The occurrence and effect of unit operations for dairy products processing on the fate of aflatoxin M1: A review

Anti-mycotoxin feed additives: effects on metabolism, mycotoxin excretion, performance, and total tract digestibility of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different anti-mycotoxin feed additives on the concentration of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets. Secondarily, performance, total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients, and blood parameters were evaluated. Twelve multiparous cows (165 ± 45 d in milk, 557 ± 49 kg body weight, and 32.1 ± 4.57 kg/d milk yield at the start of the experiment) were blocked according to parity, milk yield, and days in milk and used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment with 21-d periods, where the last 7 d were used for sampling and data analysis. Treatments were: 1) Mycotoxin group (MTX), basal diet (BD) without anti-mycotoxin feed additives; 2) Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCA), HSCA added to the BD at 25g/cow/d; 3) Mycotoxin deactivator 15 (MD15), MD (Mycofix® Plus, dsm-firmenich) added to the BD at 15 g/cow/d; and 4) Mycotoxin deactivator 30 (MD30), MD added to the BD at 30 g/cow/d. Cows from all treatments were challenged with a blend of mycotoxins containing 404 μg aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), 5,025 μg deoxynivalenol (DON), 8,046 μg fumonisins (FUM), 195 μg T2 toxin (T2), and 2,034 μg of zearalenone (ZEN) added daily to the BD during the last 7 d of each period. Neither performance (milk yield and composition) nor nutrient digestibility was affected by treatments. All additives reduced aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentration in milk, whereas MD15 and MD30 group had lower excretion of AFM1 in milk than HSCA. DON, FUM, T2, or ZEN were not detected in milk of MD15 and MD30. Concentrations in milk of DON, FUM, T2, and ZEN were similar between MTX and HSCA. Except for AFM1, none of the analyzed mycotoxins were detected in urine of MD30 group. Comparing HSCA to MD treatments, the concentration of AFM1 was greater for HSCA, whereas MD30 was more efficient at reducing AFM1 in urine than MD15. AFM1, DON, FUM, and ZEN were not detected in the plasma of cows fed MD30, and DON was also not detected in MD15 group. Plasma concentration of FUM was lower for MD15, similar plasma FUM concentration was reported for HSCA and MTX. Plasma concentration of ZEN was lower for MD15 than MTX and HSCA. Serum concentrations of haptoglobin and hepatic enzymes were not affected by treatments. Blood concentration of sodium was lower in HSCA compared with MD15 and MD30 groups. In conclusion, the mycotoxin deactivator proved to be effective in reducing the secretion of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma, regardless of the dosage. This reduction was achieved without adverse effects on milk production or total-tract digestibility in cows fed multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets over a short-term period. Greater reductions in mycotoxin secretion were observed with full dose of MD.

Fungal profile, levels of aflatoxin M1, exposure, and the risk characterization of local cheese 'wagashi' consumed in the Ho Municipality, Volta Region, Ghana

Wagashi is a West African type cottage cheese locally prepared from cow milk. Wagashi like other milk products, is prone to microbial contamination, particularly by fungi. Many of these fungal species produce mycotoxins which are of serious public health concern. This work aimed to update the mycoflora profile and determine the concentrations of aflatoxin M1 and its health risk characterization due to the consumption of wagashi. Culturing the wagashi on mycological media (Oxytetracycline Glucose Yeast Extract OGYE, Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol DRBC) caused a de-novo growth of the quiescent spores at 28-30 °C for 5-7 days. The analysis of AFM1 levels in the samples was done using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography connected to a Fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The exposure and risk assessment to the AFMI levels were determined using deterministic models prescribed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The fungal counts ranged between 2.36-4.30 log10 CFU/g. In total, thirteen (13) fungal species from eight (8) genera were isolated from all wagashi samples. They are; Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium verticillioides, Penicillium digitatum, Trichoderma harzianum, Aspergillus terreus, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Rhizopus stolonifer, Aspergillus fumigatus, Yeast sp., Mucor racemosus and Fusarium oligosporum belonging to the genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Rhodotorula, Rhizopus, Yeast, and Mucor. The AFM1 observed in the wagashi samples' analysis was low, ranging from 0.00 (Not Detected) ± 0.00 - 0.06 ± 0.002 µg/Kg. Risk assessments of AFM1 using deterministic models produced outcomes that ranged between 5.92 × 10-3- 0.14 ng/kg bw/day, 1.42 -44.35, 0-0.0323 ng aflatoxins/kg bw/day, and 1.51 × 10-3 - 9.69 × 10-4 cases/100,000 person/yr for estimated daily intake (EDI), margin of exposure (MOE), average potency, and cancer risks, respectively, for the age categories investigated. Fungal counts were interpreted as medium to high. It was also established that the consumption of wagashi may pose adverse health effects on all age categories in the selected zones of the study since all calculated MOE values were less than 100,000.

Cu-nanoparticles@ graphene nanocomposite: A robust and efficient nanocomposite for micro-solid phase extraction of trace aflatoxins in different foodstuffs

Cu-nanoparticles-immobilized graphene (Cu@G) nanocomposite was fabricated in this study by reducing Cu(II) ions in the presence of graphene oxide using a simple chemical reduction step. Cu@G nanocomposite was applied as a sorbent for the SPE of four aflatoxins (AFs). A reusable syringe was filled with the fabricated nanocomposite and used as a sorbent for the micro-solid phase extraction of four AFs (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2). The impact of different analytical factors was fully investigated and optimized. Excellent recoveries, ranging from 92.0 to 108.5 %, were detected when evaluating target AFs in samples of rice, maize, and pistachio. The LOD, LOQ, and linear ranges were attained under optimal circumstances in the ranges of 0.0062 µg kg-1, 0.0192 µg kg-1, and 0.0-20 µg kg-1, respectively. The discovered approach provided the dual benefits of a high enrichment capability of Cu-nanoparticles via AFs complexation and a huge porosity of graphene sheets.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 and Estimate of Dietary Exposure in Cheeses from Organic and Conventional Production Systems

This study aimed to compare AFM1 occurrence in different cheese types produced by organic and conventional systems; and to evaluate the risk of food exposure to AFM1. A total of 176 commercial cheeses of 17 types were analyzed, 84 of organic and 92 of conventional production. Determination of AFM1 was performed by high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), being detected in 30.5% of samples, with 4.8% of organic cheese samples presenting quantifiable AFM1 values between 0.88 and 1.50 μg/kg. On the other hand, 4.3% of conventional cheese samples with values between 0.79 and 6.70 μg/kg. Two conventional cheese samples were above the limit of AFM1 allowed for cheeses by the Brazilian legislation. No statistical difference were found between organic and conventional cheeses regarding the occurrence (p = 0.1780) and concentration of AFM1 (p = 0.1810), according to the Chi-square and the T test, respectively. Estimated daily intake (EDI) and hazard index (HI) of dietary exposure to AFM1 were 0.26 ng/kg/day and 1.28 ng/kg/day, respectively, for conventional cheese samples, and 0.09 ng/kg/day and 0.47 ng/kg/day for organic samples, with no statistical difference for EDI (p = 0.1729) and HI (p = 0.1802) between the two production systems. Comparison between several cheese types from conventional and organic systems indicated that AFM1 is an obstacle to dairy production. Control and prevention of AFM1 contamination, as well as detoxification methods in the final products, are necessary. In the case of organic products, additional research is needed in order to determine which control and detoxification methods should be allowed in this production system.

AFM1 exposure in male balb/c mice and intervention strategies against its immuno-physiological toxicity using clay mineral and lactic acid bacteria alone or in combination

CONTEXT

Aflatoxins are the most harmful mycotoxins that cause human and animal health concerns. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the primary hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 and is linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma and immunotoxicity in humans and animals. Because of the important role of dairy products in human life, especially children, AFM1 is such a major concern to humans because of its frequent occurrence in dairy products at concentrations high enough to cause adverse effects to human and animal health. Reduced its bioavailability becomes a high priority in order to protect human and animal health.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate, in vivo, the ability of lactic acid bacteria (lactobacillus rhamnosus GAF01, LR) and clay mineral (bentonite, BT) mixture to mitigate/reduce AFM1-induced immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and oxidative stress in exposed Balb/c mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The in vivo study was conducted using male Balb/c mice that treated, orally, by AFM1 alone or in combination with LR and/or BT, daily for 10 days as follows: group 1 control received 200 µl of PBS, group 2 treated with LR alone (2.108 CFU/mL), group 3 treated with BT alone (1 g/kg bw), group 4 treated with AFM1 alone (100 μg/kg), group 5 co-treated with LR + AFM1, group 6 co-treated with BT + AFM1, group 7 co-treated with BT + LR + AFM1. Forty-eight h after the end of the treatment, the mice were sacrificed and the blood, spleen, thymus, liver and kidney were collected. The blood was used for biochemical and immunological study. Spleen and thymus samples were used to thymocytes and splenocytes assessments. Liver and kidney samples were the target for evaluation of oxidative stress enzymes status and for histological assays.

RESULTS

The results showed that AFM1 caused toxicities in male Blab/c mice at different levels. Treatment with AFM1 resulted in severe stress of liver and kidney organs indicated by a significant change in the biochemical and immunological parameters, histopathology as well as a disorder in the profile of oxidative stress enzymes levels. Also, it was demonstrated that AFM1 caused toxicities in thymus and spleen organs. The co-treatment with LR and/or BT significantly improved the hepatic and renal tissues, regulated antioxidant enzyme activities, spleen and thymus viability and biochemical and immunological parameters. LR and BT alone showed to be safe during the treatment.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the LR and/or BT was able to reduce the biochemical, histopathological and immunological damages induced by AFM1 and indeed it could be exploited as one of the biological strategies for food and feedstuffs detoxification.

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects of genkwanin against aflatoxin B1-induced testicular toxicity

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most hazardous aflatoxin that causes significant damage to the male reproductive system. Genkwanin (GNK) is a bioactive flavonoid that shows antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Therefore, the current study was planned to evaluate the effects of GNK against AFB1-induced testicular toxicity. Forty-eight male rats were distributed into four groups (n = 12 rats). AFB1 (50 μg/kg) and GNK (20 mg/kg) were administered to the rats for eight weeks. Results of the current study revealed that AFB1 exposure induced adverse effects on the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway and reduced the expressions and activities of antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, it increased the levels of oxidative stress markers. Furthermore, expressions of steroidogenic enzymes were down-regulated by AFB1 intoxication. Besides, AFB1 exposure reduced the levels of gonadotropins and plasma testosterone, which subsequently reduced the epididymal sperm count, motility, and hypo-osmotic swelled (HOS) sperms, while increasing the number of dead sperms and causing morphological anomalies of the head, midpiece, and tail of the sperms. In addition, AFB1 decreased the activities of testicular function marker enzymes and the levels of inflammatory markers. Moreover, it severely affected the apoptotic profile by up-regulating the expressions of Bax and Casp3, while down-regulating the Bcl2 expression. Besides, AFB1 significantly damaged the histoarchitecture of testicular tissues. However, GNK treatment reversed all the AFB1-induced damages in the rats. Taken together, the current study reports the potential use of GNK as a therapeutic agent to prevent AFB1-induced testicular toxicity due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties.

Prevalence and concentration of aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in cheese: a global systematic review and meta-analysis and probabilistic risk assessment

Exposure to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins can endanger human health, especially infants and children. In this study, an attempt was made to retrieved studies related to the concentration of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Search was performed in international databases such as Embase, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for the period 1 January 2010 to 20 February 2023. Then, the pooled concentration in the defined subgroups was calculated using meta-analysis and the health risk assessment was conducted by margin of exposure (MOEs). Thirty-one scientific papers with 34 data reports (Sample size=2,277) were included in our study. The lowest and highest prevalence of AFM1 in cheese was related to El Salvador (12.18 %) and Serbia (100.00 %). The pooled prevalence of AFM1 was 49.85 %, 95 %CI (37.93-61.78 %). The lowest and highest prevalence of OTA in cheese was related to Türkiye (6.67 %) and Italy (44.21 %). The pooled prevalence of OTA was 35.64 %, 95 %CI (17.16-56.44 %). Health risk of AFM1 revealed that except Pakistan and Iran, MOE in the other countries was lower than 10,000 for adults and also except Pakistan, MOE for other countries was lower than 10,000 for children. Health risk of OTA revealed that except Greece, MOE in the other countries was higher than 10,000 for adults and also except Germany and Greece, MOE for other countries was higher than 10,000 for children. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct control plans to reduce the concentration of mycotoxins in cheese, especially AFM1.

Detoxification of aflatoxin M1 in different milk types using probiotics

The aim of this study, research the potential use of probiotics in reducing the toxic effect of Aflatoxin M1 in cow milk, goat milk, sheep milk, and Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Milk and Phosphate-buffered saline were contaminated with Aflatoxin M1 at a concentration of 100 ppt. Then, various study groups were formed by adding Lactobacillus acidophilus DSMZ 20079, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and Bifidobacterium bifidum DSMZ 20456 probiotic bacteria at a density of 108 CFU/ml. Then, working groups were stored for 1 day and Aflatoxin M1 levels were analyzed by an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay kit. The binding level of Aflatoxin M1 by probiotic bacteria varies between 2.32-12.52% in Phosphate-buffered saline, 9.08-40.14% in cow milk, 15.01-38.01% in goat milk, and 32.49-42.90% in sheep milk. The highest binding level of Aflatoxin M1 was detected in sheep milk and the lowest in Phosphate-buffered saline. The binding ability of Aflatoxin M1 is ranked from highest to lowest in sheep milk, cow milk, and goat milk. The data obtained from this study is important because it is the first study to show that if sheep and goat milk is enriched with probiotics, it can reduce AFM1 exposure.

The Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Cow Milk Collected from Tunisia during a Hot Lactating Season

Milk is a staple food that is essential for human nutrition because of its high nutrient content and health benefits. However, it is susceptible to being contaminated by Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which is a toxic metabolite of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) presented in cow feeds. This research investigated AFM1 in Tunisian raw cow milk samples. A total of 122 samples were collected at random from two different regions in 2022 (Beja and Mahdia). AFM1 was extracted from milk using the QuEChERS method, and contamination amounts were determined using liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with fluorescence detection (FD). Good recoveries were shown with intra-day and inter-day precisions of 97 and 103%, respectively, and detection and quantification levels of 0.003 and 0.01 µg/L, respectively. AFM1 was found in 97.54% of the samples, with amounts varying from values below the LOQ to 197.37 µg/L. Lower AFM1 was observed in Mahdia (mean: 39.37 µg/L), respectively. In positive samples, all AFM1 concentrations exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (0.050 µg/L) for AFM1 in milk. In Tunisia, a maximum permitted level for AFM1 in milk and milk products has not been established. The risk assessment of AFM1 was also determined. Briefly, the estimated intake amount of AFM1 by Tunisian adults through raw cow milk consumption was 0.032 µg/kg body weight/day. The Margin of Exposure (MOE) values obtained were lower than 10,000. According to the findings, controls as well as the establishment of regulations for AFM1 in milk are required in Tunisia.

Aflatoxin detection technologies: recent advances and future prospects

Aflatoxins have posed serious threat to food safety and human health. Therefore, it is important to detect aflatoxins in samples rapidly and accurately. In this review, various technologies to detect aflatoxins in food are discussed, including conventional ones such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay (GICA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), fluorescence spectroscopy (FS), as well as emerging ones (e.g., biosensors, molecular imprinting technology, surface plasmon resonance). Critical challenges of these technologies include high cost, complex processing procedures and long processing time, low stability, low repeatability, low accuracy, poor portability, and so on. Critical discussion is provided on the trade-off relationship between detection speed and detection accuracy, as well as the application scenario and sustainability of different technologies. Especially, the prospect of combining different technologies is discussed. Future research is necessary to develop more convenient, more accurate, faster, and cost-effective technologies to detect aflatoxins.

Assessment of aflatoxin M1 enrichment factor in cheese produced with naturally contaminated milk

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a well-known carcinogenic compound that may contaminate milk and dairy products. Thus, with the regulation 1881/2006, the European Union established a concentration limit for AFM1 in milk and insisted on the importance of defining enrichment factors (EFs) for cheese. In 2019, the Italian Ministry of Health proposed four different EFs based on cheese's moisture content on a fat-free basis (MMFB) for bovine dairy products. This study aimed to define the EFs of cheese with different MFFB. The milk used for cheesemaking was naturally contaminated with different AFM1 concentrations. Results showed that all the EF average values from this study were lower than those of the Italian Ministry of Health. Hence, the current EFs might need to be reconsidered for a better categorization of AFM1 risk in cheese.

Occurrence of aflatoxins in water and decontamination strategies: A review

Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by some Aspergillus species and are the most prevalent mycotoxins. Although aflatoxins are commonly synthesized during fungal colonization in preharvest maize, cereals, and nuts, they can be transported by rainfall to surface water and are a common toxin found in wastewater from some food industries. Here, the occurrence of aflatoxins in bodies of water is reviewed for the first time, along with the decontamination methods. Aflatoxins have been detected in surface, wastewater and drinking water, including tap and bottled water. The specific sources of water contamination remain unclear, which is an important gap that must be addressed in future research. Two main kinds of decontamination methods have been reported, including degradation and adsorption. The best degradation rates were observed using gamma and UV irradiations, oxidoreductases and ozone, while the best adsorption abilities were observed with minerals, polyvinyl alcohol, durian peel and activated carbon. Synthetic polymers could be used as membranes in pipes to remove aflatoxins in water flows. Although most decontamination methods were screened using AFB₁, the other commonly found aflatoxins were not used in the screenings. Overall, the occurrence of aflatoxins in water could be a significant emerging public health concern largely ignored by local and international legislation. Numerous advances have been reported for the decontamination of aflatoxins in water; however, there is still a long way to go to put them into practice.

Prevalence and Concentration of Mycotoxins in Animal Feed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This study seeks a comprehensive meta-analysis of mycotoxin contaminants in animal feed consumed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The obtained articles were reviewed, and 49 articles that investigated the contamination of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 toxin, fumonisins (FUM), and ochratoxin A (OTA), in feed samples or components of animal feed in the MENA region were selected. The titles of the final articles included in the study were meta-analyzed. Necessary information was extracted and categorized from the articles, and a meta-analysis was performed using Stata software. The highest contamination was in dry bread (80%), and Algeria was the most contaminated country (87% of animal feed), with the most mycotoxins contaminating AFs (47%) and FUM (47%). The highest concentration of mycotoxins in animal feed is related to FUM (1240.01 μg/kg). Climate change, economic situation, agricultural and processing methods, the nature of the animal feed, and improper use of food waste in animal feed are among the most critical factors that are effective in the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed in MENA. Control of influential factors in the occurrence of contaminations and rapid screening with accurate identification methods to prevent the occurrence and spread of mycotoxin contamination of animal feed seem important.

Cloning and expression of the catalase gene (KatA) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the degradation of AFB1 by recombinant catalase

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ) poses a severe threat to human and animal health. Countries worldwide have invested considerable manpower and material resources in degrading aflatoxins. Enzyme degradation is the most efficient and environmentally friendly approach for modifying aflatoxin into less toxic molecules. Catalase is commonly used as a detoxification agent to decrease the contamination levels of aflatoxins in animal feeds. This study aimed to obtain recombinant catalase via gene engineering and determined whether a recombinant catalase could degrade AFB₁ .

RESULTS

The catalase gene (KatA) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the expression conditions of this recombinant catalase were optimized. The recombinant catalase was isolated and purified using Ni-chelating affinity chromatography, and its ability to degrade AFB₁ was evaluated. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the expressed of catalase was approximately 55.6 kDa, which was subsequently purified using Ni-chelating affinity chromatography. The degradation rate of AFB₁ by recombinant catalase in the presence of syringaldehyde was 38.79%.

CONCLUSION

The degradation of AFB₁ by a recombinant catalase has been reported for the first time. This study provides a new paradigm for the use of recombinant catalases in degrading AFB₁ in food and feed. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of the Adsorption Efficacy of Bentonite on Aflatoxin M1 Levels in Contaminated Milk

The existence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in raw milk results in economic losses and public health risks. This research aims to examine the capability of bentonite to adsorb and/or eliminate AFM₁ from various raw milk types. In addition, the effects of numerous bentonites (HAFR 1, 2, 3 and 4) on the nutritional characteristics of the milk were studied. Our findings revealed that goat milk had the highest value of AFM₁ (490.30 ng/L) in comparison to other milks. AFM₁ adsorption was influenced by applying bentonite (0.5 and 1 g) in a concentration-dependent manner for different time intervals (from 0 to 12 h). The percentage of AFM₁ reached the maximum adsorption level after 12 h to 100, 98.5 and 98% for bentonites HAFR 3, 1 and 2, respectively. HAFR 3 (1 g bentonite) presented higher adsorption efficiency than other bentonites used in the phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and milk. Residual levels of AFM₁ reached their lowest values of 0 and 1.5 ng/L while using HAFR 3 in PBS and milk, respectively. With regard to the influence of bentonite on the nutritional characteristics of milk, there was an increase in fat, protein and solid non-fat ratio while using HAFR 3 and 4, yet decreased lactose in comparison with the control. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy both identified bentonites as superior AFM₁ binders. The results demonstrated that bentonite, particularly HAFR 3, was the most effective adsorbent and could thus be a promising candidate for the decontamination of AFM₁ in milk.

Aflatoxins: Source, Detection, Clinical Features and Prevention

The most potent mycotoxin, aflatoxins are the secondary metabolite produced by fungi, especially Aspergillus, and have been found to be ubiquitous, contaminating cereals, crops, and even milk and causing major health and economic issues in some countries due to poor storage, substandard management, and lack of awareness. Different aspects of the toxin are reviewed here, including its structural biochemistry, occurrence, factors conducive to its contamination and intoxication and related clinical features, as well as suggested preventive and control strategies and detection methods.

Interaction study of aflatoxin M1 with milk proteins using ATR-FTIR

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a metabolite of carcinogenic aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and appears in milk of dairy animals on ingestion of feed contaminated with AFB1. It has been reported to have affinity towards milk proteins, the exact mechanism of which is still unknown. In the present study, ATR-FTIR coupled with chemometrics is utilized to understand AFM1 interaction with milk proteins. The second order derivative spectra of the spectral window 1700-1600 cm-1 confirms the affinity of AFM1 towards milk proteins. The results of principal component analysis suggested that spectral window of 1700-1600 cm-1 is informative and provides an indication of the conformational changes brought by AFM1 in the secondary structure of milk proteins.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05587-x.

A Novel Preanalytical Strategy Enabling Application of a Colorimetric Nanoaptasensor for On-Site Detection of AFB1 in Cattle Feed

Aflatoxin contamination of cattle feed is responsible for serious adverse effects on animal and human health. A number of approaches have been reported to determine aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in a variety of feed samples using aptasensors. However, rapid analysis of AFB1 in these matrices remains to be addressed in light of the complexity of the preanalytical process. Herein we describe an optimization on the preanalytical stage to minimize the sample processing steps required to perform semi-quantitative colorimetric detection of AFB1 in cattle feed using a gold nanoparticle-based aptasensor (nano-aptasensor). The optical behavior of the nano-aptasensor was characterized in different organics solvents, with acetonitrile showing the least interference on the activity of the nan-aptasensor. This solvent was selected as the extractant agent for AFB1-containing feed, allowing for the first time, direct colorimetric detection from the crude extract (detection limit of 5 µg/kg). Overall, these results lend support to the application of this technology for the on-site detection of AFB1 in the dairy sector.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Dairy Products Traded in São Paulo, Brazil: An Update

The aim of this study was to conduct an up-to-date investigation on the occurrence levels of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in samples of raw milk (n = 40), pasteurized milk (n = 44), ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk (n = 27), Minas cheese (n = 57), and yogurt (n = 44) traded in São Paulo state, Brazil. AFM1 was extracted from fluid milks and dairy products using immunoaffinity columns and determined by high performance liquid chromatography. AFM1 was detected at the mean level of 0.080 ± 0.071 µg/L or kg in 72 samples (34.0%) evaluated in the study (n = 212). Detectable levels of AFM1 were observed in five samples of raw milk (12.5%), 16 samples of pasteurized milk (36.4%), 13 samples of UHT milk (48.1%), 27 samples of cheese (47.4%), and 11 samples of yogurt (25.0%), although none of them had concentrations above the maximum permitted levels (MPL) for AFM1 adopted in Brazil. However, 11.7% (n = 13) of samples of raw, pasteurized, and UHT milks would have AFM1 concentrations above the MPL of 0.05 μg/L adopted in the EU. The maximum level was detected in one cheese sample containing 0.695 µg/kg. Although none of the samples exceeded the Brazilian MPL, the high frequencies of AFM1 in Brazilian milk products warrant concern about their contribution to the human exposure to aflatoxins. Because aflatoxins are among the most potent carcinogens known, the results of this trial stress the need for stringent measures in the milk production system to avoid AFM1 in milk and derived products.

Mycotoxins in soybean-based foods fermented with filamentous fungi: Occurrence and preventive strategies

Fermented soybean products are widely consumed worldwide, and their popularity is increasing. Filamentous fungi, such as Actinomucor, Aspergillus, Monascus, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Zymomonas, play critical roles in the fermentation processes of many soybean foods. However, besides producing essential enzymes for food fermentation, filamentous fungi can release undesirable or even toxic metabolites into the food. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain filamentous fungi and may be detected during the food production process. Without effective prevention strategies, mycotoxin contamination in fermented soybean products poses a risk to human health. This review focused on the changes in mycotoxigenic fungal abundance and mycotoxin contamination at different stages during the production of soybean-based fermented foods, as well as effective strategies for preventing mycotoxin contamination in such products. Data from relevant studies demonstrated a tendency of change in the genera of mycotoxigenic fungi and types of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, rhizoxins, T-2 toxin, and zearalenone) present in the raw materials and the middle and final products. The applicability of traditional chemical and physical mitigation strategies and novel eco-friendly biocontrol approaches to prevent mycotoxin contamination in soybean-based fermented foods were discussed. The present review highlights the risks of mycotoxin contamination during the production of fermented soybean products and recommends promising strategies for eliminating mycotoxin contamination risk in soybean-based fermented foods.

Aflatoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Based Products: Occurrence, Toxicity, Impact on Human Health, and Their Detoxification and Management Strategies

Cereals and cereal-based products are primary sources of nutrition across the world. However, contamination of these foods with aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species, has raised serious concerns. AF generation in innate substrates is influenced by several parameters, including the substrate type, fungus species, moisture content, minerals, humidity, temperature, and physical injury to the kernels. Consumption of AF-contaminated cereals and cereal-based products can lead to both acute and chronic health issues related to physical and mental maturity, reproduction, and the nervous system. Therefore, the precise detection methods, detoxification, and management strategies of AFs in cereal and cereal-based products are crucial for food safety as well as consumer health. Hence, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, chemical characteristics, biosynthetic processes, health hazards, and detection techniques of AFs, along with a focus on detoxification and management strategies that could be implemented for food safety and security.

Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review

North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.

Effect of using mycotoxin-detoxifying agents in dairy cattle feed on natural whey starter biodiversity

Natural whey cultures (NWC) are undefined multiple-strain bacterial starter communities that can be affected by even small changes along the entire dairy chain. We applied a multidisciplinary approach to investigate how the addition of 2 mycotoxin-detoxifying agents [sodium smectite and lignocellulose-based material (B1); leonardite and betaine (B2)] to cow diets modified the microbiota of the NWC in manufacture of a Grana-like cheese. Microbiological and flow cytometry analyses showed that the content and viability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and the total whey microbiota were not affected by the detoxifying agents, and Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus helveticus, and Limosilactobacillus fermentum were the dominant taxa. Random amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR fingerprinting and metagenomic analysis highlighted differences in the bacterial community of the NWC and in the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes that increased when B1 and B2 were included in the diet. Two of 6 St. thermophilus biotypes were detected only in control samples; conversely, none of the Lb. helveticus biotypes found in control samples were isolated from B1 and B2. In vitro tests showed that the 2 binders did not significantly affect the development of St. thermophilus, but they stimulated the growth of Lb. helveticus strains recovered only from B1 and B2 NWC. The addition of binders in cow feed can affect the LAB biotypes present in NWC.

Occurrence and exposure assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk products in India

Milk containing Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) poses a serious health risk to consumers. Present study was undertaken to determine levels of AFM₁ in 146 milk and value added dairy products sold in retail markets of Chhattisgarh, India using HPLC coupled with fluorescence detector. A total of 52 samples (35.6%) were found to contain AFM₁ with overall concentrations ranging from nd - 2.608 µg/L. The contamination levels were higher in non-fermented milk products than fermented milk products samples, although this difference was statistically non-significant (p > 0.05). AFM₁ concentrations above maximum permissible limits established by the European Commission were found in 94.2% of positive samples. Health risk assessments ascertained that the estimated daily intakes for AFM₁ is higher than the established tolerable daily intakes for both adults and children (Hazard Index > 1), there by implying a potentially high risk to consumer's health. Current investigation provides valuable information regarding contamination of raw as well as value added milk products sold in Indian markets. Therefore, to protect consumer's health and promote dairy trade; there is an urgent need to increase farmer's knowledge on good storage practices of feed and fodder. Further, stringent enforcement of food safety regulations is imperative to safeguard and promote human health.

Aflatoxin M1 Contamination of Ghanaian Traditional Soft Cottage Cheese (Wagashie) and Health Risks Associated with Its Consumption

Wagashie is an unripened traditional cheese consumed in West Africa including Ghana. Being a milk product, it is unfortunately susceptible to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination, which is indeed a grave health challenge globally. This study evaluated AFM1 levels and health risk characterization associated with wagashie (n = 182) sampled from different locations in Ghana. AFM1 was measured with high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). Risk assessments were also conducted using models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Out of the 182 samples analyzed for AFM1, 93/182 (51.1%) tested positive between the range 0.00 ± 0.00–3.60 ± 0.99 µg/kg. Risk assessments of AFM1 using deterministic models produced outcomes that ranged between 0.11 and 3.60 ng/kg bw/day, 0.09–1.54, 0–0.0323 ng aflatoxins/kg bw/day, and 3.5 x 10−3 −0.06 cases/100,000 person/yr for estimated daily intake (EDI), margin of exposure (MOE), average potency, and cancer risks, respectively, for the age categories investigated. It was established that the consumption of wagashie posed adverse health effects on all age categories in the selected regions of the study because all calculated MOE values were less than 100,000. Therefore, contamination of wagashie with AFM1 should be a serious public health concern and as such considered a high precedence for Ghana’s risk management actions.

Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk, Pasteurized Milk and Cottage Cheese Collected along Value Chain Actors from Three Regions of Ethiopia

Milk is a highly nutritious and perfect natural food for humans. However, when lactating animals feed on Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-containing feed, the hydroxyl metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contaminates the milk and dairy products. The objective of the current study was to assess the level of AFM1 in raw milk, normally pasteurized milk and Ethiopian cottage cheese collected from value chain actors (producers, collectors, processors and retailers). Cross-sectional study and simple random techniques were used to collect primary samples. A total of 160 composite samples was collected; raw milk (n = 64), pasteurized milk (n = 64) and cheese (n = 32) was analyzed. Quantitative analysis of AFM1 was conducted using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results indicate that AFM1 was detected in all milk products. Results along value chains show that the concentration of AFM1 in raw milk from collectors was significantly higher than from producers, and in pasteurized milk from processors and retailers (p < 0.05). However, no significant (p > 0.05) difference was observed in cottage cheese value-chain actors in all regions. Comparison of AFM1 mean values among all dairy products shows that raw milk had a significantly higher concentration of AFM1 followed by pasteurized milk and cottage cheese. However, there was no significant difference between raw and pasteurized milk (p > 0.05). The mean AFM1 contamination in milk products ranged from 0.137 to 0.319 µg/L (mean value 0.285 µg/L). The contamination percentages of AFM1 in raw milk (62.50%), pasteurized milk (67.20%) and cottage cheese (25%) were above the regulatory limit set by the European Union (EU) (0.05 µg/L). According to USA/Ethiopian Standard (US/ES) (0.50 µg/L), 21.87%, 25% and 1% exceeded the regulatory limit for the above products, respectively. The overall prevalence (56.88%) was above the EU regulatory limit and 19.38% over US/ES regulations. Therefore, to provide accurate information about the health risk to consumers, there is a need to conduct risk assessment studies in consumers of milk and dairy products at different age groups.

The prevalence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in conventional and industrial dairy products (yogurt, cheese, kashk and dough) of Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Aflatoxin is a toxic metabolite produced mainly by Aspergillus spp. which may occur in dairy products because of biotransformation. In this work, a systematic and meta-analysis approach has been considered on the topic of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) content in dairy Iranian products. Based on the literature review, AFM1 was the most common aflatoxin contamination in dairy product. Additionally, studies revealed that higher levels of AFM1 were produced during cold seasons includes winter and autumn. Although, immunochemical technique (ELISA) was the frequent and rapid test, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and chromatographic methods (HPLC) were commonly used as confirmative techniques to determine the level of aflatoxin. Meta-analyzing of the results showed that AFM1 can be found in the dairy products with overall prevalence percentage of 63.53 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 56.28-70.78) and 54.05 (95% CI: 43.09-65.02) based on the sample type and production process, respectively. The higher prevalence percentage of AFM1 of 73.96 (95% CI: 60.27-87.66) and 69.91 (95% CI: 62.00-78.83) was found in yoghurt and industrial production type of samples, respectively. In general, 17.8% of cheese, 14% of yogurt, 12.63% of kashk, and 2.1% of doogh contained AFM1 in concentrations exceeding the permitted level of standards. Totally, results showed that 88.89% of dairy products were contaminated by AFM1 exceeding from standard limits.

Fate of aflatoxins M1 and B1 within the period of production and storage of Tarkhineh: A traditional Persian fermented food

The objective of the study was to assess the amount of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) during fermentation, drying, and storage of Tarkhineh-a traditional Persian fermented food-over four months. Tarkhineh samples were produced based on a traditional method. Various concentrations of AFB₁ (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 µg/kg) and AFM₁, stood at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 µg/kg, were added to Iranian yogurt drink, called doogh, samples. Tarkhineh samples were evaluated for AFB₁ and AFM₁ on days 0, 2, 6, and 8 and also after drying and four months of storage. In cases of repeatability, recovery, and reproducibility, the high-performance liquid chromatography through fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD) method was successfully done to demonstrate aflatoxins (AFs) in Tarkhineh samples. The fermentation process had a considerable consequence on the reduction in AFM₁ and AFB₁ as compared to the control group, evidenced by 65.10%-81.20% and 55.80%-74.10%, respectively, after eight days of fermentation (p < .05). The highest reduction in AFB₁ existed in samples containing 2.5 µg/kg toxin, followed by 5, 7.5, and 10 µg/kg, respectively. A similar trend was found for AFM₁, as the highest concentration was found in samples containing 0.25 µg/kg toxin, followed by 0.5, 0.75, and 1 µg/kg, respectively.

Quantitative risk assessment for aflatoxin M1 associated with the consumption of milk and traditional dairy products in Argentina

A quantitative risk assessment for exposure to aflatoxin M1 (AFM₁) related to the consumption of milk and traditional dairy products of Argentina was developed. The frequency and concentration of AFM₁ was modelled at various stages through the milk processes, considering Argentinean practices. Concentration of AFM₁ (0.046 μg/l, 95%CI = 0.002-0.264 μg/l) in raw milk was estimated. The AFM₁ concentration in milk was sensitive to the carry-over rate (r = 0.80), and milk yield in the first third of lactation during the spring-summer season (r = 0.11). AFB₁ levels in silage (r = 0.22), pasture during the spring-summer season (r = 0.11), concentrate (r = 0.08), and cotton seed (r = 0.05) were the factors most correlated with AFM₁ concentrations. Although the results showed that MoE values for the mean and median exposure to AFM₁ were < 10,000 in infants, toddlers, and other children, the additional cancer risk due to exposure to AFM₁ in infants, toddlers, and other children was 0.007, 0.005, and 0.0009 additional cases per year per 100,000 individuals, respectively, which indicates no health concern. In addition, the percentages of the population exceeding HI values (HI > 1) for exposure to AFM₁ for infants, toddlers, and other children were 45%, 49.1%, and 40.6%, respectively. Under this scenario, the most susceptible population at risk was children < 10 years old; therefore, it is necessary to establish measures to prevent contamination of AFM₁ in milk and milk products.

Adsorbents Reduce Aflatoxin M1 Residue in Milk of Healthy Dairy Cow Exposed to Moderate Level Aflatoxin B1 in Diet and Its Exposure Risk for Humans

This study investigated the effect of moderate risk level (8 µg/kg) AFB₁ in diet supplemented with or without adsorbents on lactation performance, serum parameters, milk AFM₁ content of healthy lactating cows and the AFM₁ residue exposure risk in different human age groups. Forty late healthy lactating Holstein cows (270 ± 22 d in milk; daily milk yield 21 ± 3.1 kg/d) were randomly assigned to four treatments: control diet without AFB₁ and adsorbents (CON), CON with 8 μg/kg AFB₁ (dry matter basis, AF), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 1 (AD1), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 2 (AD2). The experiment lasted for 19 days, including an AFB₁-challenge phase (day 1 to 14) and an AFB₁-withdraw phase (day 15 to 19). Results showed that both AFB₁ and adsorbents treatments had no significant effects on the DMI, milk yield, 3.5% FCM yield, milk components and serum parameters. Compared with the AF, AD1 and AD2 had significantly lower milk AFM₁ concentrations (93 ng/L vs. 46 ng/L vs. 51 ng/L) and transfer rates of dietary AFB₁ into milk AFM₁ (1.16% vs. 0.57% vs. 0.63%) (p < 0.05). Children aged 2–4 years old had the highest exposure risk to AFM₁ in milk in AF, with an EDI of 1.02 ng/kg bw/day and a HI of 5.11 (HI > 1 indicates a potential risk for liver cancer). Both AD1 and AD2 had obviously reductions in EDI and HI for all population groups, whereas, the EDI (≥0.25 ng/kg bw/day) and HI (≥1.23) of children aged 2–11 years old were still higher than the suggested tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.20 ng/kg bw/day and 1.00 (HI). In conclusion, moderate risk level AFB₁ in the diet of healthy lactating cows could cause a public health hazard and adding adsorbents in the dairy diet is an effective measure to remit AFM₁ residue in milk and its exposure risk for humans.

Analysis of aflatoxin M1 contamination in milk and cheese produced in Mexico: a review

Due to the carcinogenic character of aflatoxins when present in foods, these compounds are considered a risk to human health. This systematic review aimed at compiling the available research data on detection and quantification of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and common types of cheese produced in Mexico in the past two decades. A limited number of studies were found that matched the purpose of our review. Only ten research works focused on the evaluation of AFM1 content in milk while three studies analysed the occurrence of this mycotoxin in oaxaca and panela cheeses. HPLC-FD and ELISA were the methods of choice utilised to detect AFM1. Concentrations higher than 0.5 μg AFM1/kg, a maximum limit set in current food regulation in Mexico, were found in major dairy brands consumed in Mexico. Analysis of raw milk produced during the rainy season in the states of Jalisco (2007) and Chiapas (2013) showed mycotoxin levels within the regulation limits while milk samples obtained during the dry season in the Mexico City and the State of Mexico (2008) exceeded that threshold. For cheeses, 33% of the artisanal produced oaxaca type samples from Veracruz (2016) and 55% of those acquired in Mexico City (2019) were found above the limit set for milk. In contrast, the panela cheese samples obtained in Baja California and Guanajuato (2009) complied with the AFM1 regulation. Additionally, the presence of AFB1 and its hydroxylated metabolites other than AFM1 were determined in the major milk brands at concentrations that could be of high risk for human health. Similar results were reported for both artisan and industrially produced oaxaca cheese. Finally, mycotoxins enter human food chain through animals fed with contaminated fodder. Our systematic review demonstrated the urgent need to amend the existing food regulation in Mexico to include mycotoxins as potent contaminants in cheese.

Mycotoxin Co-Occurrence in Milks and Exposure Estimation: A Pilot Study in São Paulo, Brazil

The aim of this study was to conduct a first evaluation on the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) M1, B1, B2, G1 and G2; fumonisins (F) B1 and B2; deoxynivalenol (DON); de-epoxydeoxinivalenol (DOM-1); ochratoxin A (OTA); zearalenone (ZEN); α-zearalenol (α-ZEL); and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) in 68 samples of fluid milk consumed in Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil. The probable daily intake (PDI) was also calculated for each mycotoxin evaluated. Mycotoxins were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Sixty-two (91.2%) samples contained at least one type of mycotoxin. AFM1 was found in 6 samples (8.8%), and none of them presented concentrations above the Brazilian maximum permitted level in milk (500 ng/L). Low levels of non-regulated mycotoxins DOM-1, OTA, FB1, FB2, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were found in 6 (8.8%), 17 (25%), 10 (14.7%), 3 (4.4%), 39 (57.4%) and 28 (41.2%) samples of milk, respectively. None of the PDIs calculated for the quantified mycotoxins were above recommended values, indicating low exposure through milk consumption in the area studied. However, 21 samples (30.9%) contained 2-4 types of mycotoxins, which warrants concern about the potential adverse effects of mycotoxin mixtures in milks.

A Study of the Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk Supply Chain over a Seven-Year Period (2014-2020): Human Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization in the Population of Central Italy

Aflatoxin food contamination represents a rising global issue that will continue to increase due to climate change. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is of high concern for the whole dairy industry. In light of AFM1′s harmful potential, a human health exposure assessment and risk characterization were performed for all age populations of central Italy with regard to milk and cheese consumption by means of the margin of exposure (MOE). In total, 16,934 cow and ewe’s milk samples were collected from 2014 to 2020 and analyzed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) screening method, confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The average concentration of AFM1 in cow’s milk ranged from 0.009 to 0.015 µg/kg, while in ewe’s milk, the average concentration ranged from 0.009 to 0.013 µg/kg. The average amount of AFM1 exposure ranged from 0.00005 to 0.00195 g/kg bw/day, with the main contributor represented by drinking milk, followed by the consumption of soft cheeses. A high level of public health concern related to the youngest consumers has arisen from risk characterizations highlighting the need for constant monitoring of AFM1′s occurrence in milk by inspection authorities, alongside regular updates with regard to exposure assessments.