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García-Atienza P, Martínez-Pérez-Cejuela H, Simó-Alfonso E, Herrero-Martínez J, Armenta S. Determination of synthetic cannabinoids in oral fluids by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after solid-phase extraction. MethodsX 2023; 10:102173. [PMID: 37122371 PMCID: PMC10133741 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2023.102173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are one of the most consumed new psychoactive substances, being absolutely necessary the development of analytical methodologies for the determination of these substances in biological fluids. In this study, a liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FD) method has been developed for the analysis of 8 synthetic cannabinoids in oral fluids. The method has been validated in terms of linearity, precision and extraction recoveries, giving limits of detection as low as 0.7 µg L-1, and limits of quantification of 2.6 µg L-1. Different silica and polymeric commercial solid sorbents such as C18, Supel-Select HLB, EB2 ExtrabondⓇ and SampliQ-OPT were tested, concluding that Supel-Select HLB provided quantitative recoveries for the extraction of synthetic cannabinoids in oral fluids.•Analysis of synthetic cannabinoids in oral fluids.•Analytical procedure based on liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.•Sample treatment based on solid phase extraction with HLB cartridges.
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2
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Esteve-Turrillas FA, Armenta S, de la Guardia M. Sample preparation strategies for the determination of psychoactive substances in biological fluids. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1633:461615. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Risoluti R, Gullifa G, Battistini A, Materazzi S. MicroNIR/Chemometrics: A new analytical platform for fast and accurate detection of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in oral fluids. Drug Alcohol Depend 2019; 205:107578. [PMID: 31610296 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is already considered one of the most addictive substances since an increasing number of consumers/abusers of THC and THC based products are observed worldwide. In this work, the capabilities of a novel miniaturized and portable MicroNIR spectrometer were investigated in order to propose a practical and intelligible test allowing the rapid and easy screening of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) oral fluids without any pretreatment. METHODS Specimens from volunteers were collected in order to consider any sources of variability in the spectral response and spiked with increasing amount of THC in order to realize predictive models to be used in real cases. Partial Least Square-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) and Partial Least Square regression (PLSr) for the simultaneously detection and quantification of THC, were applied to baseline corrected spectra pre-treated by first derivative transform. RESULTS Results demonstrated that MicroNIR/Chemometric platform is statistically able to identify THC abuse in simulated oral fluid samples containing THC from 10 to 100 ng/ml, with a precision and a sensitivity of about 1.51% and 0.1% respectively. CONCLUSIONS The coupling MicroNIR/Chemometrics permits to simplify THC abuse monitoring for roadside drug testing or workplace surveillance and provides the rapid interpretation of results, as once the model is assessed, it can be used to process real samples in a "click-on" device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Risoluti
- Department of Chemistry, "Sapienza" University of Rome, p.le A.Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giuseppina Gullifa
- Department of Chemistry, "Sapienza" University of Rome, p.le A.Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Alfredo Battistini
- Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l'analisi dell'economia agrarian, Centro di Politiche e Bioeconomia, via Pò 14, 00198, Italy
| | - Stefano Materazzi
- Department of Chemistry, "Sapienza" University of Rome, p.le A.Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Risoluti R, Pichini S, Pacifici R, Materazzi S. Miniaturized analytical platform for cocaine detection in oral fluids by MicroNIR/Chemometrics. Talanta 2019; 202:546-553. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.04.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Risoluti R, Gullifa G, Battistini A, Materazzi S. "Lab-on-Click" Detection of Illicit Drugs in Oral Fluids by MicroNIR-Chemometrics. Anal Chem 2019; 91:6435-6439. [PMID: 31034204 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A novel, entirely automated MicroNIR-chemometric platform was developed for the "lab-on-click" detection of illicit drugs in nonpretreated oral fluids, and a novel tool for the first-level test is proposed. Calibration of the method was achieved by collecting oral-fluid specimens from volunteers, and chemometric analysis was considered for the development of models for prediction for cocaine, amphetamine, and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. In addition, a comprehensive model was optimized for the simultaneous prediction of positive-negative samples and the specific illicit drug used by abusers in a single "click". The detection ability of the method was checked for true-positive and false-positive outcomes, and results were validated by a GC-MS reference official method. The MicroNIR-chemometric platform provided the simultaneous prediction of the three most frequently abused addictive drugs with the sensitivity and accuracy of the confirmatory analyses, offering the advantages of rapidity and simplicity and demonstrating that it is a promising tool for supporting public-health surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Risoluti
- Department of Chemistry , "Sapienza" University of Rome , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5 , 00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Giuseppina Gullifa
- Department of Chemistry , "Sapienza" University of Rome , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5 , 00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Alfredo Battistini
- Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l'analisi dell'economia agraria , Centro di Politiche e Bioeconomia , via Pò 14 , 00198 Rome , Italy
| | - Stefano Materazzi
- Department of Chemistry , "Sapienza" University of Rome , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5 , 00185 Rome , Italy
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6
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Scherer JN, Fiorentin TR, Borille BT, Pasa G, Sousa TRV, von Diemen L, Limberger RP, Pechansky F. Reliability of point-of-collection testing devices for drugs of abuse in oral fluid: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 143:77-85. [PMID: 28577420 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Point-of-collection testing (POCT) devices for drugs of abuse are used to screen for the presence of psychoactive substances (PAS) in different types of settings and environments. However, these quick and advantageous tools also present disadvantages, including low-reliability measures in comparison to chromatographic assays. Therefore, this article presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies evaluating the reliability of measurements of PAS detection in oral fluid using POCT devices. The reliability measures for detection of the five most important drug classes - cocaine, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cannabinoids and opioids, are reported. The article also presents a subgroup analysis considering the reliability estimates for the different POCT devices that were evaluated by the studies contemplated in the review. A discussion considering the strengths and limitations of POCT techniques was performed in order to guide policymakers, traffic agents and other professionals who also conduct such tests. The use of POCT devices often involves legal and moral aspects of the subjects tested, which demands critical evaluation of these devices before they are implemented in different settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Nichterwitz Scherer
- Center for Drug and Alcohol Research and Collaborating Center on Alcohol and Drugs - HCPA/SENAD, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Professor Álvar Alvim, 400, 90420-020, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Taís Regina Fiorentin
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Bruna Tassi Borille
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Graciela Pasa
- Center for Drug and Alcohol Research and Collaborating Center on Alcohol and Drugs - HCPA/SENAD, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Professor Álvar Alvim, 400, 90420-020, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tanara Rosangela Vieira Sousa
- Center for Drug and Alcohol Research and Collaborating Center on Alcohol and Drugs - HCPA/SENAD, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Professor Álvar Alvim, 400, 90420-020, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lisia von Diemen
- Center for Drug and Alcohol Research and Collaborating Center on Alcohol and Drugs - HCPA/SENAD, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Professor Álvar Alvim, 400, 90420-020, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Renata Pereira Limberger
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Flavio Pechansky
- Center for Drug and Alcohol Research and Collaborating Center on Alcohol and Drugs - HCPA/SENAD, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Professor Álvar Alvim, 400, 90420-020, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Ribes À, Xifré -Pérez E, Aznar E, Sancenón F, Pardo T, Marsal LF, Martínez-Máñez R. Molecular gated nanoporous anodic alumina for the detection of cocaine. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38649. [PMID: 27924950 PMCID: PMC5141502 DOI: 10.1038/srep38649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We present herein the use of nanoporous anodic alumina (NAA) as a suitable support to implement "molecular gates" for sensing applications. In our design, a NAA support is loaded with a fluorescent reporter (rhodamine B) and functionalized with a short single-stranded DNA. Then pores are blocked by the subsequent hybridisation of a specific cocaine aptamer. The response of the gated material was studied in aqueous solution. In a typical experiment, the support was immersed in hybridisation buffer solution in the absence or presence of cocaine. At certain times, the release of rhodamine B from pore voids was measured by fluorescence spectroscopy. The capped NAA support showed poor cargo delivery, but presence of cocaine in the solution selectively induced rhodamine B release. By this simple procedure a limit of detection as low as 5 × 10-7 M was calculated for cocaine. The gated NAA was successfully applied to detect cocaine in saliva samples and the possible re-use of the nanostructures was assessed. Based on these results, we believe that NAA could be a suitable support to prepare optical gated probes with a synergic combination of the favourable features of selected gated sensing systems and NAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Àngela Ribes
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigaciόn de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnolόgico (IDM). Universitat Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicína (CIBER-BBN)
| | - Elisabet Xifré -Pérez
- Departamento de Ingeniería Electrónica, Eléctrica y Automática, Universidad Rovira i Virgili, Avda. Països Catalans 26, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Elena Aznar
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigaciόn de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnolόgico (IDM). Universitat Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicína (CIBER-BBN)
| | - Félix Sancenón
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigaciόn de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnolόgico (IDM). Universitat Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicína (CIBER-BBN)
| | - Teresa Pardo
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigaciόn de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnolόgico (IDM). Universitat Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicína (CIBER-BBN)
| | - Lluís F. Marsal
- Departamento de Ingeniería Electrónica, Eléctrica y Automática, Universidad Rovira i Virgili, Avda. Països Catalans 26, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Ramόn Martínez-Máñez
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigaciόn de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnolόgico (IDM). Universitat Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicína (CIBER-BBN)
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8
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Applicability of an on-site test for its use in post-mortem blood. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2011; 13:240-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2011] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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9
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Bioanalytical methods for the determination of cocaine and metabolites in human biological samples. Bioanalysis 2011; 1:977-1000. [PMID: 21083066 DOI: 10.4155/bio.09.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of cocaine and its metabolites in biological specimens is of great importance, not only in clinical and forensic toxicology, but also in workplace drug testing. These compounds are normally screened for using sensitive immunological methods. However, screening methods are unspecific and, therefore, the posterior confirmation of presumably positive samples by a specific technique is mandatory. Although GC-MS-based techniques are still the most commonly used for confirmation purposes of cocaine and its metabolites in biological specimens, the advent of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS has enabled the detection of even lower amounts of these drugs, which assumes particular importance when sample volume available is small, as frequently occurs with oral fluid. This paper will review recently-published papers that describe procedures for detection of cocaine and metabolites, not only in the most commonly used specimens, such as blood and urine, but also in other 'alternative' matrices (e.g., oral fluid and hair) with a special focus on sample preparation and chromatographic analysis.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral fluid (OF) is an exciting alternative matrix for monitoring drugs of abuse in workplace, clinical toxicology, criminal justice, and driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) programs. During the last 5 years, scientific and technological advances in OF collection, point-of-collection testing devices, and screening and confirmation methods were achieved. Guidelines were proposed for workplace OF testing by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, DUID testing by the European Union's Driving under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines (DRUID) program, and standardization of DUID research. Although OF testing is now commonplace in many monitoring programs, the greatest current limitation is the scarcity of controlled drug administration studies available to guide interpretation. CONTENT This review outlines OF testing advantages and limitations, and the progress in OF that has occurred during the last 5 years in collection, screening, confirmation, and interpretation of cannabinoids, opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and benzodiazepines. We examine controlled drug administration studies, immunoassay and chromatographic methods, collection devices, point-of-collection testing device performance, and recent applications of OF testing. SUMMARY Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration approval of OF testing was delayed because questions about drug OF disposition were not yet resolved, and collection device performance and testing assays required improvement. Here, we document the many advances achieved in the use of OF. Additional research is needed to identify new biomarkers, determine drug detection windows, characterize OF adulteration techniques, and evaluate analyte stability. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that OF offers multiple advantages as an alternative matrix for drug monitoring and has an important role in DUID, treatment, workplace, and criminal justice programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Bosker
- Maastricht University, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Experimental Psychopharmacology Unit, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
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Abstract
Drug oral fluid analysis was first used almost 30 years ago for the purpose of therapeutic drug monitoring. Since then, oral fluid bioanalysis has become more popular, mainly in the fields of pharmacokinetics, workplace drug testing, criminal justice, driving under the influence testing and therapeutic drug monitoring. In fact, oral fluid can provide a readily available and noninvasive medium, without any privacy loss by the examinee, which occurs, for instance, during the collection of urine samples. It is believed that drug concentrations in oral fluid may parallel those measured in blood. This feature makes oral fluid an alternative analytical specimen to blood, which assumes particular importance in roadside testing, the most published application of this sample. Great improvements in the development of accurate and reliable methods for sample collection, in situ detection devices (on-site drug detection kits), and highly sensitive and specific analytical methods for oral fluid testing of drugs have been observed in the last few years. However, without mass spectrometry-based analytical methods, such as liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC–MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), the desired sensitivity would not be met, due to the low amounts of sample usually available for analysis. This review will discuss a series of published papers on the applicability of oral fluid in the field of analytical, clinical and forensic toxicology, with a special focus on its advantages and drawbacks over the normally used biological specimens and the main technological advances over the last decade, which have made oral fluid analysis of drugs possible.
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12
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Fernández AA, Amigó N, Carboné MT, Mora A, Pinto M, Beltran J, Gassó S. Application of the Cozart DDS system to postmortem screening of drugs of abuse in vitreous humor. Forensic Toxicol 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-009-0071-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Abstract
In the last few years, significant developments have occurred on the key issues involved in oral fluid drug testing. New pharmacokinetic studies have been conducted, optimal cutoffs have been proposed, and new studies have examined the correlation between oral fluid drug concentrations and impairment. Recent studies (eg, the discovery of the presence of THC-COOH in oral fluid) can contribute to solve the issue of false-positive results caused by passive exposure to marijuana. Reliable point-of-care drug testing is still problematic, especially for cannabinoids and benzodiazepines. To date, there is no device that allows both reliable and practical point-of-care testing. The importance of liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry in confirmation analysis has increased over the last several years. It can be expected that this trend will continue because the low sample volumes make simultaneous detection of different drug classes with limited sample preparation necessary. Literature on proficiency testing to ensure reliability and comparability of results is limited. Oral fluid has become an important sample type in driving under the influence research, and the first legal random drug testing program in oral fluid since 2004 has been organized in Victoria. It can be expected that the role of oral fluid as an alternative matrix will keep increasing in the future.
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Samyn N, Laloup M, De Boeck G. Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in oral fluid. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1437-53. [PMID: 17404716 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1245-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2007] [Revised: 03/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in analytical techniques have enabled the detection of drugs and drug metabolites in oral fluid specimens. Although GC-MS is still commonly used in practice, many laboratories have developed and successfully validated methods for LC-MS(-MS) that can detect a large number of compounds in the limited sample volume available. In addition, several enzyme immunoassays have been commercialized for the detection of drugs of abuse in oral fluid samples, enabling the fast screening and selection of presumably positive samples. A number of concerns are discussed, such as the variability in the volume of sample collected and its implications in terms of quantitative measurements, and the drug recoveries of the many different specimen collection systems on the market. Additional considerations that also receive attention are the importance of providing complete validation data with respect to analyte stability, matrix effect, and the choice of collection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nele Samyn
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology (N.I.C.C.), Federal Public Service Justice, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium.
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Dams R, Choo RE, Lambert WE, Jones H, Huestis MA. Oral fluid as an alternative matrix to monitor opiate and cocaine use in substance-abuse treatment patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 87:258-67. [PMID: 17008030 PMCID: PMC1892788 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2006] [Revised: 08/24/2006] [Accepted: 08/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Interest in oral fluid as an alternative matrix for monitoring drug use is due to its ease-of-collection and non-invasiveness; however, limited data are available on the disposition of drugs into oral fluid. The objective of this research was to provide data on the presence and concentrations of heroin, cocaine and multiple metabolites in oral fluid after illicit opioid and cocaine use. Thrice weekly oral fluid specimens (N=403) from 16 pregnant opiate-dependent women were obtained with the Salivette oral fluid collection device. Evidence of heroin (N=62) and cocaine (N=130) use was detected in oral fluid by LC-APCI-MS/MS. 6-Acetylmorphine (6-AM), heroin and morphine were the major opiates detected, with median concentrations of 5.2, 2.3, and 7.5 microg/L, respectively. Cocaine and benzoylecgonine (BE) had median concentrations of 6.4 and 3.4 microg/L. Application of the Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) recommended cutoffs for morphine and codeine (40 microg/L), 6-AM (4 microg/L) and cocaine and BE (8 microg/L), yielded 28 opiate- and 50 cocaine-positive specimens. Oral fluid is a promising alternative matrix to monitor opiate and cocaine use in drug testing programs. These data guide interpretation of oral fluid test results and evaluate currently proposed SAMHSA oral fluid testing cutoffs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riet Dams
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Ghent University, Harelbekestraat 72, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Robin E. Choo
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Willy E. Lambert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Ghent University, Harelbekestraat 72, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Hendree Jones
- Center for Addiction and Pregnancy, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, 4940 Eastern Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
- * Corresponding author: Dr. Marilyn A. Huestis, Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD, 21224, U.S.A. Tel: +1 410 550 2711, Fax: +1 410 550 2971, E-mail:
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Øiestad EL, Johansen U, Christophersen AS. Drug Screening of Preserved Oral Fluid by Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Clin Chem 2007; 53:300-9. [PMID: 17158196 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2006.074237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background: Oral fluid is an alternative matrix with potential applications in road-side drug screening, work-place testing, drug treatment programs, and epidemiological surveys. Development of methods for extensive drug screening in oral fluid is warranted.
Methods: We developed a liquid chromatography– tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for drug screening of preserved oral fluid collected with the Intercept® collection device. Samples were prepared by liquid–liquid extraction with ethylacetate/heptane (4:1). LC-separation was achieved with an Atlantis dC18-column (2.1 × 50 mm, 3 μm particle). Mass detection was performed by positive ion mode electrospray LC-MS/MS and included the following drugs/metabolites: morphine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, codeine, buprenorphine, methadone, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, lysergic acid diethylamide, alprazolam, bromazepam, clonazepam, 7-aminoclonazepam, diazepam, N-desmethyldiazepam, 3-OH-diazepam, fenazepam, flunitrazepam, 7-aminoflunitrazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, 7-aminonitrazepam, oxazepam, zopiclone, zolpidem, carisoprodol, and meprobamat.
Results: Screening of 32 drugs was performed with a run time of 14 min. Within- and between-day relative CVs varied from 2.0% to 31.8% and from 3.6% to 39.1%, respectively. Extraction recoveries were >50% except for morphine (30%) and benzoylecgonine (0.2%). The concentrations of the lowest calibrator were 1 nmol/L (0.28 μg/L) to 500 nmol/L (68 μg/L), depending on the drug.
Conclusion: The method allowed rapid and sensitive oral fluid screening for the most commonly abused drugs in Norway and will be used for a road-side survey of drug use in normal traffic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division of Forensic Toxicology and Drug Abuse, Oslo, Norway.
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