Vegetable oil as fat replacer inhibits formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in reduced fat pork patties

Effects of basic amino acids on heterocyclic amines and quality characteristics of fried beef patties at low NaCl level

The impact of basic amino acids (Lysine, Arginine, Histidine) on the formation of total heterocyclic amines (HAs) was investigated in fried beef patties at 1% NaCl level. Different levels of basic amino acids (0.1%, 0.5%, 1%) significantly inhibited the formation of the total and individual HAs at 1% NaCl, and the inhibitory effect was more effective than 3% NaCl (6.19 ng/g, 26.93% inhibition) (P < 0.05). Lys at 1% reduced total HAs the most (2.46 ng/g, 70.88% inhibition), followed by 1% His (2.79 ng/g, 67.03% inhibition) and 1% Arg (3.43 ng/g, 59.51% inhibition). Compared to the 3% NaCl, the quality characteristics (moisture content, frying loss, texture profile, and color) of the fried beef patties were significantly improved when basic amino acids were added at 1% NaCl (P < 0.05). The lipid oxidation of fried beef patties was significantly inhibited by 1% Arg and 1% Lys at 1% NaCl level (P < 0.05). The results indicated that basic amino acids could inhibit the formation of total HAs while maintaining the quality of meat products at low NaCl condition.

Modified Chinese quince oligomeric proanthocyanidin protects deep-frying oil quality by inhibiting oxidation

Chinese quince (Chaenomeles sinensis) fruit is an underutilized resource, rich in proanthocyanidins with antioxidant ability but poor lipid solubility. In this study, a novel modified oligomeric proanthocyanidin (MOPA) was prepared, which exhibited favorable lipid solubility (354.52 mg/100 g). It showed higher radical scavenging abilities than commercial antioxidant-BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), both at 0.4-0.5 mg/mL. The addition of MOPA (0.04 %wt.) significantly increased the oxidative stability index of the soybean oil from 5.52 to 8.03 h, which was slightly lower than that of BHA (8.35 h). Analysis of the physicochemical properties and composition of oil during deep-frying showed that MOPA demonstrated significant antioxidant effects and effectively restricted the oil oxidation. This inhibition also delays the formation of heterocyclic amines (HAs) in fried food, thereby reducing the migration of HAs from food to deep-frying oil. Therefore, MOPA is a promising novel liposoluble antioxidant for protecting the quality of deep-frying oil.

Effect of Chinese quince proanthocyanidins on the inhibition of heterocyclic amines and quality of fried chicken meatballs and tofu

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) have potential carcinogenic and mutagenic activity and are generated in cooked protein-rich foods. Adding proanthocyanidins (PAs) to these foods before frying is an effective way to reduce HCAs. In this study, polymeric PAs (PPA) and ultrasound-assisted acid-catalyzed/catechin nucleophilic depolymerized PAs (UAPA, a type of oligomeric PA) were prepared from Chinese quince fruits (CQF). Different levels of PPA and UAPA (0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.15%) were added to chicken meatballs and tofu; then these foods were fried, and the content of HCAs in them after frying was investigated. The results showed that PPA and, particularly, UAPA significantly inhibited the formation of HCAs in fried meatballs and tofu, and this inhibition was dose-dependent. The inhibition of HCAs by both PPA and UAPA was stronger in the chicken meatballs than in fried tofu. The level of total HCAs was significantly reduced by 57.84% (from 11.93 to 5.03 ng/g) after treatment of meatballs with 0.15% UAPA, with inhibition rates of 78.94%, 50.37%, and 17.81% for norharman, harman, and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), respectively. Of note, there was a negative correlation between water, lipid, protein, creatine, and glucose content and HCA content in the crust, interior, and whole (crust-plus-interior) measurements of all fried samples. Interestingly, PPA and UAPA were found more effective in inhibiting HCAs in the exterior crust than in the interior of the fried chicken meatballs. These results provide evidence that further studies on the reduction of the formation of harmful HCAs in fried foods by adding CQF PAs could be valuable to the fried food industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Chinese quince proanthocyanidins treatments significantly inhibited the generation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in chicken meatballs and tofu when deep-fried. These results suggest that Chinese quince proanthocyanidins can be used as natural food additive for reducing HCAs in fried foods, laying the foundation for using Chinese quince fruit proanthocyanidins for HCA inhibition in the food industry.

Paprika extract as a natural antioxidant in cold-stored pork patties: Effect on oxidative stability and heterocyclic amines inhibition

In this study, we compared the degree of oxidation of pork patties refrigerated at 7 °C for 0, 7, and 14 days and the content of 10 types of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) after heating. The pork patties used in the study were added with 0.7 mg sodium nitrite (SN) and 5 mg paprika extract (PE), respectively. IQx (2-Amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), MeIQx (2-Amino-3, 8-dimethyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), PhIP (2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenyl-imidazo[4,5-b]-pyridine), and Harman (1-Methyl-9H-pyrido[4,3-b]-indole) contents increased with increasing storage periods of treatment. On the other hand, HCAs production in SN and PE treatments were suppressed over the storage period, with IQ (2-Amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoline) and Aαc (2-Amino-9H-dipyrido[2,3-b]-indole) being suppressed significantly (P < 0.05). The control's pH, cooking loss, lipid, and protein oxidation were higher than SN and PE-treated patties at 14 d (P < 0.05). These differences affect the formation of HCAs. PLS-DA showed a strong correlation between protein oxidation and IQx, Harman, 4,8-DiMelQx (2-Amino-3, 4, 8-trimethyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), PhIP, and MeIQx, while lipid oxidation correlated with IQx, Harman, and PhIP. Both SN and PE showed HCAs inhibitory activity and exhibited oxidative stability during storage.

Effect of edible oil type on the formation of protein-bound Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine in roasted pork patties

Protein-bound Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), an advanced glycation end product within meat products, poses a potential health risk to humans. The objective of this study was to explore the impact of various edible oils on the formation of protein-bound CML in roasted pork patties. Eleven commercially edible oils including lard oil, corn oil, palm oil, olive oil, flaxseed oil, blended oil, camellia oil, walnut oil, soybean oil, peanut oil, and colza oil were added to pork tenderloin mince, respectively, at a proportion of 4 % to prepare raw pork patties. The protein-bound CML contents in the pork patties were determined by HPLC-MS/MS before and after roasting at 200 °C for 20 min. The results indicated that walnut oil, flaxseed oil, colza oil, olive oil, lard oil, corn oil, blended oil, and palm oil significantly reduced the accumulation of protein-bound CML in pork patties, of which the inhibition rate was in the 24.43 %-37.96 % range. Moreover, the addition of edible oil contributed to a marginal reduction in the loss of lysine. Meanwhile, glyoxal contents in pork patties were reduced by 16.72 %-43.21 % after roasting. Other than blend oil, all the other edible oils restrained protein oxidation in pork patties to varying degrees (between 20.16 % and 61.26 %). In addition, camellia oil, walnut oil, and flaxseed oil increased TBARS values of pork patties by 2.2-8.6 times when compared to the CON group. After analyzing the fatty acid compositions of eleven edible oils, five main fatty acids (palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid) were selected to establish Myofibrillar protein-Glucose-fatty acids systems to simulate the roasting process. The results showed that palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid obviously mitigated the formation of myofibrillar protein-bound CML, exhibiting suppression rates ranging from 10.38 % to 40.32 %. In conclusion, the addition of specific edible oil may curb protein-bound CML production in roasted pork patty by restraining protein or lipid oxidation, reducing lysine loss, and suppressing glyoxal production, which may be attributed to the fatty acid compositions of edible oils. This finding provides valuable guidance for the selection of healthy roasting oils in the thermal processing of meat products.

Effects of Different Frying Oils Composed of Various Fatty Acids on the Formation of Multiple Hazards in Fried Pork Balls

Oil oxidation products can react with food substrates to produce harmful substances, and oil saturation is closely related to oil oxidation in the process of frying. Therefore, the influence of the composition of fatty acids in oil on the formation of harmful substances in fried pork balls was explored. The five frying oils with the lowest unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) content, ranked in ascending order, were palm oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, corn oil, and colza oil (64.94%, 79.94%, 82.65%, 83.07%, and 92.26%, respectively). The overall levels of four harmful substances (acrylamide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, and trans fatty acids) found in the oil used to fry pork balls followed a descending order: canola oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, and palm oil (33.66 μg/kg, 27.17 μg/kg, 23.45 μg/kg, 18.67 μg/kg, and 13.19 μg/kg, respectively). This order was generally consistent with the trend in the content of UFAs. Therefore, the formation of harmful substances is closely related to the saturation of oil. Compared with other frying oils, soybean oil as a household oil produces relatively low amounts of harmful substances and has less negative impact on the quality (oil content, moisture content, and higher protein digestibility) of fried products.

Heterocyclic aromatic amines in meat: Formation mechanisms, toxicological implications, occurrence, risk evaluation, and analytical methods

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are detrimental substances can develop during the high-temperature cooking of protein-rich foods, such as meat. They are potent mutagens and carcinogens linked to an increased risk of various cancers. HAAs have complex structures with nitrogen-containing aromatic rings and are formed through chemical reactions between amino acids, creatin(in)e, and sugars during cooking. The formation of HAAs is influenced by various factors, such as food type, cooking temperature, time, cooking method, and technique. HAAs exert their toxicity through mechanisms like DNA adduct formation, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The research on HAAs is important for public health and food safety, leading to risk assessment and management strategies. It has also led to innovative approaches for reducing HAAs formation during cooking and minimizing related health risks. Understanding HAAs' chemistry and formation is crucial for developing effective ways to prevent their occurrence and protect human health. The current review presents an overview about HAAs, their formation pathways, and the factors influencing their formation. Additionally, it reviews their adverse health effects, occurrence, and the analytical methods used for measuring them.

Effects of Oil and Processing Conditions on Formation of Heterocyclic Amines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Pork Fiber

Toxic compounds such as heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be produced during food processing, especially meat products. This study aims to monitor the formation of HAs and PAHs in fried pork fiber, a common meat product in Taiwan, at different processing conditions. A total of six experimental groups, including raw pork tenderloin, dried pork filaments, sesame oil-stir-fried pork at 160 °C for 15 min, sesame oil-stir-fried pork at 200 °C for 6 min, lard-stir-fried pork at 160 °C for 15 min, and lard-stir-fried pork at 200 °C for 6 min, were prepared and analyzed for formation of HAs via UPLC-MS/MS and PAHs via GC-MS/MS in triplicate. Frying in sesame oil or lard showed a greater content of total HAs in fried pork fiber processed at 160 °C for 15 min than at 200 °C for 6 min. However, in the same heating conditions, pork fiber fried in sesame oil produced a higher level of total HAs than that fried in lard. Of the various HAs in fried pork fiber, both Harman and Norharman were generated in the highest amount. The precursors, including reducing sugar, amino acid, and creatine/creatinine, played a vital role in HAs formation in fried pork fiber. For total PAHs, the highest level was shown for pork fiber fried in lard at 200 °C/6 min, followed by frying in sesame oil at 200 °C/6 min and 160 °C/15 min, and in lard at 160 °C/15 min. Like HAs, at the same heating condition, a greater content of total PAHs was produced in pork fiber fried in sesame oil than in lard. Notably, the highly toxic benzo[a]pyrene was undetected in fried pork fiber. The PAH precursor benzaldehyde was shown to generate at a much higher level than 2-cyclohexene-1-one and trans,trans-2,4-decadienal in fried pork fiber, and it should play a more important role in PAH formation. Principal component analysis (PCA) also revealed that the formation mechanism of HAs and PAHs in fried pork fiber was different.

Preparation of Bovine Hides Gelatin by Ultra-High Pressure Technique and the Effect of Its Replacement Fat on the Quality and In Vitro Digestion of Beef Patties

Beef skin gelatin can be used as a good substitute for animal fat in meat patties. In this paper, the effect of different parameters on low-fat beef patties with cowhide gelatin substituted for beef fat (0, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) prepared by ultra-high pressure assisted technology was investigated by texture, cooking loss, and sensory scores. The beef patties were also stored at 0-4 °C for 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 d. The differences and changing rules of fatty acid and amino acid compositions and contents of beef patties with different fat contents were investigated by simulating gastrointestinal digestion in vitro. The optimal process formulation of low-fat beef patties with cowhide gelatin was determined by experimental optimization as follows: ultra-high pressure 360 MPa, ultra-high of pressure time of 21 min, NaCl addition of 1.5%, compound phosphate addition of 0.3%. The addition of cowhide gelatin significantly increased monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acid content, and protein digestibility of beef patties (p < 0.05). Moreover, with the extension of storage time, the content of saturated fatty acids was significantly higher (p < 0.05), the content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids was significantly lower (p < 0.05), the content of amino acids was significantly lower (p < 0.05), and protein digestibility was significantly lower (p < 0.05) under all substitution ratios. Overall, beef patties with 75% and 100% substitution ratios had better digestibility characteristics. The results of this study provide a theoretical basis for gelatin's potential as a fat substitute for beef patties and for improving the quality of low-fat meat products.

Vegetable extracts: Effective inhibitors of heterocyclic aromatic amines and advanced glycation end products in roasted Mackerel

The formation of hazardous substances, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and advanced glycation end products (AGEs), in roasted mackerel with different cooking temperatures (180, 210, 240 °C) and vegetable extracts (celery, carrot and yam extracts) in a preheated oven was investigated. The results indicated that the introduction of vegetable extracts had inhibitory effects on HAAs and AGEs during thermal processing, especially celery extracts. Benefiting from the addition of vegetable extracts, the roasted mackerel keep high quality against lipid/protein oxidation, avoids nutrition loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and flavor is promoted. We also examined the variation of key precursors, including creatine, creatinine, reducing sugars, amino acids and attempted to explain the molecular pathway of inhibition of the formation of the hazardous substances by vegetable extracts. The results provide theoretical support to develop technologies for inhibiting hazardous substances formation during fish processing, which is important for food manufacturers and consumers for producing healthier meat products.

Formation, migration, derivation, and generation mechanism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during frying

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic and lipophilic, which can be found in frying system. This review summarized the formation, migration and derivation for PAHs, hypothesized the possible mechanism for PAHs generation during frying and presented the research prospects. Some factors like high oil consumption, high temperature, long time and oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids promoted the formation of PAHs and the presence of antioxidants inhibited the PAHs formation. The effect of proteins and carbohydrates in foods on the formation of PAHs is inconclusive. The formed PAHs were migrated into food and air. Moreover, some PAHs transformed into more toxic PAHs-derivatives during frying. The generation of PAHs may be related to low-barrier free radical-mediated reaction and the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be precursors of PAHs during frying. In future, the isotope tracer technology and on-line detection may be applied to discover intermediates and provide clues for studying PAHs generation mechanisms.

Plant-Based Dairy Alternatives-A Future Direction to the Milky Way

One significant food group that is part of our daily diet is the dairy group, and both research and industry are actively involved to meet the increasing requirement for plant-based dairy alternatives (PBDAs). The production tendency of PBDAs is growing with a predictable rate of over 18.5% in 2023 from 7.4% at the moment. A multitude of sources can be used for development such as cereals, pseudocereals, legumes, nuts, and seeds to obtain food products such as vegetal milk, cheese, cream, yogurt, butter, and different sweets, such as ice cream, which have nearly similar nutritional profiles to those of animal-origin products. Increased interest in PBDAs is manifested in groups with special dietary needs (e.g., lactose intolerant individuals, pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly) or with pathologies such as metabolic syndromes, dermatological diseases, and arthritis. In spite of the vast range of production perspectives, certain industrial challenges arise during development, such as processing and preservation technologies. This paper aims at providing an overview of the currently available PBDAs based on recent studies selected from the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus. We found 148 publications regarding PBDAs in correlation with their nutritional and technological aspects, together with the implications in terms of health. Therefore, this review focuses on the relationship between plant-based alternatives for dairy products and the human diet, from the raw material to the final products, including the industrial processes and health-related concerns.

Effect of vegetable oil hydrogel emulsion as a fat substitute on the physicochemical properties, fatty acid profile, and color stability of modified atmospheric packaged buffalo burgers

Buffalo burgers were prepared with 50% or 100% buffalo backfat substitution using walnut, and peanut oil emulsion gels (EGs) blended with chia flour. Burgers were stored at 2 °C in modified atmosphere packaging for 12 days. The fat replacement decreased total fat by 26% and increased ash by 34%. Hardness and chewiness decreased with increasing the fat replacement; however, it did not affect springiness and cohesiveness values. Burger reformulations led to an increase in cooking yield (10%). Walnut oil EGs increased PUFA level up to 458%. Both oils enhanced PUFA/SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratios and atherogenic and thrombogenic indices. Concerning color attribute, about 66% reduction was observed in redness values during the storage period of 12 days. Moreover, the sensory scores for all attributes, i.e., appearance, odor, flavor, and juiciness, were in the acceptable range of five or above in the reformulated burgers. In conclusion, 50% fat substitution using walnut and peanut oil EGs improved the nutritional profile of buffalo burgers without compromising the technological and sensory characteristics.

Effect of Baking Temperature and Time on Advanced Glycation End Products and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Beef

ABSTRACT

Beef is an important red meat that contains essential nutrients for human growth and development. Baking is a popular beef cooking method. Temperature and time play key roles in the final quality of beef. How temperature and time affect the changes of nutrients and the formation of harmful products in beef is not clear. The purpose of this study was to measure the content of water, fat, protein, ash, nitrite, total volatile base nitrogen, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their precursors, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at different temperatures (150, 190, 230, 270, and 310°C) for 20 min and at 190°C for different times (10, 20, and 30 min), so as to discuss the effect of different temperatures and times on beef nutrients and harmful products. The results showed that the moisture content of beef decreased with increased baking temperature and time, resulting in the increase of the relative content of fat, protein, and ash. The content of total volatile base nitrogen increased continuously. Compared with the control group, the content of glyoxal in beef decreased, whereas the content of methylglyoxal, pentosidine, and fluorescent AGEs increased, indicating the continuous accumulation of AGEs in beef. A total of 13 PAHs were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concentrations of 13 PAHs in beef increased with increases in baking temperature and time. The concentrations of BkP and BaP, which are the most carcinogenic to humans, were 0.36 and 0.35 μg/kg in raw meat, respectively; these were increased by high temperature and long baking times. After beef was baked at 270 and 310°C for 20 min, the concentration of BkP increased to 9.49 and 5.66 μg/kg, respectively, and the concentration of BaP increased to 5.45 and 4.42 μg/kg, respectively. After baking at 190°C for 30 and 40 min, the concentration of BkP increased to 4.81 and 24.20 μg/kg, respectively, and the concentration of BaP increased to 3.85 and 17.79 μg/kg, respectively.

HIGHLIGHTS

Perilla frutescens seed meal as a fat substitute mitigates heterocyclic amine formation and protein oxidation and improves fatty acid profile of pan-fried chicken patties

Fatty acid profile, protein and fatty acid oxidation and flavor profile of pan-fried chicken patties formulated with various levels of Perilla frutescens seed meal (PSM) as a fat substitute was investigated in this study. The formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in the chicken patties was also evaluated. The results showed that pan-fried patties formulated with 20% PSM (PSM4) had the highest ranges of oleic acid and ΣMUFA content and ΣPUFA/ΣSFA ratio. Low to medium levels of PSM (PSM1, 2, and 3 corresponding to 5, 10, and 15% of PSM, respectively) reduced the content of lipid peroxidation products, while high level (PSM4) increased it. All levels of PSM were also found to be effective against elevation in carbonyl content relative to the control. Moreover, the PSM effectively inhibited HCA formation in the chicken patties. The total contents of HCAs in PSM1, PSM2, PSM3, and PSM4 samples were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that of the control sample, corresponding to 31.9, 46.1, 57.2, and 44.8% inhibition, respectively. PSM4, however, had no or very little effect on the formation of PhIP, 4,8-DiMeIQx and AαC, despite a strong inhibitory effect on MeIQx formation. These findings not only support the promising potential of PSM for application as a fat substitute to improve the fatty acid profile and reduce the content of harmful by-products in heat-processed chicken, but also highlight that appropriate addition level is a critical factor in optimizing the functional capacity of this natural agent.

Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz): A Natural Antioxidant to Improve Quality of Meat Patties

Aristotelia chilensis is an endemic shrub of the South Pacific with high concentrations of bioactive compounds in its leaves and, therefore, it is highly valued. The effect of Aristotelia chilensis leaf powders (maqui leaf powders; Ma) on the quality and shelf life of beef patties during 7 days of storage was investigated. Five beef patties treatments were prepared: (1) Control without antioxidants (CT); (2) Beef patties with synthetic antioxidants plus color (250 mg/kg) (PL); (3) Beef patties with 500 ppm of maqui leaf powders (Ma500); (4) Beef patties with 1000 ppm of maqui leaf powders (Ma1000); and (5) Beef patties with 2000 ppm of maqui leaf powders (Ma2000). The quality of the beef patties was evaluated on day 0 and day 7 of storage by physicochemical analysis (moisture, ash and lipid content, color, pH, fatty acid profile and lipid oxidation) and organoleptic analysis. The addition of maqui leaf powders did not produce changes in the proximate composition of the beef patties. The pH for all treatments showed a range of 5.50−5.75 and significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed at the beginning and end of storage. The pH of the control beef patties increased during storage while the pH of the beef patties with synthetic and natural antioxidants decreased. Redness (a*) was the color indicator that was mostly affected by the inclusion of 1000 ppm and 2000 ppm powders. High lipid oxidation was observed in control samples on the seventh day of storage due to the high percentage of fat used in the formulation and the absence of any antioxidant. However, the Ma500, Ma1000, and Ma2000 treatments presented the lowest lipid oxidation rates (42.05%, 40.29%, and 43.14%, respectively) in comparison with the synthetic antioxidant (52.23%). This lipid inhibition is related to the strong antioxidant activity (29.75 µg/mL IC50 DPPH) of the maqui leaf powder due to its high content of total polyphenols (148.76 mg GAE/g), mainly characterized by having great amounts of hydroxybenzoic acids (82.5 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (7.1 mg QE/g), and hydroxycinnamic acids (3.7 mg CAE/g). Although minimal variations were observed in some individual fatty acids, and despite the trend to decrease MUFA and increase SFA with the maqui leaf powder addition, these differences were minimal and, according to the nutritional indices results, without any influence on the nutritional quality of the beef patties. The organoleptic analysis showed that the addition of maqui leaf powders did not affect the general acceptability of the new formulations. This study reports for the first time the substitution of synthetic antioxidants with Aristotelia chilensis leaves extract. Based on the results, it can be concluded that this ingredient can be used as an alternative for the production of raw meat products with clean labels.

The Effect of Partial Substitution of Beef Tallow on Selected Physicochemical Properties, Fatty Acid Profile and PAH Content of Grilled Beef Burgers

The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of partial replacement of beef tallow with sunflower, canola, linseed, olive oil and milk fat on physical properties, oxidation stability, fatty acid profile and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) content of beef burgers. Studies have shown a strong relationship between the fatty acid profile and the PAH content (especially of the heavy PAHs). The partial replacement of beef tallow with oils and milk fat (MF) contributed to a change in the fatty acid profile and a reduction in the hardness of the burgers. The highest PAH content was found in samples with canola oil (CO), which had the highest levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and in the control group (CON) without fat substitution, which had the highest levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and trans conformations. Substitution of animal fat with vegetable oils contributed to a change in the color of the burgers’ surface, as there was a statistically significant increase in the L* color component and a decrease in the a* component. The burgers with canola oil (CO) and linseed oil (LO) were the most susceptible to oxidation, whereas the burgers with reduced fat content (CON_LOW FAT) were the most stable in terms of oxidation, where the malondialdehyde (MDA) content was 32.8% lower compared with the control group (CON). The studies confirm that partial replacement of beef tallow with vegetable oils and milk fat and reduction in fat content in burgers to be grilled can be an effective way to change their fatty acid profile and reduce the cyclization reaction of organic compounds leading to the formation of PAH. Correlation coefficient analysis showed that there is a relationship between fatty acid profile and the presence of selected PAHs in grilled beef burgers. The results of this study indicate that replacing beef tallow with vegetable oils is a promising approach in designing meat products with controlled PAH content.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using different extraction methods and HPLC-FLD detection in smoked and grilled meat products

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products are formed, among others, as a by-product of thermal processing such as smoking or grilling. Due their highly toxic effects on the human organism, it is necessary to monitor PAH content in food products and develop appropriate analytical methods for their determination. The aim of this study was to compare PAH content in meat products subjected to smoking or grilling process. PAH content was determined using three different analytical methods, verified for efficiency using the external standard method. The results showed that smoking led to higher PAH contamination compared to grilling. Extraction by saponification and SPE method was the most effective for the detection and quantification of PAHs. The samples analyzed using this method showed the highest PAH content and recoveries. The results of the study showed a significant effect of the extraction method on the recovery levels and PAH content in meat.

The effect of in-package cold plasma on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled beef steak with different oils or fats

In-package cold plasma (ICP) pretreatment is an emerging non-thermal food processing methods. In the current study, ICP on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled beef steaks with different oils and fats was evaluated, the influence of prolonged storage periods (1 d, 2 d) of raw meat after ICP pretreatment on the PAH inhibitory effect was investigated. The results showed that sunflower seed oil had an inhibitory effect on PAH formation; the groups with ICP pretreatment showed a significant decrease in PAH content (p < 0.05) according to the UHPLC results, inhibitory rates were dependent on the original contents in each group without ICP pretreatment, ranging from 35% to 96%. The optimal condition was grilling immediately after ICP pretreatment, and the results indicated that the nonpolar radical scavenging activity (RSA) of ungrilled meat was negatively correlated with PAH8 contents according the DPPH assay, while ICP pretreatment enhanced the RSA_oil of raw meat.

Cocoa Coproducts-Based and Walnut Oil Gelled Emulsion as Animal Fat Replacer and Healthy Bioactive Source in Beef Burgers

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects on the chemical, physic-chemical, technological, and sensory properties of beef burger when replacing different quantities of fat (50 and 100%) with different levels of oil-in-water-gelled emulsion elaborated with walnut oil and cocoa bean shell flour (GECW). The chemical composition of the samples was affected by the fat replacement. The reformulation increased the moisture and ash content while the fat and protein content decreased with respect to the control sample. The linolenic and linolenic acid content of the beef burgers increased as the GECW replacement was augmented. The polyunsaturated fatty/saturated fatty acid ratio increased in both raw and cooked burgers, whereas the atherogenicity index and thrombogenicity index were reduced in both raw and cooked burgers with respect to the control sample. The use of GECW as a fat replacer was found to be effective in improving the cooking loss. Similarly, there were positive effects on reductions in the diameter and the increases in the thickness of the beef burgers. Regarding lipid stability, in both the raw and cooked burgers, the reformulation increased the 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARs) values with respect to the control sample. In both types of reformulated burgers, three bound polyphenols (mainly catechin and epicatechin) and two free polyphenols were identified, as were methylxanthines theobromine and caffeine. The sensory properties for the control and partial pork backfat replacement treatments were similar, while the sample with the total pork backfat replacement treatment showed the lowest scores. The blend of cocoa bean shell flour and walnut oil could be used as new ingredients for the development of beef burgers with a healthier nutritional profile without demeriting their sensory or cooking characteristics and physic-chemical properties.

Main mechanisms for carcinogenic heterocyclic amine reduction in cooked meat by natural materials

Carcinogens such as heterocyclic amine (HCA), produced during meat cooking, pose a risk of digestive and reproductive cancers in humans. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms for HCA formation in meat and the control of HCA formation are not known. In this review, we provide an overview of the main cause of HCA formation in cooked meat, fundamental data on natural materials to inhibit HCA carcinogenicity, and methods to analyze HCA in cooked meat. Related past studies has shown that natural substances contain various components that act as antioxidants, and these antioxidants can prevent HCA and mutagenic factors. Free radicals and DNA adducts produced by HCA metabolism have carcinogenic properties. Antioxidants have been found to inhibit oxidative stress caused by free radicals and DNA adducts. Therefore, we can be hypothesized that various natural materials can inhibit HCA carcinogens and mutagens.

Future trends of processed meat products concerning perceived healthiness: A review

The 21st-century consumer is highly demanding when it comes to the health benefits of food and food products. In the pursuit of attracting these consumers and easing the rise in demand for high-quality meat products, the processed meat sector is intensely focused on developing reformulated, low-fat, healthy meat products. Meat and meat products are considered the primary sources of saturated fatty acids in the human diet. Therefore, these reformulation strategies aim to improve the fatty acid profile and reduce total fat and cholesterol, which can be achieved by replacing animal fat with plant-based oils; it could be performed as direct inclusion of these oils or pre-emulsified oils. However, emulsions offer a viable option for incorporating vegetable oils while avoiding the multiple issues of direct inclusion of these oils in meat products. Processed meat products are popular worldwide and showing a gradually increasing trend of consumption. Various types of plant-based oils have been studied as fat replacers in meat products. This review will focus on possible methods to reduce the saturated fatty acid content in meat products.

Modelling the Effects of Roselle Extract, Potato Peel Flour, and Beef Fat on the Sensory Properties and Heterocyclic Amines Formation of Beef Patties Studied by Using Response Surface Methodology

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are compounds with carcinogenic potential formed during high-temperature processing of meat and meat products. Vegetables or their extracts with high antioxidant capacity can be incorporated into the meat matrix to reduce their formation, but it is necessary to find the optimal levels to achieve maximum inhibition without affecting the sensory properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of roselle extract (RE, 0-1%), potato peel flour (PP, 0-2%), and beef fat (BF, 0-15%) on the sensory properties and formation of HCAs in beef patties using response surface methodology. IQx, IQ, MeIQx, MeIQ, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP were identified and quantified by HPLC. Regression models were developed to predict sensory properties and HCAs' formation. All models were significant (p < 0.05) and showed a R2 > 0.70. Roselle extract and beef fat had a negative linear effect on the formation of the total HCAs, while PP had a positive linear effect. The optimal formula that minimizes the formation of HCAs included 0.63% RE, 0.99% PP, and 11.96% BF. RE and PP are foods that can be used as ingredients in low-fat beef patties to minimize the formation of HCAs without affecting their sensory properties.

Effects of ten vegetable oils on heterocyclic amine profiles in roasted beef patties using UPLC-MS/MS combined with principal component analysis

Soybean oil (SBO), rapeseed oil (RSO), peanut oil (PO), corn oil (CO), olive oil (OO), sunflower oil (SFO), rice germ oil (RGO), walnut oil (WO), torreya seed oil (TSO), and grapeseed oil (GSO) were used to investigate the formation of heterocyclic amines (HAs) in roasted beef patties. Seven HAs, including 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4-dimethyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinolone (MeIQ), 2-amino-3-methyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (IQx), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (harman), and 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (norharman) were detected in control patties and patties with vegetable oils. GSO, SFO, and WO greatly reduced the content of PhIP and MeIQ. 1.25%TSO and 3.75% RGO showed higher inhibition effects on the more strongly mutagenic compounds (PhIP, MeIQ, IQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, MeIQx). SBO, PO, and RSO promoted imidazoquin(ox)aline (MeIQ, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and IQx) and β-carboline (harman and norharman); 1.25% SBO had the most significant promoting effect on total HA. This could be useful for the reduction of HA by selecting oils during cooking.

Coupling of Water Activity and Colour Development of Roast Duck Skin under Forced Convection Drying

Roasting meat involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, colour and flavour development and the formation of hazardous chemicals. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of temperature and time on colour, 3,4-benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) in roast duck skin during forced hot-air drying at less than 130 °C. The results showed that surface and internal temperatures of duck carcasses increased with drying time, rising to 111.9 and 83.7 °C, respectively. The curves of water activity (aw) and red index (a*) intersected at 50 min because of the decrease in aw and the increase in a* on the skin with drying time. The drastic decline in aw promoted colour development on the duck surface. BaP and carcinogenic HCAs were not detected in hot-air drying ducks, convincing us that the mild cooking method under forced hot-air drying could effectively reduce or eliminate the risk of certain human cancers.

β-carbolines norharman and harman in vegetable oils in China

The beta-carbolines norharman and harman, two heterocyclic aromatic amines with potential mutagenicity, have been determined in vegetable oils. Identification and analysis were carried out by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). In 88 samples analysed, the concentrations of norharman and harman were < LOD to 336.22 ng/g and < LOD to 505.14 ng/g, respectively. A high variability of norharman and harman levels among different oil types was observed. Sesame-, flaxseed-, sunflower seed-, peanut- and rapeseed oils were most contaminated. Both β-carbolines were most likely formed during roasting of the oilseeds. Oil consumption, especially of oils obtained after roasting of the seeds, was a major dietary source of the β-carbolines norharman and harman. Under existing oil risk factors, this investigation contributes to the unprecedented and essential information for dietary assessments associated with oil consumption.

Assessment of emulsion gels formulated with chestnut (Castanea sativa M.) flour and chia (Salvia hispanica L) oil as partial fat replacers in pork burger formulation

BACKGROUND

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect on chemical composition, physico-chemical properties, cooking characteristics, fatty acid profile, lipid oxidation, and sensory acceptability of an oil-in-water emulsion gel that was prepared with chestnut flour, chia oil, gellan gum, and water (CEG), used as a fat replacer in pork burgers. The original mixture was used as a control sample (CS). The other samples were formulated partially replacing pork backfat with 5% of CEG (CEG5%) and 10% of CEG (CEG10%).

RESULTS

Proximate analysis of samples showed several differences between samples. The CEG addition was found to be effective for improving the cooking yield while diameter reduction and thickness increase were positively affected. As regards lipid oxidation, in cooked burger, the 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values for CS, CEG5% and CEG10% were 0.46, 0.57, and 0.59 mg malonaldehyde/kg sample, respectively. The linolenic and linolenic acid content of pork burger increased as CEG addition increased. Sensory properties for CS and CEG5% were similar whereas CEG10% showed the highest sensory scores.

CONCLUSIONS

A combination of chestnut flour and chia oil could be used as a novel ingredient to develop pork burgers with a better nutritional profile without diminishing their sensory and physico-chemical properties. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Production of Pork Sausages Using Pleaurotus eryngii with Different Treatments as Replacements for Pork Back Fat

The effects of four treatments of Pleurotus eryngii (king oyster mushroom) as replacements for pork back fat were evaluated for the physicochemical, technological, and sensory properties; nitrite content; and amino acid profile in pork sausages. Five batches were manufactured: one control (formulated with pork back fat) and four treatments with raw, boiled, deep-fried, and fried P. eryngii to replace the pork back fat in sausages. The results indicated that the fat content and energy value decreased, while the protein, moisture, total dietary fiber content, cooking loss, and water-holding capacity of the modified sausages increased. All samples were judged acceptable for their sensory characteristics, with the best one being the sausage containing deep-fried P. eryngii. The raw and fried P. eryngii decreased the residual nitrite content in the sausages. Boiled P. eryngii enhanced the essential amino acids content in the sausages, while the other P. eryngii treatments improved the nonessential amino acid content. In summary, P. eryngii may potentially replace fat in sausages. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In manufacturing pork sausages, the mushroom P. eryngii can substitute pork back fat to improve the nutritional quality by reducing fat and energy value, while enhancing the protein and total dietary fiber content in the sausages. Raw and fried P. eryngii decreased the residual nitrite content in the sausages. This study provides a basis for preparing healthier alternatives to traditional sausages by substituting pork fat with mushrooms.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in seasoned-roasted laver and their reduction according to the mixing ratio of seasoning oil and heat treatment in a model system

In food processing, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be generated during heat treatment, and the PAHs in seasoned-roasted (SR) laver can be reduced by checking points during manufacturing. Benzo (a) anthracene, chrysene, benzo (b) fluoranthene, and benzo (a) pyrene have been identified in SR laver via GC/MS. We confirmed that in practice, the PAHs in SR laver form from the mixed oil (57%) and roasting process (43%). To mitigate the formation of PAHs, we used a model system to change the mixing ratio of oil, roasting temperature, and time. A significant reduction (35%) was observed in the PAH level as the perilla oil was removed from the mixed oil composition and roasting continued at 350 °C for 10 s. These results show that the composition of the mixing oil and the parameters of the heat treatment are crucial factors that contribute to the formation of PAHs in roasted laver.