the first time, the two best-performing EOs (lemongrass and cinnamon) based on in vitro assays were assessed for their potential roles as preservatives in an in vivo yogurt model prepared at the laboratory scale. Since some limitations, such as the inhibition of lactic acid bacteria by cinnamon EO, consequently leading to fermentation failure as well as species-specific antifungal activity of lemongrass EO, were observed, further studies are needed to explore the possibility of using a slightly higher concentration of lemongrass EO and/or combinations of different EOs and/or their components. Finally, since yogurt spoilage could also be prevented by correct sanitation procedures of the production environment, the sanitizers commonly used in the food industry were tested against all isolates, showing the high efficiency of alcohol-based sanitizers and the ineffectiveness of chlorine-based sanitizers.

Selection of cereal-sourced lactic acid bacteria as candidate starters for the baking industry

The quality of sourdough bread mainly depends on metabolic activities of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The exopolysaccharides (EPS) produced by LAB affect positively the technological and nutritional properties of the bread, while phytases improve the bioavailability of the minerals by reducing its phytate content. In the present study, a pool of 152 cereal-sourced LAB were screened for production of phytases and EPS for potential use as sourdough starter cultures for the baking industry. There was large heterogeneity in the phytase activity observed among the screened isolates, with 95% showing the ability to degrade sodium phytate on plates containing Sourdough Simulation Medium (SSM). The isolates Lactobacillus brevis LD65 and Lactobacillus plantarum PB241 showed the highest enzymatic activity, while the isolates ascribed to Weissella confusa were characterized by low or no phytase activity. Only 18% of the screened LAB produced EPS, which were distinguished as ropy or mucoid phenotypes on SSM supplemented with sucrose. Almost all the EPS producers carried one or more genes (epsD/E and/or epsA) involved in the production of heteropolysaccharides (HePS), whereas the isolates ascribed to Leuconostoc citreum and W. confusa carried genes involved in the production of both HePS and homopolysaccharides (HoPS). Monosaccharide composition analysis of the EPS produced by a selected subset of isolates revealed that all the HePS included glucose, mannose, and galactose, though at different ratios. Furthermore, a few isolates ascribed to L. citreum and W. confusa and carrying the gtf gene produced β-glucans after fermentation in an ad hoc formulated barley flour medium. Based on the overall results collected, a subset of candidate sourdough starter cultures for the baking industry was selected, including Lb. brevis LD66 and L. citreum PB220, which showed high phytase activity and positive EPS production.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) physiological and behavioural responses to insect-based diets: a multidisciplinary approach

Black Soldier Fly (BSF) meal is considered as an alternative, emerging and sustainable ingredient for aquafeed production. However, results on fish physiological responses are still fragmentary and often controversial, while no studies are available on fish behavior in response to these new diets. The present work represents the first comprehensive multidisciplinary study aimed to investigate zebrafish physiological and behavioural responses to BSF-based diets. Five experimental diets characterized by increasing inclusion levels (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% respect to fish meal) of full fat BSF prepupae meal were tested during a 2-months feeding trial. Prepupae were cultured on coffee silverskin growth substrate enriched with a 10% Schizochytrium sp. to improve insects’ fatty acids profile. The responses of zebrafish were assayed through biometric, histological, gas chromatographic, microbiological, spectroscopic, molecular and behavioural analyses. Results evidenced that BSF-based diets affected fish fatty acid composition, while behavioural tests did not show differences among groups. Specifically, a 50% BSF inclusion level diet represented the best compromise between ingredient sustainability and proper fish growth and welfare. Fish fed with higher BSF inclusions (75 and 100%) showed hepatic steatosis, microbiota modification, higher lipid content, fatty acid modification and higher expression of immune response markers.

Discovering microbiota and volatile compounds of surströmming, the traditional Swedish sour herring

In this study, the microbiota of ready-to-eat surströmming from three Swedish producers were studied using a combined approach. The pH values of the samples ranged between 6.67 ± 0.01 and 6.98 ± 0.01, whereas their a_w values were between 0.911 ± 0.001 and 0.940 ± 0.001. The acetic acid concentration was between 0.289 ± 0.009 g/100 g and 0.556 ± 0.036 g/100 g. Very low concentrations of lactic acid were measured. Viable counting revealed the presence of mesophilic aerobes, mesophilic lactobacilli and lactococci as well as halophilic lactobacilli and lactococci, coagulase-negative staphylococci, halophilic aerobes and anaerobes. Negligible counts for Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae and total eumycetes were observed, whereas no sulfite-reducing anaerobes were detected. Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. were absent in all samples. Multiplex real-time PCR revealed the absence of the bont/A, bont/B, bont/E, bont/F, and 4gyrB (CP) genes, which encode botulinic toxins, in all the samples analyzed. Metagenomic sequencing revealed the presence of a core microbiota dominated by Halanaerobium praevalens, Alkalibacterium gilvum, Carnobacterium spp., Tetragenococcus halophilus, Clostridiisalibacter spp. and Porphyromonadaceae. Psychrobacter celer, Ruminococcaceae, Marinilactibacillus psychrotolerans, Streptococcus infantis and Salinivibrio costicola were detected as minor OTUs. GC-MS analysis of volatile components revealed the massive presence of trimethylamine and sulphur compounds. Moreover, 1,2,4-trithiolane, phenols, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, esters and long chain aliphatic hydrocarbons were also detected. The data obtained allowed pro-technological bacteria, which are well-adapted to saline environments, to be discovered for the first time. Further analyses are needed to better clarify the extent of the contribution of either the microbiota or autolytic enzymes of the fish flesh in the aroma definition.

Lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) powder as a novel baking ingredient for manufacturing high-protein, mineral-dense snacks

Increasing interest in consuming foods that are high in protein, vitamin, amino acid, and mineral contents is steering growth in the market for fortified snacks. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the use of lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) powder (LP) (at 10 or 30% substitution for wheat flour) for the protein and mineral fortification of crunchy snacks (rusks). Hence, the technological, microbiological, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of the fortified rusks were evaluated. The protein content was enriched up to 99.3% in rusks with 30% substitution; moreover, a notable increase in the essential amino acids content was observed, with histidine fortification reaching up to 129.1% in rusks with 30% substitution. The incorporation of LP has led to an enrichment of almost all the minerals considered here, and especially Fe, P and Zn, with Zn showing fortification percentages of up to 300% in rusks with 30% substitution for LP. The experimental rusks showed pleasant sensory traits and low a_w values. In view of the potential industrial manufacturing of insect-based rusks, the proposed product can be assigned to level 4 (validation in a laboratory environment) of the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale, and it is thus ready to be tested in a simulated production environment.

Hermetia illucens in diets for zebrafish (Danio rerio): A study of bacterial diversity by using PCR-DGGE and metagenomic sequencing

In the present research, bacterial diversity was studied during a 6-month feeding trial utilizing zebrafish (Danio rerio) fed Hermetia illucens reared on different substrates with an emphasis on fish gut bacterial diversity. A polyphasic approach based on viable counting, PCR-DGGE and metagenomic 16S rRNA gene amplicon target sequencing was applied. Two different H. illucens groups were reared on coffee by-products (C) or a mixture of vegetables (S). Viable counts showed a wide variability based on substrate. PCR-DGGE and Illumina sequencing allowed the major and minor bacterial taxa to be detected. Both samples of larvae and their frass reared on the S substrate showed the highest richness and evenness of bacterial communities, whereas zebrafish (ZHC) fed H. illucens reared on substrate C and zebrafish (ZHS) fed H. illucens reared on substrate S had the lowest bacterial richness and evenness. A stimulating effect of bioactive compounds from coffee by-products on the occurrence of Lactobacillaceae and Leuconostoccaceae in H. illucens reared on substrate C has been hypothesized. Zebrafish gut samples originating from the two feeding trials showed complex microbial patterns in which Actinobacteria and Alteromonadales were always detected, irrespective of the diet used. Enterobacteriaceae in fish guts were more abundant in ZHS than in ZHC, thus suggesting an influence of the bioactive compounds (chlorogenic and caffeic acids) in the substrate on Enterobacteriaceae in fish guts. ZHC showed a higher abundance of Clostridia than did ZHS, which was likely explained by stimulating activity on the bacteria in this class by the bioactive compounds contained in H. illucens reared on substrate C. An influence of the microbiota of H. illucens or insect-derived bioactive compounds on the gut microbiota of zebrafish has been suggested. The presence of bacteria consistently associated with zebrafish guts has been found irrespective of the diet, thus attesting to the likely stability of the core fish microbiota.

Effect of inoculated azotobacteria and Phanerochaete chrysosporium on the composting of olive pomace: Microbial community dynamics and phenols evolution

The effect of inoculated azotobacteria and basidiomycetes white-rot fungi on the population dynamics of bacteria and eumycetes during the co-composting of olive mill pomace and wheat straw was evaluated by Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analysis combined with sequencing of rRNA gene amplicons from selected DGGE bands. The evolution of pH, temperature, phytotoxicity and water-soluble phenol content during co-composting was also monitored. In general, a similar evolution of microbial biodiversity was seen in both the inoculated and uninoculated (control) piles, which was in keeping with a similar evolution of phytotoxicity and water-soluble phenol content. Overall, under the conditions applied, data suggest a marginal influence of the inoculated starters on the physical, chemical and microbiological properties of compost piles, with the resident microbiota playing a major role.

Bacterial and Fungal Communities of Gioddu as Revealed by PCR-DGGE Analysis

Gioddu is the sole variety of fermented milk originating in Italy. Despite the long history of consumption, Gioddu still represents an undisclosed source of microbial diversity. The present study was aimed to get an insight into the bacterial and fungal diversity of Gioddu samples collected from two artisan producers located in Sardinia. To this end 3 batches of Gioddu were collected from each producer and subjected to Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analyses. Gioddu was produced with sheep milk in accordance with the local tradition. Regarding the bacterial population, a low biodiversity emerged. In more detail, the sole species Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus was detected in all the samples, irrespective of the producer or the batch. A more ample microbial diversity was highlighted for the fungal population that included closest relatives to Pichia cactophila, Kluyveromyces marxianus and Galactomyces candidum. Based on the results, the detected bacterial and fungal species generally clustered in accordance with the producer, irrespective of the batch considered. It is noteworthy that, Gioddu revealed several microbiological similarities with kefir beverage, thus suggesting, by analogy, potential health benefits related to its consumption. More research is needed to better clarify the microbiota composition of Gioddu by using more powerful metagenomic techniques.

Investigating Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Marketed Ready-to-Eat Small Crickets (Acheta domesticus)

The present investigation was aimed at evaluating the occurrence of transferable genes conferring resistance to tetracyclines, macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B (MLS_B ), vancomycin, beta-lactams, and aminoglycosides in 32 samples from eight batches of ready-to-eat crickets (Acheta domesticus) commercialized by four European Union producers (two batches per producer). Bacterial DNA extracted directly from the insects was subjected to optimized polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nested-PCR assays for the qualitative detection of 12 selected antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. Microbial enumeration demonstrated high counts of spore-forming bacteria and total mesophilic aerobes. Statistical analyses revealed significant differences between different producers and insect batches. Regarding AR genes, a high prevalence of genes conferring resistance to tetracycline [tet(M), tet(O), tet(K), tet(S)] was observed, together with the presence of genes conferring resistance to erythromycin [erm(B), erm(C)], beta-lactams (blaZ and mecA), and aminoglycosides [aac(6')-Ie aph(2")-Ia]. We performed a principal component analysis based on the AR gene frequencies that differentiated samples of batch 1 from those of batch 2. This analysis provided evidence for a difference between the producer from France and all the other producers among the batch 1 samples. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Overall, an intrabatch variation was seen in the transferable resistances among different producers. This evidence, coupled with the observed differences in the viable counts, suggests a low standardization of the production processes. Hence, a prudent use of antimicrobials during the rearing of insects destined for human consumption is strongly recommended, as well as a need for a full standardization of production technologies.

A Glimpse into the Microbiota of Marketed Ready-to-Eat Crickets (Acheta domesticus)

The present study was aimed to get an insight into the bacterial biota of ready-to-eat small crickets (Acheta domesticus) already marketed in the European Union. 16S rRNA gene of the DNAs extracted from thirty-two samples of ready-to-eat crickets commercialized by 4 European Union producers located in Austria, Belgium, France and the Netherlands (2 batches per producer) was analyzed by Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE). The species belonging to the genera Hespellia, Ruminococcus and Clostridium were detected in samples from Austria, while those from genera Lysobacter, Staphylococcus and Clostridium were detected in samples from Belgium. Moreover, samples from France were characterized by Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, and Hydrogenophilus genera. Finally, the genera Staphylococcus, Hydrogenophilus, Clostridium and Ruminococcus were identified in the samples produced in the Netherlands. When insects are intended for commercialization, rearing, processing and handling could affect the presence of the occurring microbial species. Hence, to assure a safe product, the need for a full standardization of production technologies, including feed supply as well as rearing and processing practices, is recommended.

Erythromycin-resistant lactic acid bacteria in the healthy gut of vegans, ovo-lacto vegetarians and omnivores

Diet can affect the diversity and composition of gut microbiota. Usage of antibiotics in food production and in human or veterinary medicine has resulted in the emergence of commensal antibiotic resistant bacteria in the human gut. The incidence of erythromycin-resistant lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the feces of healthy vegans, ovo-lacto vegetarians and omnivores was analyzed. Overall, 155 LAB were isolated and characterized for their phenotypic and genotypic resistance to erythromycin. The isolates belonged to 11 different species within the Enterococcus and Streptococcus genera. Enterococcus faecium was the dominant species in isolates from all the dietary categories. Only 97 out of 155 isolates were resistant to erythromycin after Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) determination; among them, 19 isolates (7 from vegans, 4 from ovo-lacto vegetarians and 8 from omnivores) carried the erm(B) gene. The copresence of erm(B) and erm(A) genes was only observed in Enterococcus avium from omnivores. Moreover, the transferability of erythromycin resistance genes using multidrug-resistant (MDR) cultures selected from the three groups was assessed, and four out of six isolates were able to transfer the erm(B) gene. Overall, isolates obtained from the omnivore samples showed resistance to a greater number of antibiotics and carried more tested antibiotic resistance genes compared to the isolates from ovo-lacto vegetarians and vegans. In conclusion, our results show that diet does not significantly affect the occurrence of erythromycin-resistant bacteria and that commensal strains may act as a reservoir of antibiotic resistance (AR) genes and as a source of antibiotic resistance spreading.

Protein fortification with mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder: Effect on textural, microbiological, nutritional and sensory features of bread

In the present study, inclusion of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder into bread doughs at 5 and 10% substitution level of soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour was tested to produce protein fortified breads. The addition of mealworm powder (MP) did not negatively affect the technological features of either doughs or breads. All the tested doughs showed the same leavening ability, whereas breads containing 5% MP showed the highest specific volume and the lowest firmness. An enrichment in protein content was observed in experimental breads where the highest values for this parameter were recorded in breads containing 10% MP. Breads fortified with 10% MP also exhibited a significant increase in the content of free amino acids, and especially in the following essential amino acids: tyrosine, methionine, isoleucine, and leucine. By contrast, no differences in nutritional quality of lipids were seen between fortified and control breads. Results of sensory analyses revealed that protein fortification of bread with MP significantly affected bread texture and overall liking, as well as crust colour, depending on the substitution level. Overall, proof of concept was provided for the inclusion of MP into bread doughs started with different leavening agents (sourdough and/or baker’s yeast), at 5 or 10% substitution level of soft wheat flour. Based on the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale, the proposed bread making technology can be situated at level 4 (validation in laboratory environment), thus suggesting that the production of breads with MP might easily be scaled up at industrial level. However, potential spoilage and safety issues that need to be further considered were highlighted.

Brettanomyces Spoilage in Albanian Wines Assessed by Culture-Dependent and Culture-Independent Methods

In the Albanian winemaking industry, there is little awareness of the potential detrimental effect of Brettanomyces in wines. The aim of this study was to detect and quantify Brettanomyces cells in 22 Albanian bottled wines, representing all the viticultural areas of Albania. A combined approach, including culture-dependent (viable plate counting) and culture-independent (qPCR) methods, was applied. Spoilage indicators (ethylphenols and total and volatile acidity), as well as the primary factors known to influence the growth of Brettanomyces in wine (pH, SO₂ , and ethanol concentration), were also investigated. Brettanomyces was detected in only five (one Merlot, four Sheshi i Zi) out of 22 samples analyzed using viable counting, with loads ranging from 1.30 ± 0.03 log CFU/mL to 3.99 ± 0.00 log CFU/mL, whereas it was never detected in the Kallmet samples. When qPCR was applied, Brettanomyces cells were detected and quantified in all of the samples with a generally low load ranging from 0.47 ± 0.13 to 3.99 ± 0.01 log cells/mL. As a general trend, the loads of spoilage by this yeast were low (≤1.92 log cells/mL), with the exception of five samples that were also positive by plate counting. A positive correlation between the growth of this spoilage yeast on Dekkera/Brettanomyces differential media and its detection at high levels by qPCR was observed. A significant positive correlation between Brettanomyces and the concentration of ethylphenols and volatile acidity was also found. In summary, the results of this study demonstrated the low incidence of Brettanomyces spoilage yeasts in Albanian red wines. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The awareness of Brettanomyces spoilage in the Albanian winemaking industry is very low. This study represents the first contribution to understand the extent of this spoilage yeast in Albanian autochthonous cultivars, which tend to have high economic value, to ensure product quality and safety. qPCR is confirmed to be a very sensitive method to rapidly detect Brettanomyces spoilage in wine samples.

Investigation of the Dominant Microbiota in Ready-to-Eat Grasshoppers and Mealworms and Quantification of Carbapenem Resistance Genes by qPCR

In this study, 30 samples of processed edible mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) and 30 samples of grasshoppers (Locusta migratoria migratorioides) were obtained from producers located in Europe (Belgium and the Netherlands) and Asia (Thailand) and subjected to PCR-DGGE analyses. The PCR-DGGE analyses showed that species in the genus Staphylococcus were predominant in the samples of mealworms from Belgium and grasshoppers from the Netherlands; species in the genus Bacillus were detected in the samples of mealworms and grasshoppers from Thailand. Moreover, Weissella cibaria/confusa/spp. was found in grasshoppers from Belgium. Since data concerning the role of novel foods such as edible insects in the dissemination of carbapenem resistance are currently lacking, the quantification of five carbapenemase encoding genes (bla NDM-1, bla VIM, bla GES, bla OXA-48, and bla KPC) by qPCR was also carried out in all the samples under study. The genes coding for GES and KPC were not detected in the analyzed samples. A very low frequency of bla OXA-48 (3%) and bla NDM-1 (10%) genes was detected among mealworms. In contrast, grasshoppers were characterized by a high incidence of the genes for OXA-48 and NDM-1, accounting for 57 and 27% of the overall grasshopper samples, respectively. The bla VIM gene was detected exclusively in two grasshopper samples from Thailand, showing only 7% positivity. The analysis of variance showed that all the effects (producers, species, and producers × species) were statistically significant for bla NDM-1, whereas for bla OXA-48 and bla VIM, no significant effects were detected for the same source of variation. Further studies are necessary to assess the possible role of edible insects as reservoirs for the resistance to carbapenems and to understand the correlation with the insect microbiota. Furthermore, an intensified surveillance plan examining the occurrence of carbapenemase encoding genes in the food chain and in environmental compartments is needed for a proper risk assessment. In such a context, the appropriate use of antimicrobials represents the main preventive action that should always be applied.

Distribution of Transferable Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Laboratory-Reared Edible Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.)

In the present study, the distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in laboratory-reared fresh mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.), their feeding substrates (carrots and wheatmeal), and frass was assessed. Microbial counts on selective media added with antibiotics highlighted the presence of lactic acid bacteria resistant to ampicillin and vancomycin and, more specifically, enterococci resistant to the latter antibiotic. Moreover, staphylococci resistant to gentamicin, erythromycin, tetracycline, and vancomycin were detected. Enterobacteriaceae resistant to ampicillin and gentamicin were also found, together with Pseudomonadaceae resistant to gentamicin. Some of the genes coding for resistance to macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B (MLSB) [erm(A), erm(C)], vancomycin [vanA, vanB], tetracycline [tet(O)], and β-lactams [mecA and blaZ] were absent in all of the samples. For the feeding substrates, organic wheatmeal was positive for tet(S) and tet(K), whereas no AR genes were detected in organic carrots. The genes tet(M), tet(K), and tet(S) were detected in both mealworms and frass, whereas gene aac-aph, coding for resistance to amynoglicosides was exclusively detected in frass. No residues for any of the 64 antibiotics belonging to 10 different drug classes were found in either the organic wheatmeal or carrots. Based on the overall results, the contribution of feed to the occurrence of antibiotic resistance (AR) genes and/or antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in mealworm larvae was hypothesized together with vertical transmission via insect egg smearing.

Profiling white wine seed vinegar bacterial diversity through viable counting, metagenomic sequencing and PCR-DGGE

The production of traditional vinegar is usually carried out using the so-called "seed vinegar" or "mother of vinegar" that is composed of an undefined and complex pool of microorganisms deriving from a previous vinegar production. To date, there have been relatively few studies on the microbiota of seed vinegars. The present study was carried out to discover the bacterial biota of seed vinegar samples used in the homemade production of local vinegars obtained from the acetic fermentation of white wine. The seed vinegar samples were subjected to viable counting and advanced molecular analyses, namely, Illumina sequencing and PCR-DGGE. The adopted polyphasic approach allowed the bacterial diversity of the analyzed samples to be profiled, thus revealing the presence of acetic acid bacteria ascribed to the genera Acetobacter, Gluconacetobacter, Gluconobacter and Komagataeibacter. Moreover, other microbial genera as Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Clostridium were abundantly found in almost all the samples, together with other minority genera. The results of viable counting confirmed the well-acknowledged limitations inherent with acetic acid bacteria recovery on plate growth media. The overall results confirmed that seed vinegars have a complex and heterogeneous biodiversity, thus encouraging their exploitation for the isolation and future technological characterization of cultures to be selected for the manufacture of mixed starter cultures.

Prevalence and risk factors for thermotolerant species of Campylobacter in poultry meat at retail in Europe

The thermotolerant species Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter lari and Campylobacter upsaliensis are the causative agents of the human illness called campylobacteriosis. This infection represents a threat for the health of consumers in Europe. It is well known that poultry meat is an important food vehicle of Campylobacter infection. As emerged from the reported scientific literature published between 2006 and 2016, poultry meat sold at retail level in Europe represents an important source of the pathogen. The contamination level of poultry meat sold at retail can vary depending on pre- and post-harvest factors. Among the pre-harvest measures, strict biosecurity practices must be guaranteed; moreover, among post-harvest control measures scalding, chilling and removal of faecal residues can reduce the contamination level of Campylobacter. An additional issue is represented by increasing proportion of Campylobacter isolates resistant to tetracyclines, ciprofloxacin, and nalidixic acid, thus feeding a serious concern on the effectiveness of antibiotic treatment for human campylobacteriosis in a near future.

Hygiene auditing in mass catering: a 4-year study in a university canteen

OBJECTIVES

The outcomes of hygiene audits carried out two times per year were used to determine the correct execution of the procedures foreseen by the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) plan over 4 years (2013-2016) in a university canteen producing about 1200 meals a day.

STUDY DESIGN

Critical analysis of hygiene audits.

METHODS

Hygiene audits were carried out on the basis of a checklist divided into seven main items and subitems that covered all the production areas of the canteen. For each audit subitem, total percentage of inadequacy was calculated as the total number of negative answers (N) divided by the total number of answers (n = 8) collected in the period 2013-2016.

RESULTS

The results showed a discontinuous trend among years. In more detail, the highest percentage of inadequacy was seen for food maintaining temperatures, thus highlighting management issues mainly related to time taken for food preparation. A relatively high level of inadequacy was also recorded for staff clothing and hygiene.

CONCLUSIONS

The critical analysis of data emerged from the audits was useful to obtain an overview of improvements and emerging criticalities.

The bacterial biota of laboratory-reared edible mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.): From feed to frass

Tenebrio molitor represents one of the most popular species used for the large-scale conversion of plant biomass into protein and is characterized by high nutritional value. In the present laboratory study, the bacterial biota characterizing a pilot production chain of fresh T. molitor larvae was investigated. To this end, different batches of fresh mealworm larvae, their feeding substrate (wheatmeal) and frass were analyzed by viable microbial counts, PCR-DGGE and Illumina sequencing. Moreover, the occurrence of Coxiella burnetii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) was assessed through qualitative real-time PCR assays. Microbial viable counts highlighted low microbial contamination of the wheatmeal, whereas larvae and frass were characterized by high loads of Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, and several species of mesophilic aerobes. Spore-forming bacteria were detected to a lesser extent in all the samples. The combined molecular approach used to profile the microbiota confirmed the low microbial contamination of wheatmeal and allowed the detection of Enterobacter spp., Erwinia spp., Enterococcus spp. and Lactococcus spp. as dominant genera in both larvae and frass. Moreover, Klebsiella spp., Pantoea spp., and Xenorhabdus spp. were found to be in the minority. Entomoplasmatales (including Spiroplasma spp.) constituted a major fraction of the microbiota of one batch of larvae. From the real-time PCR assays, no sample was positive for either C. burnetii or STEC, whereas P. aeruginosa was detected in one sample of frass. Based on the overall results, two sources of microbial contamination were hypothesized, namely feeding with wheatmeal and vertical transmission of microorganisms from mother to offspring. Since mealworms are expected to be eaten as a whole, the overall outcomes collected in this laboratory study discourage the consumption of fresh mealworm larvae. Moreover, microbial loads and the absence of potential pathogens known to be associated with this insect species should be carefully assessed in order to reduce the minimum risk for consumers, by identifying the most opportune processing methods (e.g., boiling, frying, drying, etc.).

Occurrence of transferable antibiotic resistances in commercialized ready-to-eat mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.)

The present study aimed to assess the occurrence of transferable determinants conferring resistance to tetracyclines, macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B, vancomycin, beta-lactams, and aminoglycosides in 40 samples of commercialized edible mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) purchased from European Union (EU) and non-EU producers. A high prevalence of tet(K) was observed in all of the samples assayed, with percentages of PCR-based positivity that ranged from 80% (samples from Thailand) to 100% (samples from the Netherlands, Belgium and France). For macrolides, erm(B) prevailed, being detected in 57.5% of the samples assayed, whereas erm(A) and erm(C) were detected with lower frequencies. Genes for resistance to vancomycin were only detected in samples produced in France and Belgium, with 90% and 10% of the samples being positive for vanA, respectively. Beta-lactamase genes were found with low occurrence, whereas the gene aac-aph, conferring high resistance to aminoglycosides, was found in 40% of the samples produced in the Netherlands and Belgium and 20% of the samples produced in Thailand. The results of Principal Coordinate Analysis and Principal Component Analysis depicted a clean separation of the samples collected from the four producers based on the distribution of the 12 AR determinants considered. Given the growing interest on the use of mealworms as a novel protein source, AR detection frequencies found in the present study suggest further investigation into the use of antibiotics during rearing of this insect species and more extensive studies focused on the factors that can affect the diffusion of transferable ARs in the production chain. Until such studies are completed, prudent use of antibiotics during rearing of edible insects is recommended.