We will eat disgusting foods together – Evidence of the normative basis of Western entomophagy-disgust from an insect tasting

Psychological factors influencing consumer intentions to consume cultured meat, fish and dairy

This study investigates the structure of factors that influence consumer intentions to both try and to consume cultured proteins, and their intentions to substitute vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets with these alternative protein sources. Comprehensive survey data (N = 3862) was collected from three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, and Norway) and analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Theoretically, this article draws from behavioural models of environmental psychology, identity theory, and attitude theory. Results indicate that beliefs about the necessity of an industry producing cultured proteins and impacts of cultured proteins on the global economy are significant predictors of consumer intentions. Moreover, participants who exhibited high levels of general and food innovativeness were more likely to express positive intentions to consume cultured proteins. Social norms influenced consumer intentions: Individuals surrounded by positive attitudes and intentions toward cultured proteins within their social networks were more inclined to want to consume these products. The predictor variables in the final model accounted for between 39% and 66% of the variance in the different cultured proteins related intentions. Understanding consumer intentions better can inform targeted communication strategies aimed at promoting the advantages of cultured proteins and facilitating its adoption.

Development of a lexicon for the sensory description of edible insects commercially available in Australia

Sensory lexicons provide an important tool for describing the sensory properties of emerging, unfamiliar foods such as edible insects. This study sought to establish and validate a sensory lexicon for the description and differentiation of edible insects commercially available in Australia and prepared using common preservation and cooking methods (freeze-drying, hot-air drying, roasting, sautéing and deep-frying). Five species were evaluated, including house crickets (Acheta domesticus), yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), king mealworm larvae (Zophobas morio), tyrant ants (Iridomyrmex spp.) and green tree ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Following generic descriptive sensory analysis methods, a trained panel (n=8) developed a sensory lexicon of 29 aroma and flavour descriptors, and 16 texture descriptors. Vocabulary were then categorised and ordered to generate a sensory wheel. Due to a lack of cross-over in sensory attributes between species, sub-categories of species-specific vocabulary were also generated for each insect. The lexicon enabled sensory profiling of commercially available edible insect samples which revealed large variation in aroma, flavour, and texture attributes due to both species and preparation method. This work provides a platform for development of a globally relevant edible insect sensory lexicon. International collaboration will enable expansion of the lexicon for use with other insect species and preparation methods, insect-derived ingredients (such as insect powder, defatted insect powder and textured insect protein) and in different cultural settings. As the industry grows, the applicability of vocabulary for differentiating within species and between competitive products should also be assessed.

Determinants of Consumers' Acceptance and Adoption of Novel Food in View of More Resilient and Sustainable Food Systems in the EU: A Systematic Literature Review

This review article aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the main determinants of consumers' acceptance of novel foods (new foods and ingredients) in the EU with emphasis on product's intrinsic properties (sensory characteristics) and individual factors (socio-demographics, perceptive, psychological) by adopting a systematic approach following the PRISMA methodology. Case studies on terrestrial (i.e., insects, cultured meat and other animal origin products, plant-based food including mushrooms, plant-based analogues, pulses, and cereals) and aquatic systems (i.e., algae and jellyfish) are included focusing on age-related and cross-national differences in consumer acceptance of novel foods and ingredients. General trends have emerged that are common to all the novel foods analysed, regardless of their aquatic or terrestrial origin. Aspects such as food neophobia, unfamiliarity, and poor knowledge of the product are important barriers to the consumption of novel foods, while healthiness and environmental sustainability perception are drivers of acceptance. Sensory properties are challenging for more familiar ingredients such as plant-based food (e.g., novel food made by pulses, mushrooms, cereals and pseudocereals). Results are discussed in terms of feasibility of introducing these products in the EU food systems highlighting strategies that can encourage the use of new ingredients or novel foods.

Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: A systematic review

According to the definition adopted in the European Union, novel foods are foods that were not consumed to a significant degree within the Union before May 15, 1997. This includes cultivated meat and insects. Novel foods are meant to play a critical role in the transition towards sustainable food systems. However, their success depends on whether and to what extent they will be incorporated into the diets at the population level. This review investigates consumers' perception of novel food products by narratively synthesising results on the influence of heuristics and biases triggered by emotions, personality traits, and socio-cultural factors. Empirical studies conducted in Western countries and published in English after 1997 were eligible, which led to 182 studies being included. Notably, most included studies focused on insects and cultivated meat. Disgust and fear are shown to be the main emotions driving rejection of novel foods, together with food neophobia and specific cultural norms common across countries included in the scope of the review. Familiarity with novel foods and curiosity both led to higher acceptance. Despite being investigated directly in a minority of studies, heuristics and related biases mostly fell under the "affect," the "natural-is-better," and the "trust" heuristics. The review also discusses to what extent consumers' perception reflects in the regulatory framework applicable to novel foods in the European Union, how it influences the regulation of insects and cultivated meat and which lessons can be drawn for the future of the regulatory framework.

Edible Insects in Slavic Culture: Between Tradition and Disgust

Insects are a conventional food in many cultures worldwide. Why therefore are they treated with aversion by the majority of people in Western countries? The aim of this work is to understand cultural norms and historical practices related to insects that can explain why in the countries of the West it is so difficult to accept them as a foodstuff, and why the disgust that they arouse is more common than in other regions of the world. Insects in Western countries are associated with negative experiences resulting from cultural and religious beliefs, traditions, stories, myths and individual experiences. Although there are species of insect that have positive associations, the high number of negative terms popularized the negative image of these creatures in people's minds, as a result of which the concept of insects as a foodstuff arouses disgust in the culture of the West. Understanding the aversion to insects will contribute to the broader understanding of consumer attitudes, cultural influences on consumption, or potential shifts in food choices. It also can help develop strategies or methods that will assist in changing this reluctance and encourage the utilization of insects as a food source.

Breaking Conventional Eating Habits: Perception and Acceptance of 3D-Printed Food among Taiwanese University Students

Considering the prevalent strain on environmental resources imparted by existing food systems, prioritizing environmental sustainability is an imperative course of action. Subsequently, the shift towards sustainable production and consumption patterns engenders an escalating demand for environmentally conscious food systems. Thus, 3D-printed food technology surfaces are a promising solution noted for their efficacy in curtailing food waste, bolstering environmental sustainability, and imparting innovative strategies to the food supply chain. Herein, we amalgamate the theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework with several variables, namely 'sensory appeal', 'food neophobia', 'perceived health risk', and 'environmental friendliness' to probe the behavioral intentions of Taiwanese university students' perceptions about 3D-printed food. Employing the snowball sampling method, 370 questionnaires were disseminated, out of which 319, constituting an effective retrieval rate of 86.2%, were deemed valid. Statistical analysis produced intriguing findings. Consumers' inclination to purchase 3D-printed food is substantially determined by their attitudes, subjective norms, sensory appeal, food neophobia, perceived health risks, and environmental friendliness. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, perceived behavioral control did not exhibit a significant impact on consumers' propensity to purchase 3D-printed food. Therefore, businesses should focus on magnifying the sensory appeal of 3D-printed food, coupled with precise nutritional labeling, to bolster consumer interest, enhance acceptance, and augment behavioral intentions. This study sheds light on the potential for the development of 3D-printed food in Taiwan, providing an indispensable reference for future endeavors in Taiwan's 3D-printed food industry.

A Model for Consumer Acceptance of Insect-Based Dog Foods among Adult UK Dog Owners

The use of alternative proteins is becoming more common in pet feed, and insect-based dog foods (IBDFs) are becoming more widely available. However, little research has been conducted to date in respect of the drivers for consumers' acceptance of IBDF. This study aimed to investigate the acceptance of IBDF among adult UK dog owners and the factors influencing the decision to try and buy such products. A theoretical model was developed following a review of the existing literature. An online survey of 280 participants was carried out and the results were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM) to test the theoretical model. The following constructs all had a significant impact on attitudes towards IBDF and/or intentions to try and buy IBDF: food preferences for animal welfare, health and environment; attitudes towards uses of animals; beliefs about insect sentience; disgust; perceptions of benefits and risks; and social norms. Social norms had the strongest influence of any single construct. Consumer acceptance of IBDF is multi-faceted including social, cultural and ethical components, and it is likely that the better availability of information and opportunities for consumers to familiarise themselves with IBDF would help to drive consumer acceptance. In order to allow dog owners to make informed decisions in line with their ethical preferences, further research is needed to establish the overall health and welfare implications of IBDF on the animals involved in production, as well as the companion animals, who are the ultimate consumers.

Encouraging willingness to try insect foods with a utility-value intervention

Despite the benefits of eating insects (entomophagy), Western society is often inclined to reject this practice based on initial reactions of disgust. It is suggested there is potential to overcome this attitude through increasing interest and gaining knowledge of the benefits. One way to accomplish this is through an adapted utility-value intervention, traditionally applied in education research, to increase interest and perceived value in a topic. Across two studies (each with a one-month follow-up) participants researched and wrote an essay designed to increase interest and value in entomophagy or a control essay. Participants then completed a rating task assessing their willingness to try insect and familiar foods, along with other key attributes (e.g., sustainability). The utility-value intervention increased willingness to try insect foods as well as other key attributes compared to a non-insect control essay (Study 1). Unexpectedly, we also found a potentially similar (but smaller) effect of researching an insect-based recipe (Study 2) on willingness to try. The effects found in both studies were consistent at follow-up. These findings indicate the usefulness of utility-value interventions in encouraging entomophagy but also suggest that exposure to information about insect food, although less effective than a utility-value intervention, may also be sufficient.

Proximate Content Monitoring of Black Soldier Fly Larval (Hermetia illucens) Dry Matter for Feed Material using Short-Wave Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging

Edible insects are gaining popularity as a potential future food source because of their high protein content and efficient use of space. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are noteworthy because they can be used as feed for various animals including reptiles, dogs, fish, chickens, and pigs. However, if the edible insect industry is to advance, we should use automation to reduce labor and increase production. Consequently, there is a growing demand for sensing technologies that can automate the evaluation of insect quality. This study used short-wave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging to predict the proximate composition of dried BSFL, including moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and crude ash content. The larvae were dried at various temperatures and times, and images were captured using an SWIR camera. A partial least-squares regression (PLSR) model was developed to predict the proximate content. The SWIR-based hyperspectral camera accurately predicted the proximate composition of BSFL from the best preprocessing model; moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and crude ash content were predicted with high accuracy, with R2 values of 0.89 or more, and root mean square error of prediction values were within 2%. Among preprocessing methods, mean normalization and max normalization methods were effective in proximate prediction models. Therefore, SWIR-based hyperspectral cameras can be used to create automated quality management systems for BSFL.

Legal situation and consumer acceptance of insects being eaten as human food in different nations across the world-A comprehensive review

Insect consumption is a traditional practice in many countries. Currently, the urgent need for ensuring food sustainability and the high pressure from degrading environment are urging food scientists to rethink the possibility of introducing edible insects as a promising food type. However, due to the lack of the standardized legislative rules and the adequate scientific data that demonstrate the safety of edible insects, many countries still consider it a grey area to introduce edible insects into food supply chains. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the legal situation, consumer willingness, acceptance, and the knowledge on edible insect harvesting, processing as well as their safety concerns. We found that, despite the great advantage of introducing edible insects in food supply chains, the legal situation and consumer acceptance for edible insects are still unsatisfactory and vary considerably in different countries, which mostly depend on geographical locations and cultural backgrounds involving psychological, social, religious, and anthropological factors. Besides, the safety concern of edible insect consumption is still a major issue hurdling the promotion of edible insects, which is particularly concerning for countries with no practice in consuming insects. Fortunately, the situation is improving. So far, some commercial insect products like energy bars, burgers, and snack foods have emerged in the market. Furthermore, the European Union has also recently issued a specific item for regulating new foods, which is believed to establish an authorized procedure to promote insect-based foods and should be an important step for marketizing edible insects in the near future.

Emotion Norms Are Unique

Emotion norms shape the pursuit, regulation, and experience of emotions, yet much about their nature remains unknown. Like other types of social norms, emotion norms reflect intersubjective consensus, vary in both content and strength, and benefit the well-being of people who adhere to them. However, we propose that emotion norms may also be a unique type of social norm. First, whereas social norms typically target behaviors, emotion norms can target both expressive behavior and subjective states. Second, whereas it may be possible to identify universally held social norms, norms for emotions may lack any universality. Finally, whereas social norms are typically stronger in more collectivist cultures, emotion norms appear to be stronger in more individualist cultures. For each of the potentially distinct features of emotion norms suggested above, we highlight new directions for future research.

A social norm intervention increases liking and intake of whole crickets, and what this tells us about food disgust

Edible insects are healthy and sustainable but are rejected as food in Western populations due to disgust. We tested the effectiveness of written interventions to reduce disgust and increase intake of whole crickets. Cricket acceptance after reading a descriptive social norm or food preparation intervention passage was compared with a control passage, and an unfamiliar but non-disgusting food (leblebi, roasted chickpeas). Participants (N = 120) were randomised to one of four conditions (control + crickets, food preparation + crickets, social norm + crickets and control + leblebi). Outcome measures included taste pleasantness, desire to eat, food intake and, to measure disgust, self-report disgust, tactile sensitivity and latency to eat. In the control condition, crickets were rejected due to disgust and low desire to eat. In comparison, in the social norm condition, crickets were rated as tasting more pleasant, more desirable, and less disgusting, and intake was greater. The food preparation passage had a small but positive effect on cricket intake. For the first time, this study shows that a descriptive social norm can affect eating behaviour even when a food is disgusting; however, a food preparation intervention cannot overcome high disgust. The pattern of results suggested that expected and perceived taste pleasantness affects disgust. Therefore, taste quality and normalising consumption are targets for promoting acceptance of insects, and probably other novel, sustainable foods.

Aroma characterization and consumer acceptance of four cookie products enriched with insect (Ruspolia differens) meal

This research aims to advance knowledge on the impact of four processing methods on volatile compounds from insect-based baked products (cookies) to provide insights on consumer acceptance. Samples were exposed to double step enzyme digestive test, volatiles characterized through headspace analysis, while semi-trained panelists were recruited for the sensory test. Blanched and boiled samples of R. differens had considerably higher digestibility (83.42% and 81.61%, respectively) (p < 0.05) than toasted and deep-fried samples. Insect-based cookie products integrated with blanched and boiled R. differens meal expressed higher digestibility (80.41% and 78.73%, respectively) that was comparable to that of commercial cookie products (control cookies-CTRC with 88.22%). Key volatile compounds common between the various cookie products included, nonanal, octanal, methyl-pyrazine, hexanal, tetradecane, 2-pentylfuran, 2-heptanone, 2E-octenal, 2E-heptenal and dodecane. Among the volatile compounds, pleasant aromas observed were 2E,4E-dodecadienal, pentanal, octanal, methyl pyrazine, furfurals, benzaldehyde, and 2-pentyl furan, which were more pronounced in cookies fortified with boiled, toasted and deep-fried R. differens meal. There was a greater resemblance of sensory characteristics between control cookies and those fortified with deep-fried R. differens. These findings underscore the significant influence of aroma compounds on consumer acceptability and preference for insect-based baked food products, which allows for future process-modification of innate aromas of insect-based meals to produce high-valued pleasant consumer driven market products.

We meat again: a field study on the moderating role of location-specific consumer preferences in nudging vegetarian options

This field study set out to test whether consumers' history of making decisions in a particular choice context moderated the effectiveness of a nudge intervention to reduce meat consumption. In a Danish hospital canteen that served both staff members and visitors, a combination of nudges (Chef's recommendation sticker + prominent positioning) was implemented to promote vegetarian sandwiches. The sales of these sandwiches increased from 16.45% during the baseline period to 25.16% during the nudge intervention period. Most notably, this increase was caused by the visitors, who had weak location-bound preferences. Hospital staff members (who had strong location-bound preferences) were unaffected by the nudge in their choice. This is an important finding because the two consumer groups did not differ on their person-bound preferences for meat. It seems that behaviour change is best predicted by location-bound preferences, whereas the behaviour itself is best predicted by person-bound preferences. These findings can help organizations in estimating whether a nudge intervention has enough potential for behaviour change, or whether more directive policies are required.

Insects as Food: Consumers' Acceptance and Marketing

The growing demand for livestock products is associated with an increase in environmental, economic, and ethical issues. New alternative sources of protein such as edible insects have recently been developed to tackle these issues with fewer drawbacks. However, several challenges are associated with insect-based food, mainly regarding consumer acceptance and commercialization. In this systematic review, we explored these challenges by reviewing 85 papers from 2010 to 2020, which were selected following the PRISMA methodology. Additionally, we applied the SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research type) tool for developing the inclusion criteria. Our analysis adds new knowledge to previous systematic reviews on this topic. It reveals both a comprehensive framework of factors influencing consumers' acceptance of insects as food and aspects of the marketing mix of these products. Disgust, food neophobia, familiarity, visibility of insects, and taste appear to be the most significant factors that can prevent consumers from consuming insects as food. The motivations for acceptance are found to be familiarity and exposure. The results of this review provide insights for policymakers and stakeholders who wish to develop marketing strategies that can increase consumer acceptance of insects as food.

The Crick-Eatery: A Novel Approach to Evaluate Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Food Products through Product Eating Experience and Emotional Response

This study was conducted to evaluate three different food products containing cricket powder for consumer acceptability, emotional response, satiety, and plate waste. US untrained consumers (n = 108), from the San Luis Obispo, CA area, were recruited to evaluate three food products (sausage, pasta, and brownies) as components in a three-course meal that either contain cricket powder (CP) or not (Control). The CP sausage was found to have lower liking scores than the Control for the attributes tested (p < 0.05). The CP pasta was found to be higher in overall liking than the Control (p < 0.05). The CP Brownies were rated highly across the attributes, except for texture and aftertaste (p < 0.05). Though the CP products were found to be as acceptable as the Controls, the use of cricket powder may have affected the texture and flavor profile of both the CP sausage and brownies. The participants selected more positive emotions terms for both the CP and Control products than negative emotions. Negative terms selected, such as worried, decreased once the products were consumed (p < 0.05). Plate waste and subjective satiety may also be indicators of consumer acceptability. Significant correlations were found between appearance liking and satiety as well as taste liking and plate waste for both the Control and CP products/dishes (p < 0.05). Based on this work, future acceptance of insect-based products may be encouraged by evaluating the products throughout an eating experience.

Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Application Value of Edible Insects: A Review

For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.

Consumers' Acceptability and Perception of Edible Insects as an Emerging Protein Source

In recent years in Western Europe, studies on entomophagy have drawn the attention of many researchers interested in identifying parameters that could improve the acceptability of insect consumption in order to introduce insects as a sustainable source of protein into the future diet. Analysing the factors involved in consumer acceptability in the Mediterranean area could help to improve their future acceptance. A cross-sectional study was conducted using an ad-hoc questionnaire in which 1034 consumers participated. The questionnaire responses allowed us to study the areas relevant to acceptance: neophobia, social norms, familiarity, experiences of consumption and knowledge of benefits. Only 13.15% of participants had tried insects. Disgust, lack of custom and food safety were the main reasons for avoiding insect consumption. Consequently, preparations with an appetising appearance need to be offered, with flours being the most accepted format. The 40-59-year-old age group was the one most willing to consume them. To introduce edible insects as food in the future, it is important to inform people about their health, environmental and economic benefits because that could increase their willingness to include them in their diet.

Will It Cricket? Product Development and Evaluation of Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Sausage, Pasta, and Brownies

Insect powders used in food products may lower the overall quality when compared to conventional counterparts. This preliminary study was used to develop and evaluate insect-based food products and to utilize them in a future consumer test. Pork sausage, dried pasta, and chocolate brownie formulations were developed to either contain NO cricket powder (Control) or have cricket powder (CP). The products were evaluated for proximate composition and product-dependent parameters. The protein content increased in the CP pasta and brownies (p < 0.05) while no changes were found in the sausage (p > 0.05). Fat content increased in both the CP pasta and brownies while it decreased in the CP sausage (p < 0.05). The CP sausage had a higher carbohydrate content than the Control (p < 0.05). Overall, this may be attributed to cricket powder being high in protein and fat while also containing dietary fiber. Cricket powder replacement may lead to noticeable color differences by increasing green and blue coloring in sausage and pasta (p < 0.05). Changes in textural properties (p < 0.05) may be attributed to cricket powder affecting protein solubility and emulsion stability in sausage while gluten formation may be interfered with in the brownies. Overall, cricket powder replacement had improved nutritional content with minor changes in quality parameters.

Edible Insect Consumption for Human and Planetary Health: A Systematic Review

This systematic review aimed to examine the health outcomes and environmental impact of edible insect consumption. Following PRISMA-P guidelines, PubMed, Medline ProQuest, and Cochrane Library databases were searched until February 2021. Twenty-five articles met inclusion criteria: twelve animal and six human studies (randomized, non-randomized, and crossover control trials), and seven studies on sustainability outcomes. In animal studies, a supplement (in powdered form) of 0.5 g/kg of glycosaminoglycans significantly reduced abdominal and epididymal fat weight (5-40% and 5-24%, respectively), blood glucose (10-22%), and total cholesterol levels (9-10%), and a supplement of 5 mg/kg chitin/chitosan reduced body weight (1-4%) and abdominal fat accumulation (4%) versus control diets. In other animal studies, doses up to 7-15% of edible insect inclusion level significantly improved the live weight (9-33%), reduced levels of triglycerides (44%), cholesterol (14%), and blood glucose (8%), and increased microbiota diversity (2%) versus control diet. In human studies, doses up to 7% of edible insect inclusion level produced a significant improvement in gut health (6%) and reduction in systemic inflammation (2%) versus control diets and a significant increase in blood concentrations of essential and branched-chain amino acids and slowing of digestion (40%) versus whey treatment. Environmental indicators (land use, water footprint, and greenhouse gas emissions) were 40-60% lower for the feed and food of edible insects than for traditional animal livestock. More research is warranted on the edible insect dose responsible for health effects and on environmental indicators of edible insects for human nutrition. This research demonstrates how edible insects can be an alternative protein source not only to improve human and animal nutrition but also to exert positive effects on planetary health.

Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend

Simple Summary

Currently, there is a wide variety of insect-based pet foods and treats; however, there are several questions about the nutritional contribution of insects for dogs and cats, their health effects, safety aspects and the legal framework for their use as ingredients or feed. The insect-based ingredients used are mainly meal and fat from black soldier fly larvae, mealworm larvae and adult house crickets. There are few studies on the use of insects as food ingredients for pets, and most of them have studied some aspects in dogs. It has been said that they do not affect health, are well accepted and tolerated, do not alter the microbiota and could have the potential to be used as hypoallergenic ingredients. Insects provide a high nutritional value, with a high content of protein and amino acids with good digestibility for dogs. In cats, there is scarce information and more studies are needed. In exotic pets, their use is generalized. Dog owners are willing to use insects as ingredients, but in processed formats such as meal or as part of food or treats. Future research should focus on safety issues and effects on the health, nutrition and feeding behavior of traditional pets, such as dogs and cats.

Abstract

The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.

Consumers' acceptance of the first novel insect food approved in the European Union: Predictors of yellow mealworm chips consumption

Climate and environmental-related challenges are high on the agenda of the European Union (EU). One priority is to redesign the existing food system into a more sustainable one, where the link between healthy people and a balanced environment is considered. The EU bets on the role of insect farming in supporting the transition toward healthier and future-proof diets. Following this orientation, we investigated consumers' attitude toward yellow mealworm chips (YMC) and identified the predictors of YMC consumption. The causal relationships between constructs were explored using the structural equation modeling (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) using SmartPLS software. The perceived lower environmental impact of YMC compared to meat was the most appreciated characteristic of YMC. The study identified five predictors of YMC consumption, among which the perceived characteristics of YMC have the strongest influence on the consumption probability. Against the expectations of the authors, disgust with the accidental encounter of insects in foods did not influence the probability of eating YMC. Age was another predictor of YMC consumption. It is known that food preferences and eating behaviors are mainly developed during childhood and tend to manifest in adult life. Consequently, it can be inferred that acceptance and preference for insect-based foods (IBF) should be stimulated from early childhood. Finally, practical implications are advanced as possible solutions to overcome the obstacles toward YMC consumption.

Acceptance of Insect-Based Food Products in Western Societies: A Systematic Review

Consuming insects is a possible alternative to meat consumption that has few detrimental impacts on the environment and human health. Whether novel foods made from insects will become established in Western societies in the coming years depends largely on their acceptance by the respective populations. Numerous studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food have already been conducted. In this systematic review, the main findings of quantitative, experimental, and tasting studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food are summarized. The present paper is designed to serve as an orientation for practitioners in the food industry and provides information useful for the design of marketing strategies and target group-oriented product development. In addition, we highlight in which fields future studies could be conducted to further improve the understanding of the acceptance of insects as food in Western societies.

Consumer acceptability of plant-, seaweed-, and insect-based foods as alternatives to meat: a critical compilation of a decade of research

There is a growing criticism of meat-based products over environment, animal welfare, and public health. Meat lovers are keeping and adapting their habits, while other consumers are increasingly shifting toward meat alternatives considered as healthier and more sustainable options to replace the animal-based products. This transition gives room in the market to plant-, seaweed-, and insect-based meat products alternatives. Nevertheless, these emerging markets are still facing the challenge of consumers' acceptance and the uncertainty in terms of preferences. This paper focuses on in-depth understanding of consumer perception and acceptability of plant-, seaweed-, and insect-based meat products to get insights on their current situation and future implementation. The main factors and motives influencing the consumer perceptions toward meat alternative products are reported. Further, the consumers' motives and drivers to consume alternative products were highlighted. This review, provides a better understanding of motives and drivers of consumers' acceptance to improve the acceptability of meat alternatives, considering product and country origin of the consumers of meat alternative foods.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2036096.

Use of Preference Analysis to Identify Early Adopter Mind-Sets of Insect-Based Food Products

Insects may potentially provide an alternative protein source. However, consumers may not easily accept insects due to feelings of disgust. Therefore, identifying early adopters of insect-based food products may determine their future acceptance. This study was conducted to (1) identify early adopter Mind-Sets of insect-based food products, (2) determine product features early adopters would prefer in an insect-based food product, and (3) determine differences in Mind-Sets in different countries. Two studies were distributed online in the US and the Philippines. The first study included information about insects, while the second study had no information on insects. The experimental design included elements, or product features, regarding insect-based products that participants evaluated. Preference Analysis was used to segment the participants into Mind-Sets. Based on the results, participants neither liked nor disliked the elements used. Participants in the studies without insect information were found to have higher liking when comparing liking. Participants who were aware of the study being about insects may have had less interest when evaluating the elements, as the response times between the US studies were significantly different (p < 0.05). The role of information and segmentation of the participants demonstrates the importance of experimental design when using Preference Analysis.

Communicating Food Risk-Benefit Assessments: Edible Insects as Red Meat Replacers

Risk-benefit Assessment (RBA) is an emerging methodology in the area of Food and Nutrition that offers a simultaneous evaluation of both risks and benefits linked to dietary choices. Communication of such research to consumers may present a challenge due to the dual nature of RBA. We present a case study of a communication strategy developed for the NovRBA-project. The NovRBA-project (Novel foods as red meat replacers—an insight using Risk Benefit Assessment methods) performed a risk-benefit assessment to evaluate the overall health impact of substituting red meat (beef) by a novel food (house cricket), considering the microbial, toxicological and nutritional characteristics of the respective dietary choices. A literature review of risk perceptions and acceptance of beef and insects as food formed the basis of the communication strategy for the study's results, drawing on environmental and emotional as well as health-related motivations to consume or avoid either food and considering the sociodemographic characteristics of likely consumers. Challenges and future directions for consumer protection organizations communicating findings of risk-benefit analyses on food safety are discussed.

Curious to eat insects? Curiosity as a Key Predictor of Willingness to try novel food

Entomophagy - the consumption of insects - is often rejected by Western society despite its benefits over traditional animal-based proteins. While several factors have been identified as potential predictors of people's willingness to try insect foods, this study introduced an under-explored factor: curiosity, which is a powerful motivator of behaviour that can overcome negative emotions and motivate us to seek new experiences. In two experiments (Ns = 240 and 248), participants (all UK residents, 99.6% British citizens) rated a number of food dishes, half of which contained insects, on a number of factors including curiosity and willingness to try the dish. Across both studies, curiosity predicted willingness to try both insect and non-insect foods above and beyond other factors. Furthermore, we unexpectedly (but consistently) observed a "curiosity-boosting effect" in which curiosity positively interacted with other predictors, increasing their effect on willingness to try insect foods, but not familiar foods. These findings suggest that curiosity promotes the willingness to try insect food in two different manners: A direct effect (above and beyond other factors) and a boosting effect.

The merits of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world

BACKGROUND

In 2020, human society underwent several drastic changes due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which generated an unprecedented global impact. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, various pressing concerns underlying food security, such as transport, production, and maintenance of the supply chain, have been raised.

SCOPE AND APPROACH

The present study aimed to describe and review the merits of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world, especially with regard to the low risk for zoonotic disease spread, high production rate, and future prospects for inducing entomophagy to enhance the diversity in the food system in comparison to conventional livestock.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The advantages of entomophagy in the post COVID-19 world have been elucidated herein, with particular emphasis on the minimal risk of zoonotic disease transmission and production efficiency, in addition to the future goal of establishment of entomophagy to expand redundancy and diversity in the food system as against the utility of conventional livestock. In the current scenario, as well as in the post COVID-19 situation, boosting entomophagy may play a pivotal role in global food security, as the aspects already touched upon have amply demonstrated.

The multidimensional nature of food neophobia

People vary in their willingness to try new foods. This variation, which is most frequently measured using the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS; Pliner & Hobden, 1992), has been interpreted as unidimensional. In four studies (N's = 210, 306, 160, and 161), we 1) demonstrate that food neophobia varies across meat and plant dimensions, 2) explore the validity of a measure of meat and plant neophobia, and 3) test whether these food neophobia dimensions predict decisions to eat a novel food item (i.e., a snack bar that contains insects). Mixed-effects model across the four studies indicated that the two dimensions differentially relate to a number of variables, including disgust sensitivity, animal empathy, and masculinity. Women scored higher on meat neophobia than men, but the sexes did not differ on plant neophobia. Only meat neophobia uniquely predicted eating a novel insect-based snack bar. Overall, these results extend knowledge regarding orientations toward novel foods.

Exploring the Acceptance of Entomophagy: A Survey of Italian Consumers

Insect-based food is not common in Europe, because most people do not consider insects to be edible, but rather a threat and a health risk. Fear and refusal to eat a new food product introduced into a culture is called food neophobia, which results in a hesitation to trying and experimenting with new foods. Although there is significant interest in this novel sector, there is a lack of research on the link between rejection, the level of food neophobia, and consumer behavior related to the introduction of insects into the diet. In this study, through 420 questionnaires, a specific experimental scale of insects was introduced which, together with a neophobia scale, analyzed the probability and the intention of respondents to consume insects. Another issue tested has been their intention to eat food containing insects. We observed that the analyses of the two scales produced different results, confirming the need for a specific scale to measure "insect phobia". This is important, since knowledge about consumer preferences for and barriers to using insects as human food sources is limited but necessary in order to set up commercialization strategies. The development of insect-based food offers physical health benefits and also improves the sustainability of the food industry.

Consumer acceptance among Dutch and German students of insects in feed and food

Due to the environmental and nutritional benefits of insects, their consumption would be one of the solutions to feed the growing human population. Despite the increasing interest in the use of insects as food and feed, consumer acceptance is the major obstacle to successful implementation in Western countries and we studied the factors that influence consumer acceptance in a group of university students from Germany and the Netherlands. In this exploratory research, a survey was conducted (n = 222). Socio-demographic and psychological factors were established from a theoretical review. In addition, we elaborated on questions regarding information on the health and environmental benefits of consuming insects. Initially, the data obtained are presented through descriptive statistics. The influence of the socio-demographic and psychological factors, and the information on the willingness to accept insects as animal feed and human food was analyzed using correlations and multiple linear regressions. Results showed more willingness to accept insects as animal feed than in human food. The acceptance among German and Dutch students seems to be driven by issues similar to those in other European countries, such as visual aspects and knowledge about the benefits. The effect of the information on willingness constitutes an important finding of this study, especially for the use of insects in animal feed, since most of the previous studies have focused on the use of insects as human food. Our data support the need to inform and educate consumers about the environmental and health benefits of entomophagy. We conclude that effective efforts to implement entomophagy could increase the level of familiarity with the insect food and inform (or educate) consumers about its benefits. Insights from this study are useful to address studies focusing on specific segments of possible early adopters and consequently addressing communication strategies in this market segmentation.

A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat

Consumers' dietary patterns have a significant impact on planetary and personal health. To address health and environmental challenges one of the many possible solutions is to substitute meat consumption with alternative protein sources. This systematic review identifies 91 articles with a focus on the drivers of consumer acceptance of five alternative proteins: pulses, algae, insects, plant-based alternative proteins, and cultured meat. This review demonstrates that acceptance of the alternative proteins included here is relatively low (compared to that of meat); acceptance of insects is lowest, followed by acceptance of cultured meat. Pulses and plant-based alternative proteins have the highest acceptance level. In general, the following drivers of acceptance consistently show to be relevant for the acceptance of various alternative proteins: motives of taste and health, familiarity, attitudes, food neophobia, disgust, and social norms. However, there are also differences in relevance between individuals and between alternative proteins. For example, for insects and other novel alternative proteins the drivers of familiarity and affective processes of food neophobia and disgust seem more relevant. As part of gaining full insight in relevant drivers of acceptance, the review also shows an overview of the intervention studies that were included in the 91 articles of the review, providing implications on how consumer acceptance can be increased. The focal areas of the intervention studies included here do not fully correspond with the current knowledge of drivers. To date, intervention studies have mainly focussed on conscious deliberations, whereas familiarity and affective factors have also been shown to be key drivers. The comprehensive overview of the most relevant factors for consumer acceptance of various categories of alternative proteins thus shows large consistencies across bodies of research. Variations can be found in the nuances showing different priorities of drivers for different proteins and different segments, showing the relevance of being context and person specific for future research.