Influence of wood types on quality and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of smoked sausages

Effects of potential key substances in woodchips smoldering smoke on the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Frankfurter sausages

The Frankfurter sausages smoked with beech, oak, and alder, respectively, were used to clarify the underlying impact of the smoke chemical composition on the levels of heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The result indicated that different wood types significantly affected the profiles of target substances in food matrices. The beech-smoked samples had lower contents of total free HAs (5.98-6.80 ng/g dry-weight-DW), PAH4 (3.31-3.83 ng/g DW), and PAH8 (10.0-10.8 ng/g DW), whereas the alder pyrolysis usually led to higher hazardous residues (8.26-9.19 ng/g DW of total free HAs, 4.24-6.60 ng/g DW of PAH4 and 14.1-23.3 ng/g DW of PAH8). In addition, the differences in smoke chemical composition were attributed to the different proportions of 15 key identified substances. Among them, two aldehydes (5-methyl-furfural & furfural) and two phenols (phenol & 5-hydroxymaltol) may have synergistic or competitive inhibitory effects on the formation of HAs and PAHs in smoked meat products.

Effect of lignin on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked and grilled meat products

In order to explore the influence of wood types on formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditional smoked and grilled meat products, the effect of lignin in woods on formation of PAHs was investigated in meat model systems. The results showed that PAHs formation was much dependent on the heating conditions. The addition of lignin led to significantly increased PAHs, which being connected with lignin structure. In comparison, the formation of PAHs was more facilitated by lignin with G structure than that with G/S structure. However, further study of adding lignin precursors demonstrated that lignin precursors with S structure were more favorable to the formation of PAHs than those with G structure. It was proposed that the relative content and activity of G/S structure of lignin in wood played a significant role in the formation of PAHs, which might provide theoretical reference for inhibition of PAHs fundamentally.

Halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese traditional sausages with high salt: Profiles in market samples and formation during home cooking

Halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (XPAHs) are likely to be generated by the reaction between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and halide ions and therefore pose a great threat to high salt food safety. The aim is to explore the profiles of PAHs/XPAHs in market sausages and their formation during home cooking. Concentrations of PAH24 and XPAH18 in 36 market samples were 5.18-408.52 μg/kg and 0.05-0.41 μg/kg, respectively. Smoked sausages exhibited significantly higher concentrations of PAHs than non-smoked sausages. While ready-to-eat sausages presented notably higher XPAH levels than raw sausages. Furthermore, overcooking, such as baking at 220 °C, could result in an exaggerated increase in PAHs. Meanwhile, the increased chlorinated PAH levels after cooking indicated the unintentional formation of XPAHs during sausage cooking. Based on the ILCR model, the intake of 12.7 g/d for males and 10.8 g/d for females is the maximum threshold to achieve negligible risk levels (10-6).

Assessment of High-temperature Refined Charcoal to Improve the Safety of Grilled Meat Through the Reduction of Carcinogenic PAHs

This study presents mitigation strategies for reducing carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination levels in grilled meat using high-temperature refined charcoal (HTC) prepared by Iwate kiln, also known as high-quality charcoal. Four different types of HTC were investigated for their properties in conjunction with their potential to reduce PAHs in grilled meat, including high-temperature Eucalyptus charcoal (HTEC), Leucaena charcoal (HTLC), Acacia charcoal (HTAC), and bamboo charcoal (HTBC). The results showed that all HTCs had higher fixed carbon, higher heating value, and lower volatile compounds (83.07-87.81%, 7,306-7,765 Kcal/g, and 6.98-11.97%, respectively) than commercial low-temperature refined charcoal (LTC) (65.33%, 6,728 Kcal/g, and 22.22%, respectively). The current high fixed carbon content and heating value responded to the rising maximum temperature of charcoal up to 500-600°C, providing heat source stabilization to control the radiant energy exposure of charcoal during grilling, thereby shortening grilling time. The PAH16 value of the LTC-grilled sample (144.41 μg/kg) was significantly higher than that of the HTEC, HTLC, and HTAC-grilled samples (98.21, 80.75, and 79.56 μg/kg, respectively). However, PAH16 levels in the sample grilled with HTBC were unexpectedly high (265.75 μg/kg), and cooking loss was not significantly different between samples grilled with all charcoals. Overall, the findings indicated that using HTC prepared from Eucalyptus, Leucaena, and Acacia woods could reduce PAH contamination in grilled pork by up to 45%. However, more research is needed to determine the best preparation method for high-quality charcoal made from bamboo.

Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked sausages by ultraviolet irradiation

BACKGROUND

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation has been widely employed to disinfect food, however, the efficacy of UV irradiation in degrading polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked sausages has not been explored. In this article, the UV degradation ability of PAHs in smoked sausages was investigated with different UV irradiation conditions, including different irradiation powers, durations and wavelengths. The effects of UV radiation on the quality of sausages were also evaluated, and potential degradation mechanisms were elucidated.

RESULTS

The results showed that the irradiation duration was the primary determinant of PAHs degradation, achieving 84.4% and 84.2% degradation rates at 16 W and 32 W power for 30 min, respectively. Among the three UV wavelengths assessed, 254 nm demonstrated a significantly higher degradation rate for benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), PAH4 and PAHs compared to 365 nm and 310 nm. To further explore the degradation mechanism, UV irradiation was combined with water, 0.1 mol/L hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) and 0.1 mol/L ascorbic acid (vitamin C) coatings. The 0.1 mol/L H2 O2 coating exhibited the most pronounced degradation effect, suggesting that the highly reactive oxygen hydroxyl radicals (·OH) generated by UV irradiation played a critical role in initiating redox reactions.

CONCLUSION

This systematic investigation paves the way for developing novel strategies to eliminate PAHs or other organic contaminants from smoked sausages. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Methods of Minimizing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content in Homogenized Smoked Meat Sausages Using Different Casings and Variants of Meat-Fat Raw Material

To ensure food safety and protect human health, the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in model smoked-pork meat products were examined to select which type of casing and variant of raw material contributes to minimizing the content of PAHs in the final products. The sausages were smoked in a steam smoke chamber with an external smoke generator. The determination of PAHs was performed using the QuEChERS-HPLC-FLD/DAD method. The analyzed products met the requirements of Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011 on the maximum permissible levels of PAHs. Statistically higher sums of 19 PAHs, including 15 heavy and 4 marker PAHs, were stated in smoked sausages in natural and cellulose casings. Synthetic casings like collagen and polyamide exhibited better barriers against PAH contamination than cellulose and natural casings. For each type of casing, significantly higher concentrations of PAHs were found in the external parts of the products. An increase in the fat content of the raw material increased the levels of PAH contamination in the products, regardless of the casing. Therefore, in industrial practice, the selection of an appropriate type of casing and raw material with the lowest possible fat content can be an effective method for reducing PAH levels in the interior of smoked meat products.

Application of durian rind smoke powder to preserve chicken meatballs at room temperature

Smoke powder is a natural alternative to artificial preservatives for extending the shelf life of food products. This study assessed the use of smoke powder derived from durian rinds as a preservative for chicken meatballs. Durian rinds were pyrolyzed at 300 °C (T1), 340 °C (T2), and 380 °C (T3) to produce liquid smoke. After filtration to separate the remaining carbon, the resulting liquid smoke was purified by distillation at 190 °C and then converted into a smoke powder through the addition of maltodextrin and spray drying. The feasibility of smoke powder as a preservative for chicken meatballs was tested using total volatile base (TVB), total plate count (TPC), pH, and most probable number (MPN) tests for Escherichia coli. The findings demonstrated an upward trend in TVB, TPC, and MPN values over the storage duration. The TVB and TPC tests revealed that meatballs preserved with T3 smoke powder retained acceptable quality upon 64 h of storage. The MPN value of the T3 sample showed that E. coli bacterial contamination could still be tolerated up to 68 h of storage.

The impact of temperature-controlled smoldering smoking on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines contents in Frankfurter-type sausages

The impact of temperature-controlled smoldering smoking conditions on the accumulations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HAs) in Frankfurter-type sausages was investigated. Depending on the temperature, smoking can be divided into two phases: an unstable pyrolysis stage (≈ 200 s) and a stable pyrolysis stage (>200 s), which had different effects on hazardous substances contents. The unstable pyrolysis stage, which contributed 66.9 ∼ 89.6% of PAH accumulations by comparing with sausages smoked for 15 min, has significant impact on high PAH residues. By contrast, the contents of HAs showed steady increase trends with smoking time. Few types of free-HAs with low concentrations (3.05 ∼ 22.9 ng/g DW), but more types of bound-HAs with much higher levels (10.8 ∼ 396 ng/g DW) were found. In addition, the formation of some HAs followed the first-order reaction model. However, the detailed formation mechanisms of PAHs and HAs under temperature-controlled smoldering smoking conditions remain to be studied.

The Effect of Direct and Indirect Barbecue Cooking on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Formation and Beef Quality

Herein, the effect of direct and indirect barbecue cooking processes, including different cooking degrees (medium and well done), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and on certain quality parameters (water content, cooking loss, pH, lipid oxidation) of beef meat was examined. While no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the cooking method was detected on the water content, cooking loss, ∑PAH4 [the sum of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysen (Chry), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)], and ∑PAH8 [the sum of BaP, BaA, Chry, benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (Bghip), and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IncdP)] content, it was determined that it had a significant effect on pH (p < 0.05) and lipid oxidation (TBARS, p < 0.01). While the cooking degree did not have a significant effect (p > 0.05) on the TBARS value, it had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the water content and pH value, and a very significant effect (p < 0.01) on the cooking loss. While BaA and BaP compounds were detected in all barbecued samples, the DahA compound could not be detected in any of the samples. Varying levels of BaA (up to 5.62 ng/g), Chry (up to 0.43 ng/g), BbF (LOD-..-LOQ), BkF (LOD-..-LOQ), BaP (up to 0.49 ng/g), BghiP (up to 0.82 ng/g), and IncdP (up to 4.99 ng/g) compounds were determined in the samples. While the ∑PAH4 contents varied between 0.71 and 6.35 ng/g, the ∑PAH8 contents varied between 1.12 and 11.34 ng/g. While the increase in cooking level did not affect the ∑PAH4 content, it caused a significant increase in the ∑PAH8 content. The highest BaP (0.49 ng/g), ∑PAH4 (6.35 ng/g), and ∑PAH8 (11.34 ng/g) contents were detected in the meat samples that were well cooked on the barbecue by the direct method. The results have proven that PAHs are formed at varying levels in both meat samples cooked on the barbecue by the direct method and the indirect method. On the other hand, it has been determined that even if 100 g of the meat with the highest BaP and ∑PAH4 content is eaten, the exposure amount remains far below the limit values specified for PAHs. However, paying close attention to the barbecue cooking process is still recommended.

Effect of Cold-Plasma-Treated Phosphate Solution to Substitute Partial Nitrite on the Color, Texture, and Flavor of Smoked Sausage

There are several alternative technologies to nitrite use in meat products, including cold plasma. In this study, a cold-plasma-treated phosphate solution was added to smoked sausage, as a new ingredient. Subsequently, the color, texture, and flavor of the samples were analyzed. The results showed that, compared with nitrite (0.075 g/kg nitrite added to sausage), the addition of 30~90% nitrite and cold-plasma-treated phosphate solution had no significant effect on the a* value or the relative content of oxygenated myoglobin (p > 0.05). The amount of residual nitrite in the smoked sausage prepared with the addition of 30~70% nitrite and cold-plasma-treated phosphate solution was significantly lower than that of the nitrite-treated group. The addition of nitrite combined with cold-plasma-treated phosphate solution had no significant effects on the texture (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and resilience) or the sensory evaluation of the smoked sausage. A total of 69 volatile compounds were detected, and 20 of them had VIP (Variable Importance Plot) scores higher than one. In conclusion, cold plasma treatment represents a potential technology to partially substitute nitrite. This study provides new methods for the application of this nitrite substitute.

Pantanal yacare (Caiman yacare) tail fillets subjected to traditional hot smoking and liquid smoke

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of hot smoking and liquid smoke on process yield, physicochemical properties, microbiological parameters, fatty acid profile, benzo(a)pyrene levels, and sensory profile of Pantanal yacare tail fillets. The fillets were subjected to two types of smoking processes: hot smoking and liquid smoke flavoring.

RESULTS

The process yield of liquid-smoked fillets was higher (69.8%) compared to hot-smoked fillets (58.0%). All fillets were with good microbiological quality and low benzo(a)pyrene levels and were well accepted by consumers. The hot-smoked fillets and the liquid-smoked fillets presented 456.2 and 589.7 g kg^-1 moisture, 262.3 and 263.7 g kg^-1 crude protein, 218 and 85 g kg^-1 total lipids, and 26.0 and 20.9 g kg^-1 ash, respectively. The major fatty acids identified in the smoked tail fillets were palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids.

CONCLUSION

The liquid-smoked fillets had lower lipid content, and higher process yield because of lower losses; thus, they proved to be more advantageous and practical to obtain than the hot-smoked fillets. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Antioxidant Activity and Sensory Quality of Bacon

Effects of liquid smoke prepared from different woods on physicochemical parameters, sensory quality, and protein and lipid oxidation were determined in bacons during process and storage. The relationship between the antioxidant activity of smoked liquid and the quality of bacon was further explored through chemometric analysis. Results showed that liquid smoke prepared from different woods differed in phenolic and carboxyl compounds and antioxidant capacity. Bacon processed with different liquid smoke had different antioxidant capacity, lipid and protein oxidation during storage, and sensory quality. The concentration of phenols was positively highly correlated with the antioxidant capacity of both liquid smoke and fresh bacon, but negatively correlated with lipid and protein oxidation in bacon. Among the five woods, liquid smoke made from Punica granatum L. showed higher antioxidant capacity, but bacon smoked with Armeniaca vulgaris Lam had better overall eating quality. This study reveals that selection of woods to prepare antioxidant fumigant is a feasible approach to retard oxidative spoilage of meat products. Future study is need for the development of composite smoke flavorings to improve both oxidative stability and sensory quality of foods.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

Nitrosamines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoke-Cured Bacon (Larou) of Artisanal and Industrial Origin

The aim of this study was to compare the nitrosamines (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of Chinese smoke-cured bacon (Larou) of artisanal and industrial origin. The results showed that the average pH and Aw values of family-made Larou products were lower than those of industrial Larou, which was opposite to the TBARS level. The contents of residual nitrite and PAH4 in two artisanal Larou were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The highest NA content (10.78 μg/kg) was found in family-made Larou. A correlation analysis indicated that the relationships between residual nitrite contents and total PAH8 contents (τ = 0.692, p < 0.01) and total NAs contents (τ = 0.805, p < 0.01) were characterized with a positive correlation. A principal component analysis indicated that the Larou from the industrial sources had similar safety attributes, and was more stable than the Larou processed in an artisanal manner. Our data suggest that Larou produced in industrial conditions is suitable for consumption.

Seasonal variations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments of a marine resource hot spot: the case of pars special economic energy zone, Iran

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are an important group of compounds of major environmental concern, which are in the class of persistent organic pollutants. Therefore, the key purpose of this research was to analyze seasonal fluctuations and to determine the probability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments of the Iranian Marine Resource Center based on the evaluation of 16 US-EPA important PAH compounds. These compounds have been collected from intertidal sediments located in the marine resources of southern Iran in different seasons. These samples of the surficial sediment were collected at the PSEEZ area using a stainless steel grab sampler in four seasons, from depths between 0.5 and 30 m. Surface sediment samples were removed by spoons and carefully placed in an aluminum foil; they were taken to the laboratory on ice and held at 20° C until their study. After extraction, by using a rotary evaporator apparatus, samples were condensed. The assay was added to roughly 2 g of activated copper flasks in the refrigerator for 36 h for desulfurization. Among different seasons, the highest concentration was observed in winter, with a mean of 281.3 ng g^-1. According to ecological risk assessment (concentrations of possible effects, low effect range, degree of threshold effects, and median effect range), PAH risks in surface sediments of PSEEZ were lower than the threshold results levels (TEL), possible effects levels (PEL), low range of effects (ERL), and median range of effects (ERM), indicating that a biological effect would rarely occur. The dry weight scale of the concentration of ∑PAHs ranges from 145.7 to 348.42 ng g^-1 with a mean quantity of 260.52 ng g^-1. Therefore, according to the amount of ∑PAH concentration, the sediments in the PSEEZ area indicated moderate to heavy pollutions. In this way, the sedimentary surface ecosystems of the Persian Gulf were considered as moderately polluted compared with other ecosystems worldwide. Our study highlighted some of the research gaps in PAH contamination studies and the level of PAH contamination. Therefore, this study will provide a scientific background, planning, and policies for PAH pollution control and environmental protection in Iran and similar regions around the world.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Malt

The kilning of malt occurs at different temperatures, depending on the desired color and aromas. Higher temperatures applied during kilning can be involved in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) formation in malt. PAHs are undesirable and designated as health hazards, it is important to quantify and qualify them in different malts. Since the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) gave strict recommendations about PAHs in different foods, but omitted malt as a potential hazardous raw material that can cause health damage to beer consumers, the aim of this investigation was to assess the presence of 16 PAHs (naphthalene (Nap), acenaphthylene (Anl), acenaphthene (Ane), fluorene (Flu), anthracene (Ant), phenanthrene (Phen), fluoranthene (Flt), benz[a]anthracene (BaA), pyrene (Pyr), chrysene (Chry), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[ghi]perylene (BghiP), and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (InP)) in different, commercially available malts (amber, black, pilsner, and cara-120). The results showed that PAHs are present in different malts, with some in high amounts (BaA in black malt was 737 µg/kg). Minimal levels of BaA were detected in the amber malt, 60.53 µg/kg. The PAH4 (BaP, BaA, BbF, and Chry) sums are identical to the BaA concentrations in all malts and greatly exceed the EFSA prescribed levels for PAH4 in processed cereal-based foods (1 µg/kg).

Effect of different types of smoking materials on the flavor, heterocyclic aromatic amines, and sensory property of smoked chicken drumsticks

This study investigated the effect of different types of smoking materials on the flavor, heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) content, and sensory attributes of smoked chicken drumsticks. All smoked samples showed lower pH and L*-value and higher a*-value and b*-value than the control sample (P < 0.05), but no significant differences in water content and water activity (P > 0.05). The samples smoked with sucrose combined with pear-tree woodchips (SP) or green tea leaves (ST) had higher overall acceptability than other samples (P < 0.05). Smoking increased the total HAA content, and the ST sample exhibited the highest total HAA content (P < 0.05). A total of 54 volatile compounds was identified. Overall, SP and ST are suitable for smoked chicken considering the sensory properties, while S and SA are proper for smoked chicken considering the minimization of HAAs, which may provide a theory basis for the production of smoked chicken.

Effects of different smoking methods on sensory properties, free amino acids and volatile compounds in bacon

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different smoking methods on sensory properties, free amino acids (FAAs) and volatile compounds (VCs) of bacon. Descriptive analysis was performed using a highly trained panel (n = 9) to evaluate four bacons in sextuplicate. VCs of bacons were analyzed using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

RESULTS

Bacons were significantly different in sensory properties (P < 0.05). Wood smoked bacon (WSB) had a higher smoky and fatty aroma, liquid smoked bacon (LSB) had a higher red color intensity and yellow color intensity, and paper smoked bacon (PSB) had an outstanding texture. Different smoking methods resulted in an increase in total FAAs content, of which paper smoking was significantly higher than the others (P < 0.05). Also, a total of 59 volatile flavor compounds were identified for bacons, aldehydes were the most abundant groups of compounds. Principal component analysis (PCA) can effectively separate the bacons that underwent different smoking methods.

CONCLUSION

The aldehydes and hydrocarbons with high content in PSB improved the overall taste intensity. The color in the sensory attributes was more obvious after LSB processing. The phenols and aromatic hydrocarbons in WSB contributed significantly to the pleasant properties (smoky, fatty). © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Different Smoking Materials and Methods on the Quality of Chinese Traditional Bacon (Larou)

ABSTRACT

Larou is a traditional smoked meat product in China. In this experiment, larou was processed with different smoking materials and methods to determine whether differences in processing methods would affect the quality of the larou and the concentrations of carcinogens. Pork bellies were marinated, dried, and divided into four groups and then directly smoked with four different smoking materials for 40 min. The smoking material for larou that was most effective was then used with an indirect smoking device with an nano-activated carbon fiber filter and evaluated as a single-factor variable. The surface area of the nano-activated carbon filter was 978.00 m2/g, and this filter effectively adsorbed the ash particles from the smoke. For the group smoked with pomelo skins (PS), the highest concentrations and number of phenols were 4.48% and 11, respectively, which increased the smoke flavor significantly. The moisture was 32.64%, and the Staphylococcus, lactic acid bacteria, and yeast and mold levels were 0.98, 1.10, and 0.59 log CFU/g, indicating inhibition of harmful bacteria and a beneficial microbial environment for larou fermentation. The benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) concentration in PS smoke determined with the indirect smoking device was 1.82 μg/kg, whereas that determined with the direct smoking device was 36.1 μg/kg, a significant difference (P < 0.01). These findings suggested that indirect smoking with PS could effectively maintain microbial quality and reduce the B[a]P[mc] concentrations in larou. This processing method can be used for the production of this meat product.

HIGHLIGHTS

Barbecued desi chicken: an investigation on the impact of polluted milieu upon formation and ingestion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercial versus laboratory barbecued organs along with stochastic cancer risk assessments in people from an industrial district of Punjab, Pakistan

8∑PAHs in 2- and 4-month-old desi chicken organs collected from Faisalabad district, Punjab, Pakistan, were examined via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Exposure doses (A_VDD) of PAHs with consequential lifetime excess cancer risks (L_tECR) were also estimated in people ingesting laboratory barbecued (L_b) and commercially barbecued (C_b) desi meat organs. The results exposed the presence of 8ΣPAH in 2- and 4-month-old L_b and C_b chicken organs: drumsticks (D_s), breast (B_S), and wings (W_s) (0.45, 3.10, 0.97 ng g^-1; 2.52, 4.31, 1.22 ng g^-1; and 10.09, 15.04, and 9.06 ng g^-1 respectively). BαP was found only in C_b organs with the highest concentrations (5.08 ng g^-1) in B_s. It was above the EU's tolerable limit, while it was not detected in all L_b organs. The lowest level of 8ΣPAH was found in 2-month-old desi W_s. A comparative percentage increase in 8ΣPAH levels between all L_b and C_b organs was found in the range of 1500-2416.67%. L_tECR for males and adults were ranging from 1.35 × E^-13 to 4.49 × E^-5 at different consumption rates with A_VDD ranging from 1.08 E^-6 to 6.01 E^-5. In contrast to 2- and 4- month-old chicken meat, 2-month-old desi meat is better having less PAH load. Comparing different organs, W_s of former one displayed abridged PAH levels. In conclusion, L_b desi meat is less carcinogenic relative to C_b. More PAH levels are due to secondary smoke in C_b samples collected from the metropolitan. Ingestion of L_b 2-month-old desi chicken organs could be safe to dine as compared with 4-month-old desi and C_b organs. Graphical abstract.

Effects of Smoking Temperature, Smoking Time, and Type of Wood Sawdust on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Accumulation Levels in Directly Smoked Pork Sausages

Smoking is an excellent food preservation method but also a source of contamination of foodstuffs with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Herein we investigated the influence of smoking temperature, smoking time, and type of wood sawdust used as smoke source on PAH levels attained through controlled smoking of pork sausages. Four PAHs (benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene) were monitored, as required by European Commission Regulation 835/2011. PAH concentrations increased continuously both with higher temperatures (55-95 °C) and with longer smoking periods (2-9 h), although the level of benzo[a]pyrene exhibited a tendency to plateau after 6 h. Among seven types of hardwoods tested, plum, alder, and birch yielded PAH concentrations considerably higher than that of commonly used beech, and oak showed similar levels to beech while apple and, to a lesser extent, walnut caused lower levels of sausage contamination. These findings could guide the establishment of good practices in the smoked meat industry.

Influence of Different Smoking Procedures on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation in Traditional Dry Sausage Hercegovačka kobasica

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in smoked dry sausage Hercegovačka kobasica were investigated. The sausages were stuffed in two different casings (collagen and natural) and smoked in traditional and industrial smokehouses. The highest concentration of PAH 16 were detected in sausages in natural casings smoked in the traditional manner. The samples smoked in the industrial chamber stuffed in collagen casing showed the lowest PAH 16 content. The content of PAH 4 in sausage smoked in the traditional way and stuffed in natural casing averaged 24.46 µg/kg, which is more the double of maximum prescribed concentration of 12 µg/kg. The concentration of cancerogenic benzo[a]pyrene averaged 7.79 µg/kg in sausage stuffed in natural casing and smoked in the traditional way, which is almost four times the legislative prescribed values (2 µg/kg). Sausage smoked in the traditional manner and stuffed in collagen casing showed lower values for PAH 4 (13.88 µg/kg) and benzo[a]pyrene (4.97 µg/kg), but these values were also above the legislative prescribed values.

Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Heregovački pršut-Traditionally Smoked Prosciutto

Hercegovački pršut as a traditional dry-cured smoked ham (prosciutto) produced by using an open fire that can be potentially contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and can pose a health risk for consumers. The aim of this research was to identify the types and concentrations of 16 PAHs in 34 samples of traditionally smoked prosciutto. Out of 16 investigated PAHs, identified in the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) list of priority pollutants, 14 compounds were detected. Average levels of cancerogenic benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and PAH4 (benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), chrysene (Chry), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)) ranged from <LOQ (level of quantification) to 5.08 μg/kg and 0.45 μg/kg to 22.67 μg/kg. Two analyzed samples exceeded currently prescribed values according to the Bosnia and Herzegovina legislation for BaP concentrations and one sample for PAH4 content. PAH16 concentrations were on average between 2.92 μg/kg and 87.6 μg/kg. The highest PAH concentrations were found in samples from the Herzegovina-Neretva canton. The results of the research highlight the importance of standardizing smoking procedures and manufacturing practice, in the production of Hercegovački pršut, in order to reduce the PAH content.

Insight about methods used for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons reduction in smoked or grilled fishery and meat products for future re-engineering: A systematic review

This paper presents methods of reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled or smoked meat and fishery products. Using keywords such as "smoking", "grilling", "processing", "roasting", "barbecue", "curing", "reduction", "decrease", "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon", "benzo(a)pyrene", "removal", 1191 references were collected from databases. After sorting, only 37 appeared to be relevant to the topic of the review. These 37 papers were coded with one or two keywords representing methods of PAHs reduction using R-based Qualitative Data Analysis library. The results showed that PAHs reduction strategies can be applied either before (or during) grilling or smoking (barrier methods) or after grilling or smoking (removal methods). Before grilling or smoking, use of marinade, preheating of products, appropriate fuel (poor in lignin), filter, collection system of juice and fat (to avoid them dripping into embers) are the main strategies which can be applied. After grilling or smoking, the methods consist of washing the surface of smoked or grilled products with hot water (60 °C) or storing smoked products packed into low density or high density polyethylene. A flowchart regrouping methods which can be used individually or in combination for PAHs reduction in smoked meat and fishery products is suggested.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditionally smoked Slavonska kobasica

The traditional smoking procedure, which is the use of open fire, can lead to the formation of PAHs in sausages. The aim of this paper was to assess the types and concentrations of 16 PAHs in 30 samples of Slavonska kobasica, a traditional smoked sausage. In general, some samples showed high values of anthracene and acenaphthylene. In one sample, acenaphthylene reached the value of 1050 µg/kg and in another 1491 µg/kg anthracene was measured. Cancerogenic benzo(a)pyrene content was little above the maximum limit of 5 µg/kg in four samples, but mainly remained below the limit of quantification. PAH4 (i.c. benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(a)pyrene) were above the maximum limit of 30 µg/kg in three samples. Generally, it can be noted from the results that samples with high PAH4 and benzo(a)pyrene concentrations also have high PAH16 concentrations.

Effects of smoke flavoring using different wood chips and barbecuing on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines in salmon fillets

Herein, the concentrations of food toxicants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), in salmon fillets smoke flavored with different smoking wood chips (oak, apple, bourbon soaked oak, cherry and hickory) and barbecuing were determined. Benzo[a]anthracene (up to 0.24 ng/g) and chrysene (0.22 ng/g) were determined in the raw salmon fillets. While ∑PAH8 (benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene) in the raw samples ranged between 0.44 and 0.46 ng/g, smoke flavoring increased the amount of ∑PAH8 and the amount varied between 0.47 and 0.73 ng/g. Salmon smoked flavored with bourbon soaked oak, cherry and hickory wood chips and barbecued showed significantly (P <0.05) lower contents of ∑PAH4 (benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene) and ∑PAH8 compared to non-smoke flavored barbecued samples. Additionally, smoke flavoring with apple, bourbon soaked oak, and cherry wood chips significantly (P <0.05) reduced the total HAA contents in barbecued salmon. A remarkable result was that the bourbon-soaked oak and cherry wood chips had inhibitory effects on both PAH and HAA contents. In sum, barbecued non-smoke flavored and smoke flavored salmon with different wood chips could be considered safe from the perspective of the detected amounts of PAHs and HAAs in salmon fillets.

Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Traditional Dry Cured Smoked Ham Slavonska Šunka

Slavonska šunka is a traditional dry-cured smoked ham. Smoking with open fire commonly results in the accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) molecules in tissues. The objective of this research was to assess the types and concentrations of 16 PAHs in 30 samples of traditional dry-cured smoked ham Slavonska šunka. In general, all samples had high values of anthracene while higher levels of acenaphthylene were present in some samples. In sample SS1, the maximal value for anthracene reached 228.03 µg/kg, while sample SS28 had the lowest value of this PAH—33.38 µg/kg. SS1 had increased values for several other PAHs: benzo[a]anthracene (54.03 µg/kg), acenaphtene (19.90 µg/kg) and phenanthrene (27.11 µg/kg). Cancerogenic benzo[a]pyrene content was below the limit of quantification for all samples. PAH4 (benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene) concentrations were above legislative recommendation (>30 µg/kg) in seven samples. All the samples of Slavonska šunka had significant PAH16 concentrations, with the lowest value of 61.30 µg/kg (SS28) and the highest 462.83 µg/kg (SS1). The highest concentrations of PAHs were determined in the Vukovar–Srijem county samples. Another conclusion from this research is that samples smoked with elm tree showed high PAH concentrations in comparison to the ones smoked with beech and hornbeam.

The Influence of Different Smoking Procedures on the Content of 16 PAHs in Traditional Dry Cured Smoked Meat "Hercegovačka Pečenica"

During smoking, meat products may get contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), especially the ones that are smoked in traditional (uncontrolled) conditions. This study aims to evaluate the difference in PAH content in samples of traditional dry cured pork meat products, "Hercegovačka pečenica", produced in (1) a traditional smokehouse and (2) in industrial chambers. The study revealed that the content of the four priority PAHs (PAH4) in samples produced in a traditional smoking manner highly exceeded (up to 10 times) the maximal limits set for PAHs (12 µg/kg). PAH4 in all samples subjected to industrial smoking procedures was below the limit of quantification. All samples had below-the-limit-of-quantification values for Benzo[a]pyrene. The surface layer of the samples produced in traditional conditions had the highest total content of PAH16. The inner parts of all samples, whether traditional or industrial, had significantly lower PAH16 concentration than the surface layer.