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Buchalska B, Kamińska K, Owe-Larsson M, Cudnoch-Jędrzejewska A. Cannabinoids in the treatment of glioblastoma. Pharmacol Rep 2024; 76:223-234. [PMID: 38457018 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-024-00580-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent primary malignant tumor of the nervous system. While the treatment of other neoplasms is increasingly more efficacious the median survival rate of GBM patients remains low and equals about 14 months. Due to this fact, there are intensive efforts to find drugs that would help combat GBM. Nowadays cannabinoids are becoming more and more important in the field of cancer and not only because of their properties of antiemetic drugs during chemotherapy. These compounds may have a direct cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. Studies indicate GBM has disturbances in the endocannabinoid system-changes in cannabinoid metabolism as well as in the cannabinoid receptor expression. The GBM cells show expression of cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1R and CB2R), which mediate various actions of cannabinoids. Through these receptors, cannabinoids inhibit the proliferation and invasion of GBM cells, along with changing their morphology. Cannabinoids also induce an intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in the tumor. Hence the use of cannabinoids in the treatment of GBM may be beneficial to the patients. So far, studies focusing on using cannabinoids in GBM therapy are mainly preclinical and involve cell lines and mice. The results are promising and show cannabinoids inhibit GBM growth. Several clinical studies are also being carried out. The preliminary results show good tolerance of cannabinoids and prolonged survival after administration of these drugs. In this review, we describe the impact of cannabinoids on GBM and glioma cells in vitro and in animal studies. We also provide overview of clinical trials on using cannabinoids in the treatment of GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Buchalska
- Chair and Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1b, Warsaw, 02097, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kamińska
- Chair and Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1b, Warsaw, 02097, Poland.
| | - Maja Owe-Larsson
- Chair and Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1b, Warsaw, 02097, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Cudnoch-Jędrzejewska
- Chair and Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1b, Warsaw, 02097, Poland
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2
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Ishii A, Sato K, Kusakabe K, Kato N, Wada T. Development of a quick preparation method for the analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human urine by phenylboronic-acid solid-phase extraction. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 234:115556. [PMID: 37422956 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
A rapid preparation method for the analysis of the urine from a cannabis user was established. Generally, 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), which is one of the main metabolites of ∆9-tetrahydorocannabinol (THC), must be detected from a user's urine to verify cannabis use. However, existing preparation methods are usually multistep and time-consuming processes. Before the analysis by liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), deconjugation by treatment with β-glucuronidase or alkaline solution, liquid-liquid extraction or solid-phase extraction (SPE), and evaporation are generally performed. In addition, subsequent derivatization (silylation or methylation) are certainly necessary for gas-chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. Here, we focused on the phenylboronic-acid (PBA) SPE, which selectively binds compounds with a cis-diol moiety. THC-COOH is metabolized as a glucuronide conjugate (THC-COOGlu) which has cis-diol moieties, therefore, we investigated the conditions of its retention and elution to reduce the operating time. We developed four elution conditions, which afford the following derivatives: acidic elution for THC-COOGlu, alkaline elution for THC-COOH, methanolysis elution for the THC-COOH methyl ester (THC-COOMe), and methanolysis elution and following methyl etherification for O-methyl-THC-COOMe (O-Me-THC-COOMe). All repeatability and recovery rates were evaluated by LC-MS/MS in this study. As a result, these four pathways required short times (within 10-25 min) and exhibited good repeatability and recovery rates. Detection limits of pathway I-IV were 10.8, 1.7, 18.9, and 13.8 ng mL-1, respectively. Lower limits of quantification were 62.5, 31.25, 57.3, and 62.5 ng mL-1, respectively. When proof of cannabis use is required, any elution condition can be selected to match the possessing reference standards and analytical instruments. To our knowledge, this is the first report of using PBA SPE for the preparation of the urine samples containing cannabis and achieving partial derivatization when eluting from a PBA carrier. Our method can provide a new and practical solution for the preparation of the urine samples from cannabis users. Although the PBA SPE method cannot recover THC-COOH in urine because of its lack of a 1,2-diol moiety, this method has technological advantages for simplifying the process and reducing the operating time, thereby avoiding human errors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumu Ishii
- Scientific Crime Laboratory, Kanagawa Prefectural Police Headquarters, Japan
| | - Kazuki Sato
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
| | - Kosuke Kusakabe
- Scientific Crime Laboratory, Kanagawa Prefectural Police Headquarters, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Kato
- Scientific Crime Laboratory, Kanagawa Prefectural Police Headquarters, Japan
| | - Takeshi Wada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Japan.
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Zughaibi TA, Alharbi H, Al-Saadi A, Alzahrani AE, Al-Asmari AI. 11-Nor-9-Carboxy Tetrahydrocannabinol Distribution in Fluid from the Chest Cavity in Cannabis-Related Post-Mortem Cases. TOXICS 2023; 11:740. [PMID: 37755750 PMCID: PMC10536215 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11090740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the presence of 11-nor-Δ9-carboxy tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in postmortem fluid obtained from the chest cavity (FCC) of postmortem cases collected from drug-related fatalities or criminal-related deaths in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, was investigated to evaluate its suitability for use as a complementary specimen to blood and biological specimens in cases where no bodily fluids are available or suitable for analysis. The relationships between THC-COOH concentrations in the FCC samples and age, body mass index (BMI), polydrug intoxication, manner, and cause of death were investigated. METHODS Fifteen postmortem cases of FCC were analyzed using fully validated liquid chromatography-positive-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). RESULTS FCC samples were collected from 15 postmortem cases; only THC-COOH tested positive, with a median concentration of 480 ng/mL (range = 80-3010 ng/mL). THC-COOH in FCC were higher than THC-COOH in all tested specimens with exception to bile, the median ratio FCC/blood with sodium fluoride, FCC/urine, FCC/gastric content, FCC/bile, FCC/liver, FCC/kidney, FCC/brain, FCC/stomach wall, FCC/lung, and FCC/intestine tissue were 48, 2, 0.2, 6, 4, 6, 102, 11, 5 and 10-fold, respectively. CONCLUSION This is the first postmortem report of THC-COOH in the FCC using cannabinoid-related analysis. The FCC samples were liquid, easy to manipulate, and extracted using the same procedure as the blood samples. The source of THC-COOH detected in FCC could be derived from the surrounding organs due to postmortem redistribution or contamination due to postmortem changes after death. THC-COOH, which is stored in adipose tissues, could be a major source of THC-COOH found in the FCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torki A Zughaibi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hassan Alharbi
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adel Al-Saadi
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulnasser E Alzahrani
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed I Al-Asmari
- Special Toxicological Analysis Unit, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine DPLM, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, P.O. Box 3354, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia
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Yeung CHT, Beers JL, Jackson KD, Edginton AN. Verifying in vitro-determined enzyme contributions to cannabidiol clearance for exposure predictions in human through physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2023; 12:320-332. [PMID: 36540909 PMCID: PMC10014054 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is approved for treatment of seizures associated with two forms of epilepsy that become apparent in infancy or early childhood. To consider an adult physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for pediatric scaling, we assessed in vitro-derived cytochrome P450 (CYP) and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzyme contributions to CBD clearance in human. An i.v. PBPK model was constructed using CBD physicochemical properties and knowledge of disposition. The i.v. datasets were used for model building and evaluation. Oral PBPK models for CBD administered in fasted and fed states were developed using single dose oral datasets and parameters optimized from the i.v. model and evaluated with multiple dose datasets. Relative contributions of CBD metabolizing enzymes were partitioned according to in vitro studies. Clinical drug-drug interaction (DDI) studies were simulated using CBD fed state, itraconazole, fluconazole, and rifampicin PBPK models. Linear mixed effect modeling was used to estimate area under the concentration-time curve from zero to infinity (AUC0-∞ ) perpetrator + CBD versus CBD alone. The i.v. and oral datasets used in model evaluation produced acceptable average fold error (AFE) of 1.28 and absolute AFE of 1.65. Relative contributions of drug-metabolizing enzymes to CBD clearance were proposed from in vitro data: UGT1A7 4%, UGT1A9 16%, UGT2B7 10%, CYP3A4 38%, CYP2C19 21%, and CYP2C9 11%. The simulated DDI studies using the in vitro-derived values produced AUC0-∞ treatment ratios comparable to observed: itraconazole 1.24 versus 1.07, fluconazole 1.45 versus 1.22, and rifampicin 0.49 versus 0.69. The constructed CBD PBPK models can predict adult exposures and have potential for use in pediatrics where exposure estimates are limited.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica L. Beers
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental TherapeuticsUNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillCaliforniaUSA
| | - Klarissa D. Jackson
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental TherapeuticsUNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillCaliforniaUSA
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5
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Bardhi K, Coates S, Watson CJ, Lazarus P. Cannabinoids and drug metabolizing enzymes: potential for drug-drug interactions and implications for drug safety and efficacy. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2022; 15:1443-1460. [DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2022.2148655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keti Bardhi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Shelby Coates
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Christy J.W. Watson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
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6
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Young BL, Victoria Zhang Y. A rapid Dilute-and-Shoot LC-MS/MS method for quantifying THC-COOH and THC-COO(Gluc) in urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1211:123495. [PMID: 36257275 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis remains one of the most commonly used psychotropes. Cannabis use is frequently evaluated via the testing of suspected patient samples. Thus, there is a high demand for simple, accurate and fast assays to support the increasing needs for testing. This report highlights a reliable, simple and fast liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry assay that quantifies the cannabis metabolites THC-COOH and THC-COO(Gluc) in human urine. The assay employs a direct dilute-and-shoot approach, whereby urine samples are diluted 10X before being directly injected on the liquid chromatography and mass spectrometer. The assay quantification is based on an internal calibration approach that used deuterated analogues for THC-COOH and THC-COO(Gluc) as internal standards. The assay's analysis time was 5 min. The quantification was valid over a wide linear range (25 - 8,000 ng/mL) for both analytes and was free of matrix interferences. The within-day and between-day precision was determined to be ≤ 15 % CV for both analytes. The assay was validated based on the College of American Pathologists (CAP) and Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy L Young
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Y Victoria Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States.
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7
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Zhang Q, Melchert PW, Markowitz JS. In vitro evaluation of the impact of Covid-19 therapeutic agents on the hydrolysis of the antiviral prodrug remdesivir. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 365:110097. [PMID: 35964681 PMCID: PMC9367181 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Remdesivir (RDV, Veklury®) is an FDA-approved prodrug for the treatment of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Recent in vitro studies have indicated that human carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) is the major metabolic enzyme catalyzing RDV activation. COVID-19 treatment for hospitalized patients typically also involves a number of antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs. Further, individuals who are carriers of a CES1 variant (polymorphism in exon 4 codon 143 [G143E]) may experience impairment in their ability to metabolize therapeutic agents which are CES1 substrates. The present study assessed the potential influence of nine therapeutic agents (hydroxychloroquine, ivermectin, erythromycin, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, vancomycin, and dexamethasone) commonly used in treating COVID-19 and 5 known CES1 inhibitors on the metabolism of RDV. Additionally, we further analyzed the mechanism of inhibition of cannabidiol (CBD), as well as the impact of the G143E polymorphism on RDV metabolism. An in vitro S9 fraction incubation method and in vitro to in vivo pharmacokinetic scaling were utilized. None of the nine therapeutic agents evaluated produced significant inhibition of RDV hydrolysis; CBD was found to inhibit RDV hydrolysis by a mixed type of competitive and noncompetitive partial inhibition mechanism. In vitro to in vivo modeling suggested a possible reduction of RDV clearance and increase of AUC when coadministration with CBD. The same scaling method also suggested a potentially lower clearance and higher AUC in the presence of the G143E variant. In conclusion, a potential CES1-mediated DDI between RDV and the nine assessed medications appears unlikely. However, a potential CES1-mediated DDI between RDV and CBD may be possible with sufficient exposure to the cannabinoid. Patients carrying the CES1 G143E variant may exhibit a slower biotransformation and clearance of RDV. Further clinical studies would be required to evaluate and characterize the clinical significance of a CBD-RDV interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingchen Zhang
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Philip W Melchert
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - John S Markowitz
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Pharmacogenomics and Precision Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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8
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Child RB, Tallon MJ. Cannabidiol (CBD) Dosing: Plasma Pharmacokinetics and Effects on Accumulation in Skeletal Muscle, Liver and Adipose Tissue. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14102101. [PMID: 35631242 PMCID: PMC9146469 DOI: 10.3390/nu14102101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral cannabidiol (CBD) consumption is widespread in North America and Europe, as it has analgesic, neuroprotective and antitumor effects. Although oral CBD consumption in humans affords beneficial effects in epileptic and inflammatory states, its pharmacokinetics and subsequent uptake into tissue are largely unknown. This study investigated plasma pharmacokinetics and accumulation of CBD in gastrocnemius muscle, liver and adipose tissue in adult rats following oral gavage. CBD was fed relative to body mass at 0 (control), 30, 115, or 230 mg/Kg/day for 28 days; with 6 males and 6 females per dosing group. Pharmacokinetics were assessed on day 1 and day 28 in the group receiving CBD at 115 mg/Kg/day. The rise in tissue CBD was closely related to specific pharmacokinetic parameters, and adipose tissue levels were ~10 to ~100 fold greater than liver or muscle. Tissue CBD levels were moderately correlated between adipose and muscle, and adipose and liver, but were highly correlated for liver and muscle. CBD feeding resulted in several gender-specific effects, including changes in pharmacokinetics, relationships between pharmacokinetic parameters and tissue CBD and differences in tissue CBD levels. CBD accumulation in mammalian tissues has the potential to influence receptor binding and metabolism; therefore, the present findings may have relevance for developing oral dosing regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B. Child
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Legal Products Group Ltd., 26 St Thomas Pl, Ely, Cambridgeshire CB7 4EX, UK;
- Correspondence:
| | - Mark J. Tallon
- Legal Products Group Ltd., 26 St Thomas Pl, Ely, Cambridgeshire CB7 4EX, UK;
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9
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Distribution of tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol in several different postmortem matrices. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 329:111082. [PMID: 34775328 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance worldwide. A limited number of studies have investigated whether tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) can be detected in other postmortem matrices than blood and urine. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of THC and CBD in several different postmortem matrices. Concentrations in peripheral blood were compared to those in cardiac blood, pericardial fluid, psoas muscle, vastus lateralis muscle, and vitreous humor. A total of 39 postmortem forensic autopsy cases were included. THC and CBD were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We were able to detect both THC and CBD in most of the analyzed matrices. For vitreous humor, however, only approximately 50% of the cases were available for analysis, and only two were found to be positive. Median concentrations in peripheral blood were 0.0040 (0.00042-0.056) mg/L for THC and 0.0013 (0-0.023) mg/L for CBD. The concentration ratios between pericardial fluid and cardiac blood compared to peripheral blood were< 1 for both THC and CBD for the majority of the cases. For THC, a median ratio of 0.60 (0.063-7.2) and 0.65 (0.068-4.8) were found for pericardial fluid and cardiac blood, respectively, compared to peripheral blood, whereas for CBD the corresponding median ratios were 0.40 (0.010-1.9) and 0.80 (0.017-2.4). The THC concentrations in psoas muscle and vastus lateralis muscle were high compared to those in peripheral blood in several cases, and large variations in the muscles to peripheral blood concentration ratios were seen. This was also the case for CBD. Our study shows that THC and CBD can be detected in postmortem matrices other than peripheral blood, and results from other matrices might provide important information in forensic cases where peripheral blood is not available. However, vitreous humor was not suitable for detecting neither THC nor CBD.
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10
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Cliburn KD, Huestis MA, Wagner JR, Kemp PM. Cannabinoid distribution in fatally-injured pilots' postmortem fluids and tissues. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 329:111075. [PMID: 34749280 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The primary psychoactive component of cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs cognitive function and psychomotor performance, particularly for complex tasks like piloting an aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Forensic Sciences Section at the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (Oklahoma City, OK) performs toxicological analyses on pilots fatally injured in general aviation incidents, permitting cannabinoids measurement in a broad array of postmortem biological specimens. Cannabinoid concentrations in postmortem fluids and tissues from 10 pilots involved in airplane crashes are presented. Median (range) THC blood concentration was 1.6 (1.0-13.7) ng/mL. Phase I metabolites, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) and phase II glucuronide metabolite, THCCOOH-glucuronide, had median (range) blood concentrations of 1.4 (0.5-1.8), 9.9 (2.2-72.6) and 36.6 (7.1-160) ng/mL, respectively. Urine analyses revealed positive results for THCCOOH, THC-glucuronide, THCCOOH-glucuronide and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCVCOOH). THC was readily distributed to lung, brain, kidney, spleen and heart. The psychoactive metabolite, 11-OH-THC, was identified in liver and brain with median (range) concentrations 7.1 (3.5-10.5) and 2.4 (2.0-6.0) ng/g, respectively. Substantial THCCOOH and THCCOOH-glucuronide concentrations were observed in liver, lung, brain, kidney, spleen and heart. These cannabinoid concentrations from multiple types of postmortem specimens add to the limited postmortem cannabinoid research data and suggest useful biological matrices for investigating cannabinoid-related deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacey D Cliburn
- Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA.
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Huestis and Smith Toxicology, LLC, 683 Shore Road, Severna Park, MD 21146, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Jarrad R Wagner
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Philip M Kemp
- Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
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11
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Palazzoli F, Santunione AL, Marchesi F, Verri P, Vandelli D, Licata M, Silingardi E. Cannabinoids Determination in Brain: A Supplemental Helpful in Postmortem Evaluation. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:918-926. [PMID: 33031554 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The scientific interest in cannabis has been documented by a wide literature, but postmortem studies and interpretations of autopsy findings are lacking or limited to few cases, few matrices analyzed or a small number of analytes. The present study describes the development and full in-house validation of a sensitive and simple method based on an optimized rapid clean-up procedure combined with a robust and highly sensitive liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) technique, designed to simultaneous determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) and 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-carboxylic acid glucuronated (THC-COOH gluc.) in postmortem samples: central blood (CB), femoral blood (FB) and brain tissue (BR). The developed method was validated and applied to 24 postmortem cases involving cannabinoids. In this study, we presented a full optimization and validation of target analyses for each matrix. The procedure had proven to be reliable and accurate. This study adds new data, particularly about the cannabinoids concentrations in BR samples. Combined pattern (CB, FB, BR) can be used in the interpretation of postmortem cases, proving and strengthening the assessments made on blood data. BR matrix is a helpful supplement in the investigation of the role of cannabinoids as crucial or contributory factor in leading to death.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Palazzoli
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - A L Santunione
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - F Marchesi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - P Verri
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - D Vandelli
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - M Licata
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - E Silingardi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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12
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Alternative matrices in forensic toxicology: a critical review. Forensic Toxicol 2021; 40:1-18. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-021-00596-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
The use of alternative matrices in toxicological analyses has been on the rise in clinical and forensic settings. Specimens alternative to blood and urine are useful in providing additional information regarding drug exposure and analytical benefits. The goal of this paper is to present a critical review on the most recent literature regarding the application of six common alternative matrices, i.e., oral fluid, hair, sweat, meconium, breast milk and vitreous humor in forensic toxicology.
Methods
The recent literature have been searched and reviewed for the characteristics, advantages and limitations of oral fluid, hair, sweat, meconium, breast milk and vitreous humor and its applications in the analysis of traditional drugs of abuse and novel psychoactive substances (NPS).
Results
This paper outlines the properties of six biological matrices that have been used in forensic analyses, as alternatives to whole blood and urine specimens. Each of this matrix has benefits in regards to sampling, extraction, detection window, typical drug levels and other aspects. However, theses matrices have also limitations such as limited incorporation of drugs (according to physical–chemical properties), impossibility to correlate the concentrations for effects, low levels of xenobiotics and ultimately the need for more sensitive analysis. For more traditional drugs of abuse (e.g., cocaine and amphetamines), there are already data available on the detection in alternative matrices. However, data on the determination of emerging drugs such as the NPS in alternative biological matrices are more limited.
Conclusions
Alternative biological fluids are important specimens in forensic toxicology. These matrices have been increasingly reported over the years, and this dynamic will probably continue in the future, especially considering their inherent advantages and the possibility to be used when blood or urine are unavailable. However, one should be aware that these matrices have limitations and particular properties, and the findings obtained from the analysis of these specimens may vary according to the type of matrix. As a potential perspective in forensic toxicology, the topic of alternative matrices will be continuously explored, especially emphasizing NPS.
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Cliburn KD, Huestis MA, Wagner JR, Kemp PM. Identification and quantification of cannabinoids in postmortem fluids and tissues by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1652:462345. [PMID: 34198104 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is commonly used worldwide and is frequently detected by forensic laboratories working with biological specimens from potentially impaired drivers or pilots. To address the problem of limited published methods for cannabinoids quantification in postmortem specimens, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated to quantify Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), 8β,11-dihydroxy-THC (8β-diOH-THC), 8β-hydroxy-THC (8β-OH-THC), THC-glucuronide (THC-g), THCCOOH-glucuronide (THCCOOH-g), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH). Solid phase extraction concentrated analytes prior to analysis on a biphenyl column coupled to a mass spectrometer in electrospray positive ionization mode using multiple reaction monitoring. Linearity ranged from 0.25-50 ng/mL (THC-g), 0.5-100 ng/mL (CBN), 0.5-250 ng/mL (THC, 11-OH-THC, THCCOOH, CBD, and CBG), 1-100 ng/mL (8β-diOH-THC, THCVCOOH, 8β-OH-THC, and THCV) and 1-250 ng/mL (THCCOOH-g). Within-run imprecision was <11.2% CV, between-run imprecision <18.1% CV, and bias was less than ±15.1% of target concentration in blood for all cannabinoids at three concentrations. No carryover or interferences were observed. All cannabinoids were stable in blood at room temperature for 24 h, refrigerated (4°C) for 96 h, and following three freeze/thaw cycles. Matrix effects greater than 25% were observed for most analytes in tissues. The proof of concept for method applicability involved measurement of cannabinoids in a pilot fatally injured in an aviation crash. This new analytical method is robust and sensitive, enabling collection of additional cannabinoid postmortem distribution data to improve interpretation of postmortem cannabinoid results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacey D Cliburn
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, 205 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Huestis and Smith Toxicology, LLC, 683 Shore Road, Severna, MD 21146, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Jarrad R Wagner
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Philip M Kemp
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA; Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA
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Al-Zahrani MA, Al-Asmari AI, Al-Zahrani FF, Torrance HJ, Watson DG. Quantification of cannabinoids in human hair using a modified derivatization procedure and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1095-1107. [PMID: 33491296 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for detecting of the main cannabinoids, cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the primary metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in hair samples. Extraction of the cannabinoids was carried out by a polymeric strong anion mixed-mode solid-phase extraction cartridge and then employing methanolic HCl followed by 2-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium-p-toluenesulfonate (FMP-TS) as a derivatization procedure of carboxyl and phenolic groups, respectively, offering enhanced sensitivity for the detection of THC-COOH in hair matrices. Formation of a methyl ester increased its lipophilicity and removed the negative charge on the carboxyl group. Calibration curves were prepared over the range of 0.02-4 pg/mg of hair for THC and CBN and 0.2-12 pg/mg of hair for THC-COOH. The extraction recovery was between 81% and 105% for all compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2 and 20 pg/mg, respectively, for both CBN and THC and 0.1 and 0.2 pg/mg, respectively, for THC-COOH, which met the society of hair testing recommendation. Intra-assay and interassay precision were always lower than 4% and 11%, respectively for these cannabinoids, whereas intra-assay and interassay bias were between +14% and -18% and +15% and -12%, respectively. Twenty-seven hair specimens from cannabis users were investigated. The concentrations of CBN, THC and THC-COOH gave ranges of (0.022-2.562 ng/mg), (0.049-0.431 ng/mg) and (0.222-4.867 pg/mg), respectively. This new method of derivatization improves the LOD to ensure detection of the metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour A Al-Zahrani
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Medina, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Farouq F Al-Zahrani
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Naïf College for National Security, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hazel J Torrance
- Forensic Medicine and Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David G Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Bustos E, Manríquez J, Colín-González AL, Rangel-López E, Santamaría A. Electrochemical Detection of Neurotransmitters in the Brain and Other Molecules with Biological Activity in the Nervous System: Dopamine Analysis. CURR ORG CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272824666200204121746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring the appropriate functions of the brain is a priority when the diagnosis
of neurological diseases is carried out. In this regard, there are different analytical
techniques to detect neurotransmitters and other molecules with biological activity in
the nervous system. Among several analytical procedures, electrochemical techniques are
very important since they can be applied in situ, without loss of sensibility and/or minimal
handling of samples. In addition, it is also possible to combine them with specific detectors
designed on the basis of chemically-modified electrodes in order to improve detection
limits by promoting molecular recognition capabilities at their surfaces, thus favoring the
development of electrochemical detection in vivo by microelectrodes. In this mini-review,
we will describe the major characteristics of this analytical method and its advantages for
the detection of neurotransmitters (mostly dopamine) in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Bustos
- Centro de Investigacion y Desarrollo Tecnologico en Electroquimica, S.C., CIDETEQ, Parque Tecnologico Queretaro, Sanfandila, Pedro Escobedo, 76703, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Juan Manríquez
- Centro de Investigacion y Desarrollo Tecnologico en Electroquimica, S.C., CIDETEQ, Parque Tecnologico Queretaro, Sanfandila, Pedro Escobedo, 76703, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Ana Laura Colín-González
- Insttuto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, INNN, Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Mexico, D.F., C.P. 14269, Mexico
| | - Edgar Rangel-López
- Insttuto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, INNN, Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Mexico, D.F., C.P. 14269, Mexico
| | - Abel Santamaría
- Insttuto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, INNN, Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Mexico, D.F., C.P. 14269, Mexico
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Al-Asmari AI. Method for Postmortem Tissue Quantification of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Metabolites Using LC–MS-MS. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:718-733. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A method for analyzing Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (THC-OH) and 11-nor-Δ9-THC-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) in postmortem solid specimens using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated. A Stomacher instrument was used to prepare these tissues before extraction. Prior to solid phase extraction, liver, kidney, stomach, lung, brain, muscle, bladder and intestine tissues were pretreated with alkaline hydrolysis. All calibration curves were found to be linear with coefficients of determination greater than 0.99. The limit of quantification was 1.0 ng/g. Using three controls, within-run precision ranged between 1.0 and 12.0%, between-run precision ranged between 1.0 and 6.0%, and accuracy ranged between −7.0 and 8.0%. Matrix effects ranged from −21 to 24%. After matrix effects were excluded, analytical recoveries ranged from 79 to 97%. The distributions of THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH were investigated in 32 postmortem cases that tested positive for cannabinoids. This revealed new information regarding the distribution of THC metabolites in stomach, intestine and bladder. Alkaline hydrolysis was sufficient for the deglucuronidation of THC-COOH-glucuronide to its free form, THC-COOH, in all tissues of interest. In conclusion, measuring THC and its metabolites (THC-OH and THC-COOH) in tissues is crucial for any forensic toxicology detection method, especially when bodies are heavily decomposed, as solid tissues may be the only specimens available for testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed I Al-Asmari
- King Abdul-Aziz Hospital, Laboratory Department, Jeddah Health Affair, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia
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Nahar L, Onder A, Sarker SD. A review on the recent advances in HPLC, UHPLC and UPLC analyses of naturally occurring cannabinoids (2010-2019). PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2020; 31:413-457. [PMID: 31849137 DOI: 10.1002/pca.2906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Organic molecules that bind to cannabinoid receptors are called cannabinoids, and they have similar pharmacological properties like the plant, Cannabis sativa L. Hyphenated liquid chromatography (LC), incorporating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC, also known as ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography, UHPLC), usually coupled to an ultraviolet (UV), UV-photodiode array (PDA) or mass spectrometry (MS) detector, has become a popular analytical tool for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids in various matrices. OBJECTIVE To review literature on the use of various LC-based analytical methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids published since 2010. METHODOLOGY A comprehensive literature search was performed utilising several databases, like Web of Knowledge, PubMed and Google Scholar, and other relevant published materials including published books. The keywords used, in various combinations, with cannabinoids being present in all combinations, in the search were Cannabis, hemp, cannabinoids, Cannabis sativa, marijuana, analysis, HPLC, UHPLC, UPLC, quantitative, qualitative and quality control. RESULTS Since 2010, several LC methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids have been reported. While simple HPLC-UV or HPLC-UV-PDA-based methods were common in cannabinoids analysis, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS, UPLC (or UHPLC)-UV-PDA, UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS and UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS/MS, were also used frequently. Applications of mathematical and computational models for optimisation of different protocols were observed, and pre-analyses included various environmentally friendly extraction protocols. CONCLUSIONS LC-based analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids has dominated the cannabinoids analysis during the last 10 years, and UPLC and UHPLC methods have been shown to be superior to conventional HPLC methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lutfun Nahar
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Alev Onder
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Satyajit D Sarker
- Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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Qian Y, Gurley BJ, Markowitz JS. The Potential for Pharmacokinetic Interactions Between Cannabis Products and Conventional Medications. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2020; 39:462-471. [PMID: 31433338 DOI: 10.1097/jcp.0000000000001089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Increased cannabis use and recent drug approvals pose new challenges for avoiding drug interactions between cannabis products and conventional medications. This review aims to identify drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters that are affected by concurrent cannabis use and, conversely, those co-prescribed medications that may alter the exposure to one or more cannabinoids. METHODS A systematic literature search was conducted utilizing the Google Scholar search engine and MEDLINE (PubMed) database through March 2019. All articles describing in vitro or clinical studies of cannabis drug interaction potential were retrieved for review. Additional articles of interest were obtained through cross-referencing of published bibliographies. FINDINGS After comparing the in vitro inhibition parameters to physiologically achievable cannabinoid concentrations, it was concluded that CYP2C9, CYP1A1/2, and CYP1B1 are likely to be inhibited by all 3 major cannabinoids Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN). The isoforms CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2B6, and CYP2J2 are inhibited by THC and CBD. CYP3A4/5/7 is potentially inhibited by CBD. Δ-Tetrahydrocannabinol also activates CYP2C9 and induces CYP1A1. For non-CYP drug-metabolizing enzymes, UGT1A9 is inhibited by CBD and CBN, whereas UGT2B7 is inhibited by CBD but activated by CBN. Carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) is potentially inhibited by THC and CBD. Clinical studies suggest inhibition of CYP2C19 by CBD, inhibition of CYP2C9 by various cannabis products, and induction of CYP1A2 through cannabis smoking. Evidence of CBD inhibition of UGTs and CES1 has been shown in some studies, but the data are limited at present. We did not identify any clinical studies suggesting an influence of cannabinoids on drug transporters, and in vitro results suggest that a clinical interaction is unlikely. CONCLUSIONS Medications that are prominent substrates for CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and CYP1A2 may be particularly at risk of altered disposition by concomitant use of cannabis or 1 or more of its constituents. Caution should also be given when coadministered drugs are metabolized by UGT or CES1, on which subject the information remains limited and further investigation is warranted. Conversely, conventional drugs with strong inhibitory or inductive effects on CYP3A4 are expected to affect CBD disposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuli Qian
- From the Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Bill J Gurley
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
| | - John S Markowitz
- From the Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Al-Asmari AI. Method for Postmortem Quantification of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Metabolites Using LC–MS–MS. J Anal Toxicol 2019; 43:703-719. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractA specific, sensitive, fast and simple method for analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (THC-OH) and 11-nor-Δ9-THC-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) in routine postmortem cases using LC–MS–MS was developed and validated. Prior to solid phase extraction, urine, stomach contents and bile were pretreated using alkaline hydrolysis, while blood and vitreous humor were pretreated with protein precipitation. The distribution of THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH were investigated in 31 postmortem cases that tested positive for cannabinoids. This revealed new information regarding the distribution of THC in stomach contents and vitreous humor. Alkaline hydrolysis was sufficient for the deglucuronidation of THC-COOH-glucuronide to its free form, THC-COOH, in urine, bile and stomach contents. However, the THC-OH concentration in bile reported in this study is considerably high compared to that of previous studies. In conclusion, including THC and its metabolites (THC-OH and THC-COOH) is crucial for any forensic toxicology detection method to most accurately determine the role of cannabinoids in deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed I Al-Asmari
- Poison Control and Forensic Medical Chemistry Center, and Department of Laboratory, King Abdul-Aziz Hospital, Ministry of Health, 6470, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia
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Cogan PS. On healthcare by popular appeal: critical assessment of benefit and risk in cannabidiol based dietary supplements. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2019; 12:501-511. [DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2019.1612743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter S. Cogan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Regis University School of Pharmacy, Denver, CO, USA
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Qian Y, Wang X, Markowitz JS. In Vitro Inhibition of Carboxylesterase 1 by Major Cannabinoids and Selected Metabolites. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 47:465-472. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.086074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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Kraemer M, Broecker S, Diehl BW, Madea B, Hess C. Palmitic acid ester of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and palmitic acid diester of 11-hydroxy-THC — Unsuccessful search for additional THC metabolites in human body fluids and tissues. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 294:86-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 11/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Schaefer N, Kettner M, Laschke MW, Schlote J, Ewald AH, Menger MD, Maurer HH, Schmidt PH. Distribution of Synthetic Cannabinoids JWH-210, RCS-4 and Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol After Intravenous Administration to Pigs. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 15:713-723. [PMID: 27834143 PMCID: PMC5771047 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666161111114214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) have become an increasing issue in forensic toxicology. Controlled human studies evaluating pharmacokinetic data of SCs are lacking and only few animal studies have been published. Thus, an interpretation of analytical results found in intoxicated or poisoned individuals is difficult. Therefore, the distribution of two selected SCs, namely 4-ethylnaphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl)methanone (JWH-210) and 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-(1-pentyl-indol-3-yl)methanone (RCS-4) as well as ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as reference were examined in pigs. Methods: Pigs (n = 6 per drug) received a single intravenous 200 µg/kg BW dose of JWH-210, RCS-4, or THC. Six hours after administration, the animals were exsanguinated and relevant organs, important body fluids such as bile, and tissues such as muscle and adipose tissue, as well as the bradytrophic specimens dura and vitreous humor were collected. After hydrolysis and solid phase extraction, analysis was performed by LC-MS/MS. To overcome matrix effects of the LC-MS/MS analysis, a standard addition method was applied for quantification. Results: The parent compounds could be detected in every analyzed specimen with the exception of THC that was not present in dura and vitreous humor. Moderate concentrations were present in brain, the site of biological effect. Metabolite concentrations were highest in tissues involved in metabolism and/or elimination. Conclusions: Besides kidneys and lungs routinely analyzed in postmortem toxicology, brain, adipose, and muscle tissue could serve as alternative sources, particularly if other specimens are not available. Bile fluid is the most appropriate specimen for SCs and THC metabolites detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Schaefer
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, Building 80.2, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Mattias Kettner
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, Building 80.2, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Matthias W Laschke
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Julia Schlote
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, Building 80.2, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Andreas H Ewald
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, Building 80.2, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Michael D Menger
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Saarland University, Building 46 D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
| | - Peter H Schmidt
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, Building 80.2, D-66421 Homburg (Saar). Germany
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Chronic Pain Treatment With Cannabidiol in Kidney Transplant Patients in Uruguay. Transplant Proc 2018; 50:461-464. [DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2017.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Death by self-mutilation after oral cannabis consumption. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2018; 30:5-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Electron Ionization LC-MS. ADVANCES IN THE USE OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY (LC-MS) - INSTRUMENTATION DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Saenz SR, Lewis RJ, Angier MK, Wagner JR. Postmortem Fluid and Tissue Concentrations of THC, 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH†. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 41:508-516. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Bévalot F, Cartiser N, Bottinelli C, Fanton L, Guitton J. État de l’art de l’analyse de la bile en toxicologie médicolégale. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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31
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Rapid quantification of free and glucuronidated THCCOOH in urine using coated well plates and LC–MS/MS analysis. Bioanalysis 2017; 9:485-496. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Generally, urine drug testing for cannabis abuse involves measuring total concentrations of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) obtained by enzymatic and/or alkaline hydrolysis of THCCOOH-glucuronide. As hydrolysis can be inconsistent and incomplete, direct measurement of the two metabolites is preferable. Methodology & results: We developed a high-throughput LC–MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of free and glucuronidated THCCOOH in urine using coated 96-well plates for analyte extraction and column-switching chromatography. Excellent separation of the two analytes was achieved within 2.5 min, with linear ranges from 5 to 2000 μg/l for THCCOOH and from 10 to 4000 μg/l for THCCOOH-glucuronide. Conclusion: The method was successfully validated and applied to authentic urine samples from cannabis consumers, demonstrating its applicability for routine cannabinoid testing.
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Hädener M, Martin Fabritius M, König S, Giroud C, Weinmann W. Assessing cannabis consumption frequency: Is the combined use of free and glucuronidated THCCOOH blood levels of diagnostic utility? Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:1043-1051. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Hädener
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bern; Bühlstrasse 20 3012 Bern Switzerland
| | - Marie Martin Fabritius
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bern; Bühlstrasse 20 3012 Bern Switzerland
| | - Stefan König
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bern; Bühlstrasse 20 3012 Bern Switzerland
| | - Christian Giroud
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Chemin de la Vulliette 4 1000 Lausanne 25 Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Weinmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Bern; Bühlstrasse 20 3012 Bern Switzerland
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Ujváry I, Hanuš L. Human Metabolites of Cannabidiol: A Review on Their Formation, Biological Activity, and Relevance in Therapy. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2016; 1:90-101. [PMID: 28861484 PMCID: PMC5576600 DOI: 10.1089/can.2015.0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD), the main nonpsychoactive constituent of Cannabis sativa, has shown a wide range of therapeutically promising pharmacological effects either as a sole drug or in combination with other drugs in adjunctive therapy. However, the targets involved in the therapeutic effects of CBD appear to be elusive. Furthermore, scarce information is available on the biological activity of its human metabolites which, when formed in pharmacologically relevant concentration, might contribute to or even account for the observed therapeutic effects. The present overview summarizes our current knowledge on the pharmacokinetics and metabolic fate of CBD in humans, reviews studies on the biological activity of CBD metabolites either in vitro or in vivo, and discusses relevant drug–drug interactions. To facilitate further research in the area, the reported syntheses of CBD metabolites are also catalogued.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lumír Hanuš
- Institute for Drug Research, Hebrew University Medical Faculty, Jerusalem, Israel
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34
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Bévalot F, Cartiser N, Bottinelli C, Guitton J, Fanton L. State of the art in bile analysis in forensic toxicology. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 259:133-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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35
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Hädener M, Weinmann W, Schürch S, König S. Development of a rapid column-switching LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of THCCOOH and THCCOOH-glucuronide in whole blood for assessing cannabis consumption frequency. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:1953-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9311-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Hanisch S, Paulke A, Toennes SW. Investigation of a recently detected THCCOOH isomer: Post mortem findings and comparison with Δ8-THCCOOH. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 257:252-256. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Marchetti D, Spagnolo A, De Matteis V, Filograna L, De Giovanni N. Coronary thrombosis and marijuana smoking: a case report and narrative review of the literature. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:56-62. [PMID: 26607055 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We encountered evidence of myocardial infarction due to coronary thrombosis in an autopsy of an occasional marijuana smoker. These findings prompted us to perform a narrative review of the literature to determine when post-mortem toxicological tests may support a temporal relationship between marijuana smoking and cardiovascular disease. Toxicological examination showed the presence of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, its main metabolite and cannabinol in blood and urine. Quali-quantitative analysis revealed that Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol was taken within 2 h of the onset of cardiovascular symptoms, according to circumstantial data. Post-mortem toxicological results must take into account the degradation and post-mortem redistribution of analytes. However, for any inference about the specific cardiovascular triggering effect of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol intake, we maintain that cannabinoid analysis in blood samples must be considered an essential requirement to estimate the time of last intake and avoid incomplete documentation. The literature, combined with the present case report, highlights an association between marijuana use and negative cardiovascular events, although few authors have supported their conclusions with toxicological results. Thus, additional research is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Marchetti
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, L.go F. Vito, 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Angelico Spagnolo
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, L.go F. Vito, 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentino De Matteis
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, L.go F. Vito, 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Filograna
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, L.go F. Vito, 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Nadia De Giovanni
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, L.go F. Vito, 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
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Seemann B, Alon T, Tsizin S, Fialkov AB, Amirav A. Electron ionization LC-MS with supersonic molecular beams--the new concept, benefits and applications. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2015; 50:1252-63. [PMID: 26505770 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A new type of electron ionization LC-MS with supersonic molecular beams (EI-LC-MS with SMB) is described. This system and its operational methods are based on pneumatic spray formation of the LC liquid flow in a heated spray vaporization chamber, full sample thermal vaporization and subsequent electron ionization of vibrationally cold molecules in supersonic molecular beams. The vaporized sample compounds are transferred into a supersonic nozzle via a flow restrictor capillary. Consequently, while the pneumatic spray is formed and vaporized at above atmospheric pressure the supersonic nozzle backing pressure is about 0.15 Bar for the formation of supersonic molecular beams with vibrationally cold sample molecules without cluster formation with the solvent vapor. The sample compounds are ionized in a fly-though EI ion source as vibrationally cold molecules in the SMB, resulting in 'Cold EI' (EI of vibrationally cold molecules) mass spectra that exhibit the standard EI fragments combined with enhanced molecular ions. We evaluated the EI-LC-MS with SMB system and demonstrated its effectiveness in NIST library sample identification which is complemented with the availability of enhanced molecular ions. The EI-LC-MS with SMB system is characterized by linear response of five orders of magnitude and uniform compound independent response including for non-polar compounds. This feature improves sample quantitation that can be approximated without compound specific calibration. Cold EI, like EI, is free from ion suppression and/or enhancement effects (that plague ESI and/or APCI) which facilitate faster LC separation because full separation is not essential. The absence of ion suppression effects enables the exploration of fast flow injection MS-MS as an alternative to lengthy LC-MS analysis. These features are demonstrated in a few examples, and the analysis of the main ingredients of Cannabis on a few Cannabis flower extracts is demonstrated. Finally, the advantages of EI-LC-MS with SMB are listed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boaz Seemann
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Tal Alon
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Svetlana Tsizin
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | | | - Aviv Amirav
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
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Karampela S, Pistos C, Moraitis K, Stoukas V, Papoutsis I, Zorba E, Koupparis M, Spiliopoulou C, Athanaselis S. Development and validation of a LC/MS method for the determination of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in the larvae of the blowfly Lucilia sericata: Forensic applications. Sci Justice 2015; 55:472-80. [PMID: 26654083 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In a number of forensic toxicological cases, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its metabolite 11-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCA) are frequently considered as contributor factors to the event. To that, a liquid chromatographic mass spectrometric method is described for the identification and quantitation of THC and its metabolite THCA in the forensically important larvae of L. sericata. Larvae of Lucilia sericata were fortified with varying concentrations of THC and THCA covering the calibration range between 10 and 500pg/mg. For the isolation of the analytes from larvae, several extraction techniques were evaluated and finally liquid-liquid extraction under acidic pH was selected using hexane-ethyl acetate (50:50, v/v) as extraction solvent. For the chromatographic separation, a Waters Symmetry® C18 analytical column was used while the mobile phase was acetonitrile-ammonium acetate (2mM) (30:70, v/v). The detection was performed using electrospray ionization source in negative mode (ESI-) and the selected ions monitored were m/z 313 for THC and m/z 343 for THCA. The proposed method which is simple and sufficiently sensitive for the detection of THC and THCA even in a single larva sampling, assisted the investigation of a forensic case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevasti Karampela
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece; Division of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens 15771, Greece.
| | - Constantinos Pistos
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Konstantinos Moraitis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Vasilios Stoukas
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Ioannis Papoutsis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Eleni Zorba
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Michalis Koupparis
- Division of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens 15771, Greece.
| | - Chara Spiliopoulou
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
| | - Sotiris Athanaselis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Athens 11527, Greece.
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40
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Identification and quantification of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid glucuronide (THC-COOH-glu) in hair by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry as a potential hair biomarker of cannabis use. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 249:47-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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41
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42
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Montesano C, Sergi M, Odoardi S, Simeoni MC, Compagnone D, Curini R. A μ-SPE procedure for the determination of cannabinoids and their metabolites in urine by LC–MS/MS. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 91:169-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2013.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 12/28/2013] [Accepted: 12/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Smokeable herbal mixtures containing synthetic agonists of cannabinoid receptors, known under brand names such as Spice, K2 and Kronic, represent a relatively new type of designer psychoactive drugs that has recently emerged on the recreational drug market. Although the Spice packages are labelled 'not for human consumption' or 'for aromatherapy only' and declared to be purely herbal, these herbal mixtures produce cannabis-like effects after smoking. This review surveys the current state of knowledge regarding the pharmacological properties of synthetic cannabimimetics and the prevalence and pattern of their use. Special emphasis is given to the negative consequences of using these products, including, among others, hallucinations, psychoses with delusions, seizures, cardiovascular symptoms and acute kidney injury.
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45
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Battista N, Sergi M, Montesano C, Napoletano S, Compagnone D, Maccarrone M. Analytical approaches for the determination of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids in human matrices. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:7-16. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Battista
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation; Rome Italy
| | - Manuel Sergi
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
| | | | - Sabino Napoletano
- Department of Chemistry; Sapienza University of Rome; Rome Italy
- Department of Public Safety, Ministry of Interior; Forensic Service/GIPS; Ancona Italy
| | - Dario Compagnone
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation; Rome Italy
- Center of Integrated Research; Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome; Rome Italy
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46
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Recent advances in LC–MS/MS analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in biological matrices. Bioanalysis 2013; 5:2713-31. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.13.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the world. The pharmacological properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol also make it a promising molecule in the treatment of different pathologies. Understanding the PKs and PDs of this drug requires the determination of the concentration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in biological matrices. For this purpose many analytical methodologies using mass spectrometric detection have been developed. In recent years, LC–MS/MS has become the gold standard in analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites due to the high selectivity and sensitivity, but above all, due to the ability to determine free and conjugate analytes in one run.
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47
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Skopp G, Mikus G. An in vitro experiment on the interaction of charcoal or wheat bran with 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and its glucuronide. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9449-53. [PMID: 24077855 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7381-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The rather long yet variable terminal half-lives and detection times since last use of urinary cannabinoids may partly be attributed to their enterohepatic circulation which generally can be interrupted or restricted by chemical adsorbents. Therefore, an in vitro experiment was performed to study the adsorption/binding of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) and its glucuronide to activated charcoal and wheat bran; remaining concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Adsorption/binding of 1,000 ng/mL of free or conjugated THC-COOH was complete using as little as 5 mg of charcoal whereas adsorption/binding to wheat bran increased with increasing amounts. Taking of remedies affecting enterohepatic recycling of THC-COOH and its glucuronide may challenge interpretation of cannabinoid concentrations used to detect or assess frequency of drug use or the time since last drug consumption.
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48
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Patton AL, Seely KA, Chimalakonda KC, Tran JP, Trass M, Miranda A, Fantegrossi WE, Kennedy PD, Dobrowolski P, Radominska-Pandya A, McCain KR, James LP, Endres GW, Moran JH. Targeted Metabolomic Approach for Assessing Human Synthetic Cannabinoid Exposure and Pharmacology. Anal Chem 2013; 85:9390-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4024704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Patton
- Arkansas
Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Kathryn A. Seely
- Arkansas
Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Krishna C. Chimalakonda
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Johnny P. Tran
- Arkansas
Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Matthew Trass
- Phenomenex, Torrance, California 90501, United States
| | - Art Miranda
- Phenomenex, Torrance, California 90501, United States
| | - William E. Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Paul D. Kennedy
- Cayman Chemical Co., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108, United States
| | | | - Anna Radominska-Pandya
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Keith R. McCain
- Arkansas Poison & Drug Information Center, College of Pharmacy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | - Laura P. James
- Section
of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Arkansas Children’s Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Arkansas Children’s Hospital, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
| | | | - Jeffery H. Moran
- Arkansas
Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, United States
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Al Saabi A, Allorge D, Sauvage FL, Tournel G, Gaulier JM, Marquet P, Picard N. Involvement of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases UGT1A9 and UGT2B7 in Ethanol Glucuronidation, and Interactions with Common Drugs of Abuse. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 41:568-74. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.112.047878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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50
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Seely KA, Lapoint J, Moran JH, Fattore L. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: a review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39:234-43. [PMID: 22561602 PMCID: PMC3936256 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
"K2" and "Spice" drugs (collectively hereafter referred to as Spice) represent a relatively new class of designer drugs that have recently emerged as popular alternatives to marijuana, otherwise characterized as "legal highs". These drugs are readily available on the Internet and sold in many head shops and convenience stores under the disguise of innocuous products like herbal blends, incense, or air fresheners. Although package labels indicate "not for human consumption", the number of intoxicated people presenting to emergency departments is dramatically increasing. The lack of validated and standardized human testing procedures and an endless supply of potential drugs of abuse are primary reasons why researchers find it difficult to fully characterize clinical consequences associated with Spice. While the exact chemical composition and toxicology of Spice remains to be determined, there is mounting evidence identifying several synthetic cannabinoids as causative agents responsible for psychoactive and adverse physical effects. This review provides updates of the legal status of common synthetic cannabinoids detected in Spice and analytical procedures used to test Spice products and human specimens collected under a variety of clinical circumstances. The pharmacological and toxicological consequences of synthetic cannabinoid abuse are also reviewed to provide a future perspective on potential short- and long-term implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A. Seely
- Arkansas Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States
| | - Jeff Lapoint
- New York City Poison Control Center, 455 First Ave, New York, 10016, United States
| | - Jeffery H. Moran
- Arkansas Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States
| | - Liana Fattore
- Neuroscience Institute-Cagliari, CNR National Research Council of Italy
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