Polysaccharide-based Pickering emulsions: Formation, stabilization and applications

Developing thickened soy protein-based liquid systems: Importance of oil-water interfacial behavior

Rheological properties are critical in the design of dysphagia foods. Interfacial behavior is a critical factor in determining the rheological properties of emulsions. In this study, dysphagia foods were prepared by thickening soy protein-based liquid systems with xanthan gum, guar gum, and pectin. Interfacial behavior in dysphagia foods was focused on using interfacial dilatational rheology and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation technique. The results showed that xanthan gum/soy protein and pectin/soy protein composite particles exhibited higher dynamic interfacial tension than soy protein particles. The results were opposite for guar gum/soy protein composite particles. Moreover, the thickness and mass of the interfacial layers formed by XG/SP and GG/SP were greater than that of P/SP, with the most stable interfacial microstructure formed by XG/SP. This study reveals the correlation between the physical properties and interfacial behavior of dysphagic foods and provides insights for the development of novel dysphagic foods.

Interface behavior and emulsifying capacity of cow cockle starch: A candidate for stabilizing food-grade pickering emulsions

This study comprehensively characterized the interfacial behavior and emulsifying capacity of cow cockle starch (CS), both in its native form and following octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modification. By comparing with the most recognized quinoa starch (QS), CS showed promise as a superior alternative to QS as a particle stabilizer in food-grade emulsions. Although the microstructural similarity to QS, CS featured a smaller mean particle size of 1.39 μm and exhibited greater hydrophobicity, as evidenced by a contact angle of 19.4°. At equivalent levels of OSA substitution, OSA-modified CS (CS-OSA) displayed a lower critical concentration, a higher diffusion rate and a greater adsorption density compared to OSA-modified QS (QS-OSA), which facilitated quicker and denser adsorption on the droplet surface. Rheological analysis further revealed that the CS-OSA emulsion formed a stronger gel network than the QS-OSA emulsion. Consequently, CS-OSA emulsions demonstrated superior ionic, centrifugal, and storage stability compared to QS-OSA emulsions.

Research progress on marine polysaccharide-based Pickering emulsions and their potential applications in the food industry

Recently, natural biopolymers have increasingly been utilized to stabilize Pickering emulsions (PEs) for food applications. The research and development of marine polysaccharides is one of the hotspots in the field of PEs due to their low-cost, non-toxicity, abundant, and sustainability. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in marine polysaccharide-based stabilized PEs systems. We begin with an introduction to the sources of marine polysaccharides and the methods for fabricating marine polysaccharide-based PEs. Following this, we summarize the role of natural marine polysaccharides and their complexes (combined with other polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, fatty acids, or other particles) as particles to form and stabilize PEs. Additionally, we detail the current applications of marine polysaccharide-based PEs in food packaging films/coatings, 3D printing, encapsulation and delivery of functional food ingredients, as well as in fat substitutes. Finally, potential future developments of PEs stabilized by marine polysaccharides in the food industry are also proposed. This review will provide valuable references to promote the application of marine polysaccharide-based PEs in the food sector.

The emulsifying capacity and mechanism of Thesium chinense Turcz. polysaccharides based on synergistic effect of insoluble and soluble fractions

The crude polysaccharides from Thesium chinense Turcz. was fractionated into three streams through alcohol precipitation, namely TPP-20, TPP-40 and TPP-60, with their emulsion stabilizing capacity evaluated in this work. Results showed that, TPP-20 possessed a higher protein content of 11.0 % and the lowest solubility of 60.9 %. TPP-60 demonstrated a stronger ability to reduce the oil-water interfacial tension. The emulsifying performance evaluation revealed an excellent ability of TPP-20 to stabilize the oil-water emulsion, which exhibited superior stability in salt-ion concentrations of 0-500 mM, temperature 4-60 °C and pH 1-11. The microstructure of TPP-20 stabilized emulsion showed that the soluble polysaccharides uniformly distributed in the continuous phase, while the insoluble particles dispersed in both the continuous phase and the oil droplet surface. These two fractions likely cooperated to stabilize the emulsion. Furthermore, the emulsion stabilized by TPP-20 exhibited an excellent ability to inhibit oxidation of its lipids in the emulsion, which is also evidence of the significant stabilizing-emulsion effect of TPP-20.

Multiple non-covalent bonds reinforced pH/glucose-responsive alginate-stabilized Pickering emulsion for diacylated anthocyanin intestinal delivery

The effective management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) depends on the development of streamlined, sustainable, and intelligent delivery systems. In this context, targeted stimulus-responsive Pickering emulsions (PEs) derived from biomass have emerged as a promising candidate. However, the interfacial films of PEs exhibit insufficient strength to endure the harsh gastric environment and lack the capability for targeted and responsive delivery. To address these limitations, an amphiphilic phenylboronic acid-functionalized sodium alginate (SA-PBA) was integrated into a ternary complex platform composed of soybean protein-isolated polyphenol (SPI-PSPAs), where it self-assembled into soft colloidal particles through multiple non-covalent interactions. A multiscale coupling methodology was proposed to investigate and elucidate the structure-function relationship between interfacial characteristics (e.g., thickness, viscoelasticity, and microstructures) and the stability of PEs, thereby providing a foundation for effectively controlling their targeted delivery properties. Notably, owing to the enhanced strength of the interfacial composite particle films, the PEs demonstrated the ability to withstand the harsh gastric environment while maintaining their structural integrity. Furthermore, the self-assembly process of the soft SA-PBA@SPI-PSPAs colloids could be modulated by external glucose stimuli, enabling the targeted and intelligent release of PSPAs in the intestinal environment. Consequently, the well-designed PE system achieved intestinal-targeted responsive release effects, highlighting the potential of the natural α-glucosidase (αG) inhibitor PSPAs as a viable clinical treatment for T2DM.

Cyclodextrin-Based Pickering Emulsion Significantly Increases 6-Gingerol Loading Through Two Different Mechanisms: Cyclodextrin Cavity and Pickering Core

We previously found that host-guest interactions can drive gingerols (Gs) and cyclodextrins (CDs) together to form inclusion complexes (G/CD), which can further construct amphiphilic microcrystals and resultant Pickering emulsions through self-assembly. In this follow-up study, we explored the detailed formation processes and mechanisms of the 6-G/β-CD inclusion complex and the resultant Pickering emulsion. The influence of the 6-G/β-CD molar ratio on the structure, morphology, and loading capacity of the inclusion complex and resultant Pickering emulsion were investigated. The results show that the cyclodextrin-based Pickering emulsion can load 6-G in two places; one place is the cyclodextrin cavity, whose loading capacity is up to 9.28%, while the other one is the Pickering core, with its highest loading capacity at 32.31% when the 6-G/β-CD molar ratio is 5:1. In the above case, the 6-G/β-CD inclusion complex was found to form a unit cell with a 1:2 molar ratio and then self-assemble into amphiphilic microcrystals through cage-type arrangement structures at the oil-water interface, mainly driven by van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds. This study is helpful in the design and preparation of CD-based high-loading carriers for bioactive compound delivery.

Integrating the modified amphiphilic Eleocharis tuberosa starch to stabilize curcuminoid-enriched Pickering emulsions for enhanced bioavailability, thermal stability, and retention of the hydrophobic bioactive compound

The study involves the modification of a non-conventional starch isolated from the under-utilized variety of Chinese water chestnut (CWC (Eleocharis tuberosa) and integrating it to fabricate stabilized and curcumin-enriched Pickering emulsions with enhanced bioavailability, thermal stability, and retention of encapsulated curcumin. A time-efficient, semi-dried esterification method was used to prepare modified amphiphilic starches using 3, 6, or 9 % (w/v) octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) and characterized through degree of substitution (DS), contact angle, particle size, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and in-vitro digestibility. Moreover, Pickering emulsions were formulated using CWCS-OSA at 3 %, 6 %, or 9 % concentrations to serve as a carrier for curcumin to improve its water solubility and storage stability. The research investigated Pickering emulsions' encapsulation efficiency, curcumin retention, emulsifying properties, micromorphology, temperature stability, and bioaccessibility. Results showed that CWCS-OSA, with an OSA concentration between 3 % and 9 %, exhibited a degree of substitution (DS) ranging from 0.017 to 0.031 and an expansion in contact angle from 68.36o to 85.45o. CWCS-9%OSA showed the highest encapsulation efficiency at 89.4 % and maintained an emulsification index above 80 % during a 10-day storage period. A significantly higher bio-accessibility (41.26 ± 1.34 %) of curcumin in Pickering emulsions stabilized with CWCS-9%OSA than in the bulk oil system (19.53 ± 1.62 %). This study highlights the potential of chemically modified amphiphilic starch from an underutilized variety of CWCS (Eleocharis tuberosa) to produce the stabilized Pickering emulsion gels as a stable and effective carrier for unstable hydrophobic polyphenolic compounds by enhancing their bioavailability in the foods and pharmaceutics.

Ultrasound combined mechanical wall-breaking extraction of new Ganoderma leucocontextum polysaccharides and their application as a structural and functional improver in set fat-free goat yogurt production

Herein, we investigate the yield, micro-structures, rheological properties and bioactivities of new Ganoderma leucocontextum polysaccharide (GLPUBE) obtained from Kangding via ultrasound combined mechanical wall-breaking extraction (UBE), and examine the effect of GLPUBE as a structural and functional improver on the physicochemical, sensory, aromatic, water-holding capacity (WHC), textural, rheological, micro-structural and protein structural properties, and bioactivities of set fat-free goat yogurt (set-FGY). Through response surface optimisation, the extracted GLPUBE achieved a maximum yield of 2.18 %, showing good apparent viscosity and elastic behaviour in 3 % aqueous solution as well as good micro-structure and significant anti-oxidant and anti-diabetic activities. The presence of 0.12 % GLPUBE significantly improved the WHC, pH, acidity, textural and rheological properties, protein concentration and secondary structure, but had no effect on the protein primary structure in set-FGY production. The addition of 0.12 % GLPUBE had an excellent ability in promoting sensory acceptance; total solid, and total polyphenol contents, WHC, pH, acidity, texture, free amino acid contents, viscosity, rheology and aroma properties; enhancing anti-oxidant and anti-diabetic abilities; inhibiting protein degradation; and maintaining the micro-structure and stability of the primary and secondary structures of protein complex of set-FGY during 21 days of storage. Therefore, GLPUBE can be used as an innovative structural and functional improver in set fat-free yogurt industry.

A novel emulsifier for Pickering emulsion composed of whey protein and OSA-pectin loaded with Monascus pigments

Protein-polysaccharide complex carrier can solve the problem of insufficient stability of Monascus pigments (MPs), a kind of natural pigments, against heat and light. It also has the function to stabilize Pickering emulsion (PE) that can be used as fat replacer in meat products. In this study, heat denatured whey protein (HWP) and pectin modified by octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA-pectin) were prepared into complex by adding Ca2+ loaded with MPs. The complex carrier significantly enhanced the light and heat stabilities of MPs and exhibited excellent wettability. It was then used to prepare PE (HOCM-PE) as a fat replacer to improve the color performance of meat patties. The microstructure and rheological properties of HOCM-PE clarified that the main stable mechanism was to form network structure wrapped around oil droplets in the continuous phase. This structure conferred excellent viscoelasticity and stability to the emulsion. The key quality parameters of meat patties showed that HOCM-PE as a fat substitute was able to maintain the textural properties of the meat patties while providing bright red color. The research provided an ideal dual-functional emulsion for the development of low-fat and low-nitrite meat products.

Interfacial mechanisms, environmental influences, and applications of polysaccharide-based emulsions: A review

To develop stable polysaccharide-based emulsions, many studies have focused on the interfacial behavior of adsorbed polysaccharides. This review first discussed the mechanism of polysaccharides self-assembly at the oil-water interface. It can be concluded that polysaccharides can form a thick and strong interfacial membrane that stabilizes emulsions through steric hindrance and electrostatic interactions. In particular, we also investigated the influence of various conditions (i.e., mechanical stress, heating, pH, enzymatic treatment, and ionic strength) on the architecture and properties of polysaccharide-based emulsions. Additionally, the interactions of polysaccharides with other molecules in the emulsion system were summarized, revealing that co-adsorption further changes their properties. Furthermore, current approaches for monitoring the behavior of adsorbed polysaccharides at the oil/water interface were reviewed, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Lastly, we emphasized the potential of polysaccharides for producing environmental-friendly emulsions in the food industry.

Tannic acid coordination assembly enhances the interfacial properties of salted egg white gel particles

Tannic acid (TA) has attracted the attention of researchers as a promising organic ligand capable of forming metal-organic coordination networks with various metal ions at interfaces to impact surface properties. In this study, we innovatively reported a self-assembly method for surface decoration by depositing TA/Fe3+ coatings on the surface of desalted duck egg white nanoparticles (DEWN), further studying the oil/water interfacial properties of the modified particles. The results showed that the ratio and concentration of TA to Fe3+ could modulate interfacial properties. The modified DEWN has low interfacial tension, with TFe2 having near-neutral wettability (θo/w ∼ 90°) and stabilizing emulsions for over 60 days. Moreover, the emulsions stabilized by TFe1 and TFe2 formed stronger gel structures with better thixotropic recovery (98.82 % and 89.26 %). After further increasing the oil phase ratio, the increased layer assembly concentration improved the stability of the oil phase and formed a dense gel mesh structure. The effects of temperature and salt ion concentration on the emulsion were investigated under optimum conditions, both of which showed good stability. Overall, our research not only highlighted straightforward strategies for preparing emulsions with higher stability using green and sustainable raw materials, but also broadened the range of applications for metal-phenol decoration.

Efficient stabilizing effect of low-dose zein/xanthan gum nanoparticles at the oil-water interface

The inherent propensity for aggregation necessitates the use of high concentrations of protein-polysaccharide nanoparticles to achieve stable Pickering emulsions. This study employed xanthan gum (XG) to mitigate the pronounced aggregation of zein nanoparticles by structure construction, thereby enhancing the emulsifying efficiency of zein/XG (Z/XG) nanoparticles. The Z/XG nanoparticles displayed significantly enhanced dispersity, with the absolute ζ-potential increasing from 6.25 mV to approximately 55 mV as the zein/XG ratio was optimized from 1:0 to 1:0.2. The Z/XG nanoparticles exhibited core-shell structure with zein as the core and XG as the shell, facilitated by electrostatic interactions. This structural transformation enables Z/XG nanoparticles to more readily adsorb at the oil-water interface. The addition of excess XG can further augment the stability of Z/XG emulsions due to the formation of XG networks in the continuous phase preventing the coalescence of oil droplets. It was demonstrated that a low concentration of 0.4 % Z/XG nanoparticles is sufficient to maintain emulsion stability under typical conditions of heating, pH, and ionic treatments. Overall, this study has developed a highly effective strategy to overcome the application challenges associated with protein-polysaccharide Pickering emulsions, broadening their potential applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.

Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by a Naturally Derived One-Dimensional All-In-One Hybrid Nanostructure

Colloidal particles generated from plant-derived proteins and polysaccharides have high potential as particulate stabilizers since they are environmentally friendly, biocompatible, and biodegradable. It has also been shown that amphiphilic anisotropic particles are more effective particulate stabilizers at the oil/water interface. In this study, a one-dimensional all-in-one zein nanoparticle/cellulose nanofiber hybrid nanostructure (ZCHN) was successfully prepared by self-assembling hydrophilic cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and hydrophobic zein nanoparticles (ZNPs). The synthetic approach is based on the antisolvent-induced deposition of uniform and discrete ZNPs on the surface of CNFs, with the electrostatic interaction between the two thought to be the main factor for their binding. Furthermore, the microstructure of the generated ZCHN can be easily tuned by the initial mass ratio of zein and CNFs. When compared to ZNPs or CNFs alone or their simple mixture, the emulsion stabilized with ZCHN displayed better long-term, high-temperature, and centrifugation stability. The efficient reduction of oil/water interfacial tension, neutral wettability, and more uniform and high coverage of ZCHN on the droplet surface were the reasons for such better emulsion stability. As an illustration, the resulting emulsion protected β-carotene effectively, exhibiting a significant improvement in stability under UV radiation and high temperature. Therefore, the prepared biocompatible Pickering emulsion is anticipated to have promising applications for the preservation and delivery of fat-soluble bioactive compounds.

Construction and characterization of novel starch-oleic acid conjugates catalyzed by microwave-assisted lipase reaction

Corn starch and oleic acid were treated with microwave-assisted lipase catalysis under low moisture conditions. The effects of the treatments on the interaction, structural changes and binding mechanism between corn starch and oleic acid were investigated. After microwave treatment, some of the α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in corn starch were broken, causing linear starch to precipitate. The content of amylose increased from 23.40 % to 51.66 %. The structure facilitates an increase the degree of complexation. The complex index of corn starch-oleic acid complexes was 43.2 % and that of corn starch-oleic acid conjugates was 57.7 %. The structures of samples were studied using by Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance carbon spectrum, and scanning electron microscopy. The results indicated that the esterification reaction promoted the complexation reaction, creating a more stable structure that was less prone to disintegration. Among them, the starch-oleic acid conjugated compounds' resistant starch content was the highest at 69.12 %. The thermal stability of the corn starch oleic acid conjugate has also increased compared to the corn starch-oleic acid complex, with ΔH increased from 26.77 % to 31.33 %. The present study confirmed that the microwave combined with lipase catalysis could produce resistant starch with a more stable structure.

Research advances in okra polysaccharides: Green extraction technology, structural features, bioactivity, processing properties and application in foods

Okra polysaccharides, extracted from a lowcost plant, has gained abundant research interests recently for exhibiting notable antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory capacities, catering for people's continuously increasing demand of safe, natural, and functional food ingredients. Meanwhile, okra polysaccharides are biocompatible materials with excellent processing properties such as water solubility, antimicrobial activity, elasticity, and viscosity. The present study generalizes the multiple biological activities and the extraction methods of okra polysaccharides, and discusses their various applications in food science. This review compares traditional and green extraction methods, reveals their impacts on the primary structures, and also elaborates the functional applications of okra polysaccharides in food industry including serving as emulsifiers, fat replacers, biofilms and microencapsulation materials. It aims to inform further research and discussions on okra polysaccharides. To our view, the development and application of okra polysaccharides should significantly contribute to the advancement of food industry and human health.

Strong self-association of chitosan microgels at interface mediated high stabilities in Pickering emulsion

The spontaneous self-organization of naturally-occurring polysaccharide particles into a thick and robust gel network at interface in Pickering emulsion is challenging. Inspired by the phenomenon that chitosan microgels (CSMs) with a certain size could self-associate into a solidified gel phase upon freezing, here we tentatively used CSMs to construct a highly-stable Pickering emulsion. CSMs can form a stable Langmuir's layer at the water/oil interface through the network deformation and re-arrangement of dangling chains, while the subsequent negative polymer coating can avoid the bridging resulting from the cross-association for CSMs on different emulsion droplets upon freezing. The experimental results indicated that the emulsion showed excellent features, including the wide pH range stability (3-12), long-term storage stability (> 3 months), thermal stability (121 °C, 30 min). Moreover, CSMs could self-associate into a reliable gel layer around the oil droplet in freezing, leading to the better freeze-thaw stability (1-3 cycles). The negative coating not only facilitates the formation of interfacial gel network around each emulsion droplet, but also produces huge steric hindrance and electrostatic repulsion to suppress the coalescence. This work provides a different way to modulate the interfacial structure, thus developing a more stable polysaccharide-based Pickering emulsion.

Insights into the Pickering emulsions stabilized by yeast dietary fiber: Interfacial adsorption kinetics, rheological characteristics, and stabilization mechanisms

This study developed Pickering emulsions based on yeast dietary fiber (YDF) and investigated the interfacial adsorption kinetics of YDF, rheological properties and stabilization mechanisms of emulsions. Results indicated that increasing YDF concentration enhanced its diffusion and rearrangement at the oil-water interface. At a concentration of 8 %, YDF exhibited the highest diffusion rate (0.1406 mN·m-1·s-0.5) and rearrangement rate (18.8 s-1). The emulsion stabilized at this concentration had the smallest droplet size (1.55 μm) and the slowest droplet migration rate (0.34 mm/h), effectively suppressing droplet aggregation due to collisions and thereby improving the overall emulsion stability. Confocal laser scanning microscopy results confirmed that emulsion stability relied on the co-adsorption of proteins and polysaccharides from YDF at the interface, with proteins primarily adsorbed at the oil-water interface and polysaccharides responsible for the continuous phase network formation. This study demonstrates YDF's potential as an emulsion stabilizer and elucidates the stabilization mechanism of YDF-induced emulsion.

Advances in 3D and 4D Printing of Gel-Based Foods: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Directions

This review examines recent advancements in gel-based 3D and 4D food-printing technologies, with a focus on their applications in personalized nutrition and functional foods. It emphasizes the critical role of tunable rheological and mechanical properties in gels such as starch, protein, and Pickering emulsions, which are essential for successful printing. The review further explores 4D food printing, highlighting stimuli-responsive mechanisms, including color changes and deformation induced by external factors like temperature and pH. These innovations enhance both the sensory and functional properties of printed foods, advancing opportunities for personalization. Key findings from recent studies are presented, demonstrating the potential of various gels to address dietary challenges, such as dysphagia, and to enable precise nutritional customization. The review integrates cutting-edge research, identifies emerging trends and challenges, and underscores the pivotal role of gel-based materials in producing high-quality 3D-printed foods. Additionally, it highlights the potential of Pickering emulsions and lipid gels for expanding functionality and structural diversity. Overall, this work provides a comprehensive foundation for advancing future research and practical applications in gel-based 3D and 4D food printing.

Emulsifying properties of cellulose nanocrystals with different structures and morphologies from various solanaceous vegetable residues

The stems of solanaceous vegetables with attractive source of cellulose, have caused severe environmental problems as agricultural residues. For the reutilization of the residues, this study isolated cellulose nanocrystals (CNs) from the stems of tomato, eggplant, and pepper to explore their applications in Pickering emulsions. Detailed analyses of the crystalline structure and morphology revealed differences in their emulsifying properties. Tomato stem CNs had higher crystallinity of 82.1 % and a short, straight rod-like shape with a low aspect ratio of 8.0, while eggplant and pepper CNs were long, curved whisker-like fibers with lower crystallinities of 75.3 % and 75.4 %, respectively. Tomato stem CNs exhibited the best emulsifying properties, attributed to their relatively higher crystallinity and larger crystal brick size enhancing amphiphilicity, along with their lower aspect ratio improving interface coverage, which resulted in stable emulsions across different temperatures, pH levels, and ionic strengths. This study enhances our understanding of how the structure and morphology of CNs influence their emulsifying properties, thereby contributing to the promotion of agricultural waste reutilization.

Using Commercial Bio-Functional Fungal Polysaccharides to Construct Emulsion Systems by Associating with SPI

Fungi polysaccharides are nutraceutical-rich compounds with bioactive properties, offering promising applications in food formulation. This study examined the non-covalent complexation of commercial polysaccharides derived from the fruiting bodies of Auricularia auricula-judae (AA) and Ganoderma lucidum (GL) and soy protein isolate to enhance emulsifying properties. Complexes were examined across protein-to-polysaccharide ratios (0:1 to 1:0), pH levels (3 to 7), and heat treatment conditions. Results indicated a maximum insoluble association at pH 4 for both SPI-AAP and SPI-GLP complexes, with SPI-AAP complexes remaining soluble at pH 3, while SPI-GLP complexes exhibited insolubility. Heat treatment had a limited effect on electrostatically driven complexation but resulted in larger particles through a protein-denaturation-induced increase of hydrophobic interactions. In terms of emulsifying properties, individual GLPs demonstrated superior performance compared to individual AAPs. The GLPs engaged in competitive adsorption at the oil-water interface alongside SPI, resulting in larger emulsion droplet sizes compared to either component alone. The association of either AAPs or GLPs with SPI enhanced the emulsion stability against coalescence and Ostwald ripening. Commercial fungal polysaccharides demonstrate substantial potential for incorporation into manufactured food products, particularly in colloidal formulations.

The Beneficial Role of Polysaccharide Hydrocolloids in Meat Products: A Review

Polysaccharide hydrocolloids have garnered increasing attention from consumers, experts, and food processing industries due to their advantages of abundant resources, favorable thickening properties, emulsification stability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high acceptance as food additives. This review focuses on the application of polysaccharide hydrocolloids and their beneficial roles in meat products by focusing on several commonly used polysaccharides (i.e., cellulose, chitosan, starch, sodium alginate, pectin, and carrageenan). Firstly, the recent advancements of polysaccharide hydrocolloids used in meat products are briefly introduced, along with their structure and potential application prospects. Then, the beneficial roles of polysaccharide hydrocolloids in meat products are comprehensively summarized and highlighted, including retarding lipid and protein oxidation, enhancing nutritional properties, improving texture and color quality, providing antibacterial activity, monitoring freshness, acting as a cryoprotectant, improving printability, and ensuring security. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of polysaccharide hydrocolloids in meat products are also introduced.

Advancements in Oral Delivery Systems for Probiotics Based on Polysaccharides

Probiotics are an essential dietary supplement for intestinal flora balance, inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and immune regulation. However, probiotic inactivation during gastrointestinal transportation remains a big challenge for oral administration. Hence, oral delivery systems (ODSs) based on polysaccharides have been constructed to protect probiotics from harsh environments. Cellulose, chitosan, alginate and their derivates have been used to form a protective layer for probiotics. This review summarizes the superiority and application of polysaccharides in forming protective layers for probiotics. Meanwhile, ODS processes including extrusion, emulsion and spray drying are also summarized. The preparation technique mechanism, the microparticle formation process and especially the role polysaccharides serve in the preparation process are overviewed. Lastly, the need for cell viability retention during the dehydration and construction of core-shell ODS microparticles is emphasized in this review.

Cellulose nanocrystals-based Pickering emulsion with enhanced foliar adhesion and pH responsiveness for intelligent delivery of pesticides

Pickering emulsions stabilized by functionalized natural macromolecules have emerged with promising responsiveness for pesticide encapsulation and release. This study developed Pickering emulsions using amine-modified cellulose nanocrystals (ACNCs) as stabilizers. The resultant O/W ACNCs-Pickering emulsions (ACNCs-Pickering) exhibited long-term storage stability and showed increasing emulsion stability depending on the concentration of ACNCs. Imidacloprid (IMI) was subsequently loaded onto the ACNCs-Pickering to form the IMI@ACNCs-Pickering via the in-situ loading route. The release rate of IMI demonstrated a notable pH responsiveness. Moreover, the IMI@ACNCs-Pickering prepared with an ACNCs concentration of 3 wt% showed optimal performances. Its foliar adhesion on Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.ssp.pekinensis) was significantly higher than that of the commercial IMI formulation (70 WS, Bayer®, LS200032) (DG). In detail, the pesticide residue for the IMI@ACNCs-Pickering was 3.8 folds to that for DG after spraying and washing for 10 min. Also, the green peach aphid mortality rate was 98.33 %, which was 1.1 folds higher than that of the DG group. The present work developed a Pickering emulsion-based fat-soluble pesticide formulation with excellent foliar adhesion, resistance to rainfall washout, and insecticidal effect. It provided a new option to ensure the sustainable development of green agriculture.

Cold atmospheric plasma-induced alterations in the multiscale structural and functional properties of guar gum

The use of guar gum in the food industry faces challenges owing to its large molecular weight and high viscosity. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is a novel technique that utilizes the reactive species produced by high voltage discharge to modify food ingredients. In this study, guar gum was treated with CAP at different powers and duration, and its rheological properties, molecular structure, thermal stability, emulsifying activity, and stability were evaluated. CAP reduced the molecular weight of guar gum and altered its M/G ratio, leading to a decrease in the apparent viscosity of guar gum and an enhancement in its thermal stability and emulsifying function for soy protein isolate emulsions. Molecular structure analysis revealed the CAP treatment did not destroy the basic structure of guar gum, but caused alterations in the linkages between its glycosidic bonds and/or carbohydrate units. Scanning electron microscopy showed guar gum changed from a dense surface structure to a porous and loose structure after CAP treatment. Therefore, CAP effectively modifies guar gum, enhancing its potential in food and other industries.

Fabrication and characterization of novel TGase-mediated glycosylated whey protein isolate nanoparticles for curcumin delivery

The aim of this study was to fabricate novel transglutaminase (TGase)-mediated glycosylated whey protein isolate (WPI) nanoparticles for the encapsulation and delivery of curcumin. The influences of glycosylation on the physiochemical properties, stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant properties of WPI nanoparticles loaded with curcumin were investigated. Composite nanoparticles exhibited uniform distribution and small particle sizes. The main driving forces for the formation of curcumin nanoparticles were electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. The encapsulation and loading efficiency of curcumin after TGase-type glycosylation were significantly increased in comparison to WPI-curcumin nanoparticles. Glycosylated WPI-curcumin nanoparticles had stronger antioxidant properties and stability to resist external environmental changes than WPI-curcumin nanoparticles. In addition, glycosylated WPI-curcumin nanoparticles showed a controlled release and enhanced curcumin bioavailability in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. This study provides novel insights for self-assembled glycosylated protein nanoparticles as delivery systems for protecting hydrophobic nutrients.

Study on the stability and magnetically induced demulsification performance of Pickering emulsions based on arginine-modified lignin/Fe3O4 nanoparticles

In this study, four different arginine-modified lignin composites (Lig-Arg-x) were synthesized via the Mannich reaction, followed by the preparation of Lig-Arg-x/Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) using hydrothermal reduction. The magnetic particles were characterized, and their emulsification properties were investigated. The highest grafting degree was achieved at a 1:1 M ratio of arginine to lignin. Pickering emulsions were formulated and Lig-Arg-x/Fe3O4 NPs as the emulsifier. The study examined the impact of arginine grafting degree, oil-to-water volume ratio, and nanoparticle concentration on emulsion stability and demulsification performance. Optimal emulsion stability, characterized by the smallest droplet size of 20.57 μm, was achieved with a 1:1 M ratio of lignin to arginine, a 7:3 oil-to-water volume ratio, and a nanoparticle concentration of 1.0 w/v%. Magnetic induction experiments demonstrated significant phase separation in the stable emulsion under a magnetic field, confirming the magnetic-induced demulsification capability of the composite particles. Oil displacement experiments demonstrated that Lig-Arg-x/Fe3O4 NPs modulate oil droplet diffusion via the Marangoni effect, indicating their potential for oil recovery applications. After three cycles, Lig-Arg-1/Fe3O4 NPs retained 80 % of their saturation magnetization, demonstrating strong reusability. This study showcases lignin-magnetite nanocomposites' versatility in stabilizing emulsions and exhibiting magnetic responsiveness, advancing demulsification and oil spill recovery technologies.

Enhancing Starch Film Properties Using Bacterial Nanocellulose-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions

This study aimed to address issues related to hydrophilicity, barrier properties, and mechanical performance in starch-based films by incorporating Pickering emulsions stabilized with nano-fibrillated bacterial cellulose (BC). Emulsions were added to the film-forming suspension at varying concentrations (1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, and 7.5% v/v) for comparison. The films were evaluated using water vapor permeability (WVP), contact angle, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and tensile tests. The results showed a significant reduction in film hydrophilicity, with the contact angle increasing from 49.7° ± 1.5 to 71.0° ± 1.4, and improved water vapor barrier properties, with WVP decreasing from 0.085 ± 0.04 to 0.016 ± 0.01 g·mm/h·m2·kPa. FTIR analysis confirmed the successful incorporation of the emulsion into the starch matrix. Among the tested concentrations, 2.5% provided an optimal balance, increasing hydrophobicity while maintaining mechanical strength. These findings demonstrate that Pickering emulsions are an effective strategy for enhancing the functional properties of starch films.

The latest research progress on polysaccharides-based biosensors for food packaging: A review

In recent years, polysaccharide-based biosensors have emerged as promising technologies for intelligent food packaging, offering innovative solutions to enhance food quality and safety. This review highlights advancements in designing, developing, and applying these biosensors, particularly those utilizing polysaccharides such as chitosan, cellulose and alginate. Engineered with nanomaterials like ZnO, silver, and carbon nano-tubes demonstrated high sensitivity in real-time monitoring of food spoilage indicators, including pH changes, volatile nitrogen compounds and microbial activity. We discuss the electrochemical properties of these biosensors, highlighting how the integration of electrochemical methods significantly improves their detection capabilities within packaging environments, leading to sensor sensitivity enhancement, greater accuracy, and spoilage detection, ultimately extending the shelf life of perishable food products. Additionally, the review addresses the practical challenges of industrial implementation and explores future research directions for optimizing sensor functionality and scalability. The findings underscore the potential of polysaccharide-based intelligent packaging as a sustainable and effective alternative to conventional methods, paving the way for broader commercial adoption.

Ultrasound-assisted fabrication of chitosan-hydroxypropyl methylcellulose nanoemulsions loaded with thymol and cinnamaldehyde: Physicochemical properties, stability, and antifungal activity

This study investigated the influence of chitosan (CH) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (H), along with ultrasound power, on the physicochemical properties, antifungal activity, and stability of oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions containing thymol and cinnamaldehyde in a 7:3 (v/v) ratio. Eight O/W formulations were prepared using CH, H, and a 1:1 (v/v) blend of CH and H, both with and without ultrasonication (U). Compared to untreated samples, U-treated nanoemulsions had lower droplet sizes (433-301 nm), polydispersity index (0.42-0.47), and zeta potential (-0.42-0.77 mV). The U treatment decreased L* and b* values, increased a* color attribute values, and increased apparent viscosity (0.26-2.17) at the same shear rate. After 28 days, microbiological testing of nanoemulsions treated with U showed counts below the detection limits (< 2 log CFU mL-1). The U-treated nanoemulsions exhibited stronger antifungal effects against R. stolonifer, with the NE/CH-U and NE/CH-H-U formulations demonstrating the lowest minimum inhibitory and fungicidal concentrations, measured at 0.12 and 0.24 μL/mL, respectively. On day 28, U-treated nanoemulsions demonstrated higher ionic, thermal, and physical stability than untreated samples. These findings suggest that the stability and antifungal efficacy of polysaccharide-based nanoemulsions may be improved by ultrasonic treatment. This study paves the way for innovative, highly stable nanoemulsions.

Structural and functional properties of polysaccharides extracted from three Dioscorea species

Dioscorea has a history spanning over 2000 years for both medicinal and edible purposes in China. It contains rich polysaccharides, which are frequently utilized as thickening and stabilizing agents in the food industry. However, there has been relatively little focus on polysaccharides from common Dioscorea species besides D. opposita, such as D. alata and D. esculenta. In this study, non-starch crude polysaccharides were isolated from D. opposita (BD), D. alata (WC), and D. esculenta (GZ). Their structures, physicochemical compositions, and functional properties were characterized and compared. The results indicated three polysaccharides all exhibited characteristic peaks of polysaccharides and possessed triple-helix structures. The Glc (36.78-83.90 %), Man (6.71-26.68 %), and GalA (8.54-10.22 %) were identified as the primary monosaccharide components. In terms of functionality, three polysaccharide solutions demonstrated non-Newtonian flow characteristics and displayed commendable thermal stability. It is worth noting that the antioxidant and emulsifying properties of polysaccharides isolated from D. opposita (BD) and D. alata (WC) were superior to those of D. esculenta (GZ), making them more suitable for use as antioxidants and stabilizers. By comparing polysaccharides derived from different Dioscorea species, this study provides valuable insights into the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries based on the unique properties of these different polysaccharides.

Water chestnut starch nanoparticle Pickering emulsion for enhanced apricot seed oil stability: A sustainable functionality approach

The usage of starch nanoparticles for Pickering emulsion stabilization has become more popular for various benefits. This work investigated the potential of nano reduced starch as stabilizer in Pickering emulsions. Two different concentrations of starch nanoparticles (2.5 % and 5 %) were used for stabilization of apricot seed oil-in-water Pickering emulsion. Emulsion stabilized by 5 % starch nanoparticles (PE (5 %)) displayed zeta potential of -46.92 mV and emulsions stabilized by 2.5 % starch nanoparticles (PE (2.5 %)) exhibited zeta potential of -15.33 mV. In PE (2.5 %) after 24 h, creaming index (CI) was 12 %. CI remained zero in PE (5 %) after 30 days of storage period.PE (2.5 %) and apricot oil (AO) showed higher peroxide value than PE (5 %). Malondialdehyde (MDA) content of AO was 156.02 mmol/kg oil after 30 day storage period at 45 °C. Comparatively, PE (5 %) possessed lower MDA content (36.02 mmol/kg oil). The findings revealed that starch nanoparticles can be used as stabilizer in Pickering emulsions for stabilization and preventing lipid oxidation in polyunsaturated fatty acid rich oils. This study introduces a sustainable approach to enhance the stability of apricot seed oil using underutilized starch nanoparticles.

3D printing of Pickering emulsions, Pickering foams and capillary suspensions - A review of stabilization, rheology and applications

Pickering emulsions and foams as well as capillary suspensions are becoming increasingly more popular as inks for 3D printing. However, a lack of understanding of the bulk rheological properties needed for their application in 3D printing is potentially stifling growth in the area, hence the timeliness of this review. Herein, we review the stability and bulk rheology of these materials as well as the applications of their 3D-printed products. By highlighting how the bulk rheology is tuned, and specifically the inks storage modulus, yield stress and critical balance between the two, we present a rheological performance map showing regions where good prints and slumps are observed thus providing clear guidance for future ink formulations. To further advance this field, we also suggest standard experimental protocols for characterizing the bulk rheology of the three types of ink: capillary suspension, Pickering emulsion and Pickering foam for 3D printing by direct ink writing.

Wide pH, Adaptable High Internal Phase Pickering Emulsion Stabilized by a Crude Polysaccharide from Thesium chinense Turcz

The ultrasound-assisted extraction conditions of Thesium chinense Turcz. crude polysaccharide (TTP) were optimized, and a TTP sample with a yield of 11.9% was obtained. TTP demonstrated the ability to stabilize high-internal-phase oil-in-water emulsions with an oil phase volume reaching up to 80%. Additionally, the emulsions stabilized by TTP were examined across different pH levels, ionic strengths, and temperatures. The results indicated that the emulsions stabilized by TTP exhibited stability over a wide pH range of 1-11. The emulsion remained stable under ionic strengths of 0-500 mM and temperatures of 4-55 °C. The microstructure of the emulsions was observed using confocal laser scanning microscopy, and the stabilization mechanism of the emulsion was hypothesized. Soluble polysaccharides formed a network structure in the continuous phase, and the insoluble polysaccharides dispersed in the continuous phase, acting as a bridge structure, which worked together to prevent oil droplet aggregation. This research was significant for developing a new food-grade emulsifier with a wide pH range of applicability.

Effects of Exidia yadongensis polysaccharide as emulsifier on the stability, aroma, and antioxidant activities of fat-free stirred mango buffalo yogurt

Because of the poor stability and rheological properties of fat-free stirred yogurt fortified with fruit pulp, new functional polysaccharides as a natural emulsifier, which can increase viscosity in the aqueous phase, may be needed. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Exidia yadongensis polysaccharide (EYP) as emulsifier on the stability, aroma, and antioxidant activities of mango buffalo yogurt at 4 °C for 25 days. The yogurt with 15 g/L EYP gave a higher content of 215 g/L total solids, 11.3 g/L exopolysaccharides, 0.10 g/L total polyphenols, 630.5 g/L water-holding capacity, and 11.43 g/kg total free amino acids, and maintained better texture, DPPH scavenging activity of 54.05 % and OH scavenging rates of 67.16 %. Moreover, the EYP exhibited the expected ability to weaken postacidification, syneresis, and growth of microorganism, and greatly promote the textural, rheological properties, suspension stability, microstructure, and aroma profiles of stirred mango-flavored buffalo yogurt (p < 0.05). In addition, the addition of 15 g/L EYP can inhibit protein degradation and improve the stability of secondary structure of the protein complex in mango yogurt during 25 days of storage. Therefore, EYP (15 g/L) could be used as natural positive functional factors and emulsifiers in such fat-free stirred yogurt industry.

Characterization, stability, and curcumin bioaccessibility of buckwheat flower polysaccharide conjugate emulsion

In this study, buckwheat flower polysaccharide conjugates (BFPCs) were synthesized and evaluated for their emulsification properties. The stability of BFPC-stabilized emulsions was assessed through particle size analysis, zeta potential measurements, microscopic observations, and rheological tests. Gum Arabic served as a control to compare BFPC's emulsifying efficacy across varying storage conditions, including exposure to metal ions, pH variations, and different heat treatment temperatures. Results showed that BFPC significantly lowered interfacial tension (16.2 mN/m) and effectively stabilized emulsions containing 60 wt% medium-chain triglycerides at a concentration of 1.0 wt%. Over a 20-day storage period, BFPC emulsions demonstrated robust resistance to heat (60-90°C), acidic conditions (pH 2.0-9.0), and ion concentrations (Na+, Ca2+). Moreover, in a high oil phase emulsion, BFPC enhanced the bioavailability of curcumin to 27.05%, markedly higher than the 7.10% observed without emulsification, underscoring its potential in nutrient delivery applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Due to its excellent resistance, long-time emulsifying stability under different conditions, and its good effect in curcumin embedding, BFPC has a broad prospect and can be widely used under various conditions in food industry.

Octenyl succinic anhydride tigernut starch: Structure, physicochemical properties and stability of curcumin-loaded Pickering emulsion

In recent years, there has been increasing attention to starch particle-stabilized Pickering emulsions. In this study, the tigernut starch (TNS) was isolated from the tigernut meal, and further octenyl succinic anhydride tigernut starch (OSATNS) was prepared by a semi-dry method. The structure of OSATNS was analyzed and characterized by degrees of substitution (DS), contact angle, SEM, and FTIR. OSATNS was then used to stabilize the curcumin-loaded Pickering emulsion to improve the water solubility and stability of the curcumin. The results showed that OSATNS with 3 %-9 % OSA exhibited a DS range of 0.012 to 0.029, and its contact angle increased from 69.23° to 84.76°. SEM revealed that TNS consisted of small starch particles averaging 7.71 μm, and esterification did not significantly alter their morphology or size. FTIR analysis confirmed successful OSA incorporation by revealing two new peaks at 1732 cm-1 and 1558 cm-1. After 7 days of storage, Pickering emulsions stabilized with OSATNS-9 % exhibited superior stability and curcumin retention compared to Tween 80 emulsions, maintaining retention rates above 80 % even after different heat treatments. In conclusion, this study shows the potential application of OSATNS in stabilizing Pickering emulsions and demonstrates its good thermal stability and protection against curcumin during storage.

Hot-water soluble fraction of starch as particle-stabilizers of oil-in-water emulsions: Effect of dry heat modification

Dry heat treatment (DHT) ranging from 130 to 190 °C was employed to modify corn starch. The hot-water soluble fraction (HWS) of the DHT-modified starch was isolated, and its capacity and mechanism for stabilizing O/W emulsions were investigated. Corn starch underwent a significant structural transformation by DHT at 190 °C, characterized by a 7.3 % reduction in relative crystallinity, a tenfold decrease in weight-average molecular weight from 95.21 to 8.11 × 106 g/mol, and a degradation of over one-third of the extra-long chains of amylopectin (DP > 36) into short chains (DP 6-12). These structural modifications resulted in a substantial formation of soluble amylopectin, leading to a sharp increase in the HWS content of corn starch from 3.16 % to 85.06 %. This augmented HWS content surpassed the critical macromolecule concentration, prompting the formation of HWS nanoaggregates. These nanoaggregates, with an average particle size of 33 nm, functioned as particle stabilizers, ensuring the stability of the O/W emulsion through the Pickering mechanism. The O/W emulsion stabilized by HWS nanoaggregates exhibited noteworthy centrifugal and storage stability, with rheological properties remaining nearly unchanged over a storage period of 180 days. Given its straightforward preparation process, the HWS of DHT-modified starch could be a promising natural emulsifier.

Dual-Responsive "Egg-Box" Shaped Microgel Beads Based on W1/O/W2 Double Emulsions for Colon-Targeted Delivery of Synbiotics

In this study, for enhancing the resistance of probiotics to environmental factors, we designed a microgel beads delivery system loaded with synbiotics. Multiple droplets of W1/O/W2 emulsions stabilized with zein-apple pectin hybrid nanoparticles (ZAHPs) acted as the inner "egg," whereas a three-dimensional network of poly-L-lysine (PLL)-alginate-CaCl2 (Ca) crosslinked gel layers served as the outermost "box." ZAHPs with a mass ratio of 2:1 zein-to-apple pectin showed excellent wettability (three-phase contact angle = 89.88°). The results of the ζ-potentials and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrate that electrostatic interaction forces and hydrogen bonding were the main forces involved in the formation of ZAHPs. On this basis, we prepared W1/O/W2 emulsions with other preparation parameters and observed their microstructures by optical microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscope. The multi-chambered structures of W1/O/W2 emulsions were successfully visualized. Finally, the W1/O/W2 emulsions were coated with PLL-alginate-Ca using the solution extrusion method. The results of the in vitro colonic digestion stage reveal that the survival rate of probiotics in the microgel beads was about 75.11%, which was significantly higher than that of the free. Moreover, probiotics encapsulated in microgel beads also showed positive storage stability. Apple pectin would serve as both an emulsifier and a prebiotic. Thus, the results indicate that the "egg-box" shaped microgel beads, designed on the basis of pH-sensitive and enzyme-triggered mechanisms, can enhance the efficiency of probiotics translocation in the digestive tract and mediate spatiotemporal controlled release.

Influence of carboxymethyl cellulose on the stability, rheology, and curcumin bioaccessibility of high internal phase Pickering emulsions

Recently, there has been a focus on using biopolymer-based particles to stabilize high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) due to the notable advances in biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this work, the complex particles of peanut protein isolate and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with various substitution degrees (DS; 0.7 and 0.9) and weight average molecular weights (Mw; 90, 250, and 700 kDa) were prepared and characterized as novel stabilizers. For the obtained four types of morphologically distinct particles, the complex particles formed by CMC (0.9 DS and 250 kDa) showed cluster structures with an average size of 1.271 μm, equally biphasic wettability with three-phase contact angles of 91.5°, and the highest diffusion rate at the oil-water interface. HIPPEs stabilized by these particles exhibited more elastic behavior due to the smaller tanδ and higher viscosity, as well as excellent thixotropic recovery properties and stability against heating, storage, and freeze-thawing. Furthermore, confocal laser scanning microscopy verified that these particles formed a dense interfacial layer around the oil droplets, which could resist flocculation and coalescence between oil droplets during in vitro digestion. The improved bioaccessibility of curcumin-loaded HIPPEs made these delivery systems potentially apply in functional foods.

Konjac glucomannan-assisted fabrication of stable emulsion-based oleogels constructed with pea protein isolate and its application in surimi gels

Konjac glucomannan (KGM) is widely used as a stabilizer for the structuring of highly unsaturated oils. This study aimed to investigate the changes in structure and functional properties of soybean oil - based oleogels (emulsion template method) prepared with different amounts of KGM-modified pea isolate protein (PPI). The findings revealed that the oleogels formed three - dimensional networks through van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding between the stretched PPI and KGM. As the amount of KGM increased, the oil droplets were more uniformly dispersed within the continuous PPI - KGM rigid network, especially when the ratio of PPI to KGM was 4:1. This formulation also showed the highest thixotropy (73.2 %) and the best oil binding capacity (94 %). Cryo - SEM revealed that the oleogel - prepared surimi gels successfully enclosed oil droplets in a dense matrix through a dual stabilization mechanism. Additionally, the incorporation of oleogels significantly improved the textural properties of surimi in comparison to directly adding oil.

Emulsions delivery systems of functional substances for precision nutrition

Many functional substances are chemically unstable and exhibit variable water/oil solubility, reducing their bioavailability and efficacy. It is necessary to devise effective measures to improve the unfavorable properties of functional substances and maximize their potential benefits in nutritional interventions. Therefore, the development and application of edible emulsion-based delivery systems for these functional substances using food-grade materials would be highly beneficial for the food industry. In recent years, Pickering emulsions have garnered significant attention in the scientific community due to their characteristic of being free from surfactants. This section focuses on emphasizing the design and preparation of emulsion delivery systems based on functional substances. Additionally, we summarize the current applications of emulsion delivery systems in functional substances. This chapter also discusses the potential advantages of Pickering emulsion systems in the precise nutrition field, including high targeting specificity and nutritional intervention for various diseases. Well-designed Pickering emulsion delivery carriers for functional substances can enhance their stability in food processing and in vivo digestion. To meet the nutritional needs of specific populations for functional foods, utilizing emulsion delivery systems to improve the bioavailability of functional substances will provide a theoretical basis for the precise nutrition of functional substances in functional foods.

Stabilization mechanisms and digestion properties of Pickering emulsions prepared with tempo-oxidized hyaluronic acid/chitosan nanoparticles: From the perspective of oxidation degree

In this study, the stabilization mechanism and digestion behavior of Pickering emulsion prepared by a combination of chitosan (CS) and TEMPO-oxidized hyaluronic acid (HA) were investigated. Conductometric titration was used to determine the degree of oxidation and carboxylate content of TEMPO-oxidized HA. The results showed that the degree of oxidation increased proportionally with increasing oxidation time, and the electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions with CS were significantly enhanced. The results of FTIR and TEM showed the formation of CS/oxidized HA nanoparticles (CS/oxidized-HANPs). In addition, the contact angle of CS/oxidized-HANPs is closed to 77°, thereby providing higher desorption energy at the interface. Rheological results showed that the Pickering emulsion exhibited a gel-like network structure and higher viscosity. In vitro digestion results suggested that the quercetin (Que) bioaccessibility of the CS/oxidation HANps-stabilized Pickering emulsion with an oxidation time of 20 min was better than that of the conventional emulsion prepared with CS alone. The research is expected to develop novel polysaccharide-based Pickering emulsion delivery systems for functional compounds.

Plant gums in Pickering emulsions: A review of sources, properties, applications, and future perspectives

Recently, there has been an increasing research interest in the development of Pickering emulsions stabilized with naturally derived biopolymeric particles. In this regard, plant gums, obtained as plant exudates or from plant seeds, are considered promising candidates for the development of non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable and eco-friendly Pickering stabilizers. The main objective of this review article is to provide a detailed overview and assess the latest advances in the formulation of Pickering emulsions stabilized with plant gum-based particles. The plant gum sources, types and properties are outlined. Besides, the current methodologies used in the production of plant gum particles formed solely of plant gums, or through interactions of plant gums with proteins or other polysaccharides are highlighted and discussed. Furthermore, the work compiles and assesses the innovative applications of plant gum-based Pickering emulsions in areas such as encapsulation and delivery of drugs and active agents, along with the utilization of these Pickering emulsions in the development of active packaging films, plant-based products and low-fat food formulations. The last part of the review presents potential future research trends that are expected to motivate and direct research to areas related to other novel food applications, as well as tissue engineering and environmental applications.

General approaches to biopolymer-based Pickering emulsions

Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion that uses solid particles or colloidal particles as emulsifiers rather than surfactants to adhere at oil-water interface. Pickering emulsions have gathered significant research attention recently due to their excellent stability and wide range of potential uses compared to traditional emulsions. Major advancements have been made in development of innovative Pickering emulsions using different colloidal particles by various techniques including homogenization, emulsification and ultrasonication. Use of biopolymer particles gives Pickering emulsions a more escalating possibilities. In this review paper, we seek to present a critical overview of development in food-grade particles that have been utilized to create Pickering emulsions with a focus on techniques and application of Pickering emulsions. Particularly, we have evaluated protein, lipid, polysaccharide-based particles and microalgal proteins that have emerged in recent years with respect to their potential to stabilize and add novel functionalities to Pickering emulsions. Some preparation methods of Pickering emulsions in brief, applications of Pickering emulsions are also highlighted. Encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds, fat substitutes, film formation and catalysis are potential applications of Pickering emulsions. Pickering double emulsions, nutraceutical and bioactive co-delivery, and preparation of porous materials are among research trends of food-grade Pickering emulsions.

Pickering emulsion biocatalysis: Bridging interfacial design with enzymatic reactions

Non-homogeneous enzyme-catalyzed systems are more widely used than homogeneous systems. Distinguished from the conventional biphasic approach, Pickering emulsion stabilized by ultrafine solid particles opens up an innovative platform for biocatalysis. Their vast specific surface area significantly enhances enzyme-substrate interactions, dramatically increasing catalytic efficiency. This review comprehensively explores various aspects of Pickering emulsion biocatalysis, provides insights into the multiple types and mechanisms of its catalysis, and offers strategies for material design, enzyme immobilization, emulsion formation control, and reactor design. Characterization methods are summarized for the determination of drop size, emulsion type, interface morphology, and emulsion potential. Furthermore, recent reports on the design of stimuli-responsive reaction systems are reviewed, enabling the simple control of demulsification. Moreover, the review explores applications of Pickering emulsion in single-step, cascade, and continuous flow reactions and outlines the challenges and future directions for the field. Overall, we provide a review focusing on Pickering emulsions catalysis, which can draw the attention of researchers in the field of catalytic system design, further empowering next-generation bioprocessing.

Anisotropic materials based on carbohydrate polymers: A review of fabrication strategies, properties, and applications

Anisotropic structures exist in almost all living organisms to endow them with superior properties and physiological functionalities. However, conventional artificial materials possess unordered isotropic structures, resulting in limited functions and applications. The development of anisotropic structures on carbohydrates is reported to have an impact on their properties and applications. In this review, various alignment strategies for carbohydrates (i.e., cellulose, chitin and alginate) from bottom-up to top-down strategies are discussed, including the rapidly developed innovative technologies such as shear-induced orientation through extrusion-based 3D/4D printing, magnetic-assisted alignment, and electric-induced alignment. The unique properties and wide applications of anisotropic carbohydrate materials across different fields, from biomedical, biosensors, smart actuators, soft conductive materials, to thermal management are also summarized. Finally, recommendations on the selection of fabrication strategies are given. The major challenge lies in the construction of long-range hierarchical alignment with high orientation degree and precise control over complicated architectures. With the future development of hierarchical alignment strategies, alignment control techniques, and alignment mechanism elucidation, the potential of anisotropic carbohydrate materials for scalable manufacture and clinical applications will be fully realized.

Physicochemical characterization and environmental stability of a curcumin-loaded Pickering nanoemulsion using a pea protein isolate-dextran conjugate via the Maillard reaction

This study investigated pea protein isolate (PPI) and dextran (DX) conjugates produced via the Maillard reaction as Pickering stabilizers for various food applications. The results found that as heating time increased (0-5 h), the grafting degree heightened. The PPI-DX conjugate exhibited a rough porous surface in contrast to native PPI, accompanied by changes in molecular weight and secondary structure. Additionally, the aggregation of low-solubility PPI was partially inhibited due to the contribution of increased solubility and reduced surface hydrophobicity by glycation. Curcumin-loaded Pickering nanoemulsions stabilized with PPI-DX had smaller droplets and higher curcumin encapsulation (greater than80 %) than PPI-stabilized nanoemulsions. PPI-DX adsorbed on the interface showed improved physical stability compared to PPI alone, even after various pH conditions and three heat treatments. The nanoemulsion stabilized with PPI-DX demonstrated improved apparent viscosity and dispersion stability. These findings highlight the effectiveness of PPI-DX conjugates as stabilizers for developing stable and functional Pickering nanoemulsions.

Emulsification Characteristics of Insoluble Dietary Fibers from Pomelo Peel: Effects of Acetylation, Enzymatic Hydrolysis, and Wet Ball Milling

To improve the application potential of pomelo peel insoluble dietary fiber (PIDF) in emulsion systems, acetylation (PIDF-A), cellulase hydrolysis (PIDF-E), and wet ball milling (PIDF-M) were investigated in this paper as methods to change the emulsification properties of PIDF. The impact of the methods on PIDF composition, structure, and physicochemical properties was also assessed. The results demonstrated that both acetylation modification and cellulase hydrolysis could significantly improve the emulsification properties of PIDF. The emulsions stabilized with PIDF-A and PIDF-E could be stably stored at 25 °C for 30 d without phase separation at particle concentrations above 0.8% (w/v) and had higher storage stability: The D4,3 increments of PIDF-A- and PIDF-E-stabilized emulsions were 0.98 μm and 0.49 μm, respectively, at particle concentrations of 1.2% (w/v), while the storage stability of PIDF-M-stabilized emulsion (5.29 μm) significantly decreased compared with that of PIDF (4.00 μm). Moreover, PIDF-A showed the highest water retention capacity (21.84 g/g), water swelling capacity (15.40 mL/g), oil retention capacity (4.67 g/g), and zeta potential absolute (29.0 mV) among the PIDFs. In conclusion, acetylation modification was a promising method to improve the emulsifying properties of insoluble polysaccharides.

Progress of Drug Nanocrystal Self-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions: Construction, Characteristics In Vitro, and Fate In Vivo

A drug nanocrystal self-stabilized Pickering emulsion (DNSPE) is a novel Pickering emulsion with drug nanocrystals as the stabilizer. As a promising drug delivery system, DNSPEs have attracted increasing attention in recent years due to their high drug loading capacity and ability to reduce potential safety hazards posed by surfactants or specific solid particles. This paper comprehensively reviews the progress of research on DNSPEs, with an emphasis on the main factors influencing their construction, characteristics and measurement methods in vitro, and fate in vivo, and puts forward issues that need to be studied further. The review contributes to the advancement of DNSPE research and the promotion of their application in the field of drug delivery.

Improving the emulsifying capacity of brewers' spent grain arabinoxylan by carboxymethylation

Arabinoxylan derived from brewers' spent grain was carboxymethylated, and the emulsifying capacity of carboxymethylated arabinoxylans (CMAX) with different degrees of substitution (DS) was investigated. Results showed that carboxymethylation greatly enhanced the emulsifying capacity and emulsion stability of CMAX compared to the initial arabinoxylan. CMAX developed decreased ζ-potential, higher hydrophilicity, and improved interfacial adsorption capacity. Consequently, the denser and stronger interface on the oil droplet was formed, and the stabilizing mechanism was altered. Moreover, CMAX with lower DS could effectively stabilize emulsions during storage at a concentration of 0.5 % and pH between 6 and 7. Higher DS, however, led to poorer emulsion stability and greater flocculation as a result of the fragile interface formed by excess intermolecular ionic force. The research found CMAX potential in emulsion stabilizing and further applications in food processing.