Perspectives for Forensic Intelligence in anti-doping: Thinking outside of the box

RNAseq Analysis of Livers from Pigs Treated with Testosterone and Nandrolone Esters: Selection and Field Validation of Transcriptional Biomarkers

The use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) as growth promoters in farm animals is banned in the European Union, representing both an illicit practice and a risk for consumer health. However, these compounds are still illegally administered, often in the form of synthetic esters. This work aimed to characterize significant coding RNA perturbations related to the illicit administration of testosterone and nandrolone esters in fattening pigs. A total of 27 clinically healthy 90-day-old pigs were randomly assigned to test and control groups. Nine animals were treated with testosterone esters (Sustanon®) and other nine with nandrolone esters (Myodine®). At the end of the trial, liver samples were collected and analyzed using RNAseq, allowing the identification of 491 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The transcriptional signature was further characterized by a smaller sub-cluster of 143 DEGs, from which a selection of 16 genes was made. The qPCR analysis confirmed that the identified cluster could still give good discrimination between untreated gilt and barrows compared to the relative testosterone-treated counterparts. A conclusive field survey on 67 liver samples collected from pigs of different breeds and weight categories confirmed, in agreement with testosterone residue profiles, the specificity of selected transcriptional biomarkers, showing their potential applications for screening purposes when AAS treatment is suspected, allowing to focus further investigations of competent authorities and confirmatory analysis where needed.

Synthesis and characterization of octopamine sulfate, norfenefrine sulfate and etilefrine sulfate reference materials for doping control

BACKGROUND

Doping is the use of prohibited substances by athletes to improve their performance. World Anti‐Doping Agency (WADA)‐accredited laboratories require various metabolite reference standards of the prohibited chemical substances or drugs for routine quality control. Therefore, it was proposed to develop efficient synthetic methodologies for highly pure reference materials of Phase II metabolites of octopamine, norfenefrine and etilefrine, which are prohibited in sports by WADA under the S6 stimulant category. The reference materials were characterized using various analytical techniques. New high‐performance liquid chromatography with diode‐array detection (HPLC‐DAD) methods were developed for purity assessment.

RESULTS

The synthesized Phase II metabolite reference standards, i.e. octopamine sulfate, norfenefrine sulfate and etilefrine sulfate, were confirmed by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, liquid chromatography–high‐resolution mass spectrometry (LC‐HRMS), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared and thermogravimetric analysis. In the LC‐HRMS study, the mass error value of synthesized compounds was less than 10 ppm (error) which confirms the identity of the reference materials. New HPLC‐DAD method were developed to ensure the purity of the reference materials. We used the HILIC column as metabolite reference standards are highly polar. The mobile phase was composed of water and acetonitrile in fixed composition. The HPLC‐DAD purity of the developed reference materials was observed as 100%.

CONCLUSION

We have developed reproducible synthetic routes for octopamine sulfate, norfenefrine sulfate and etilefrine sulfate, which are prohibited in sports by WADA. The synthesized metabolites were characterized using different advanced analytical techniques. These reference standards will be helpful to all WADA‐accredited laboratories in routine anti‐doping testing. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Towards Non-Targeted Screening of Lipid Biomarkers for Improved Equine Anti-Doping

The current approach to equine anti-doping is focused on the targeted detection of prohibited substances. However, as new substances are rapidly being developed, the need for complimentary methods for monitoring is crucial to ensure the integrity of the racing industry is upheld. Lipidomics is a growing field involved in the characterisation of lipids, their function and metabolism in a biological system. Different lipids have various biological effects throughout the equine system including platelet aggregation and inflammation. A certain class of lipids that are being reviewed are the eicosanoids (inflammatory markers). The use of eicosanoids as a complementary method for monitoring has become increasingly popular with various studies completed to highlight their potential. Studies including various corticosteroids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatories and cannabidiol have been reviewed to highlight the progress lipidomics has had in contributing to the equine anti-doping industry. This review has explored the techniques used to prepare and analyse samples for lipidomic investigations in addition to the statistical analysis and potential for lipidomics to be used for a longitudinal assessment in the equine anti-doping industry.

Intelligence-based doping control planning improves testing effectiveness: Perspectives from a national anti-doping organisation

Anti-doping organisations are mandated to provide a comprehensive anti-doping programme, which aims to detect, deter and prevent doping in sport. Direct detection of prohibited substances and methods by collection of biological samples from athletes makes up about half of the global anti-doping budgets but has in the last decade been under critical scrutiny for its lack of efficiency. To ensure optimum detection and deterrence of testing and prevention efforts, a better understanding of doping practices and comparison of different doping test strategies are needed. This study evaluates 17 years of doping test statistics and Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) from the perspectives of a national anti-doping organisation. A total of 48 709 samples (2865 ± 220 annually) were collected by Anti-Doping Norway in the period 2003-2019, which resulted in total 216 ADRVs (12.7 ± 3.7 annually), providing an average sample-to-ADRV rate of 0.44% when including urine, blood and ABP samples. Most athletes who committed ADRVs were men participating in ball and team or strength sports at a national or recreational level. Few ADRVs were recorded among elite athletes and in most high-risk sports, despite these groups being subjected to the highest number of doping tests. The number of annual ADRVs did not correlate with the corresponding number of collected doping samples. However, systematic use of intelligence in the test planning process was associated with an increase in ADRVs. Anti-doping organisations would benefit from improving their target testing capability and to take an intelligence-led approach in planning doping tests.

Measurements of Hydrocortisone and Cortisone for Longitudinal Profiling of Equine Plasma by LC-MS/MS

The conventional detection of exogenous drugs in equine doping samples has been used for confirmation and subsequent prosecution of participants responsible. In recent years, alternative methods using indirect detection have been investigated due to the expanding number of pharmaceutical agents available with the potential of misuse. The monitoring of endogenous biomarkers such as hydrocortisone (HC) has been studied in equine urine with an international threshold of 1 μg/ml established; however, there is no current threshold for equine plasma. The aim of this research was to investigate plasma concentrations of HC and cortisone (C) in race day samples compared to an administration of Triamcinolone Acetonide (TACA). The reference population (n = 1150) provided HC (6 to 145 ng/ml) and C (0.7 to 13 ng/ml) levels to derive the HC to C ratio (HC/C). Population reference limits (PRLs) were proposed for HC/C values at 0.2 (lower) and 61 (upper). Administration of TACA resulted in down‐regulation of HC/C values below the estimated PRLs for up to 96 h post‐administration. This indirect detection period was longer than the detection of TACA for 72 h. The use of individual reference limits (IRLs) for HC/C values was investigated to support the Equine Biological Passport (EBP), an intelligence model developed by Racing NSW for longitudinal monitoring of biomarkers.

Evaluation of performance-enhancing drugs seized by Israeli enforcement agencies 2012-2017: implications for policy and regulatory change

Background

Illicit performance-enhancing substances are used mostly by athletes to enhance performance in sports, and by bodybuilders to gain muscle and body mass. Among performance-enhancing substances, the most common and known substances are anabolic-androgenic steroids, which are associated with a range of short and long-term adverse medical and psychiatric effects.

While the sale and distribution of performance-enhancing substances are considered criminal offenses per the Israeli local pharmacy ordinance, the use and personal possession of these substances are not. Presently, the Division of Enforcement and Inspection of the Israel Ministry of Health cooperates with police and customs agents in performance-enhancing substance-related enforcement activities, which chiefly include seizures carried out at suspicious sites. Moreover, the Division of Enforcement and Inspection provides professional guidance, lab analysis services, and expert opinions on the toxicological and pharmaceutical nature of products seized.

This paper presents a contemporary sub-analysis of registered seizures of performance-enhancing substances carried-out by Israel enforcement agencies. The main aim of this analysis is to characterize current patterns of performance-enhancing substances, thus providing the possibility of better assessment of current enforcement and health policy.

Methods

A sub-analysis of 712 seizures of performance-enhancing substances seized by Israeli enforcement authorities during a six-year period ranging from January 2012 to December 2017.

Results

This study demonstrates that Israel faces a challenge regarding the importation and distribution of illicit performance-enhancing substances. The most common substances seized were anabolic androgenic steroids (N = 539). Most seizures were carried out in the central mail processing sites, (38.4%), followed by seizures in private premises such as homes and warehouses (29.6%). Significant differences were found between anabolic-androgenic steroids and other substances, relating to place and year of seizure. Among seizures with known sources (N = 355), the most frequent geographic region given as the source of substances was Eastern Europe (47.6%), followed by East Asia (24.8%), West Asia (19.4%), and Western Europe (5.9%). Bulgaria was the country with the highest frequency of seizures (N = 71) followed by Jordan (N = 45), Thailand (N = 37) and Moldova (N = 36). Significant regional differences were found based on the variables of gender, place of seizure, and type of substance. The most frequent month of seizures was August (N = 129), followed by July (N = 119), and June (N = 118).

Conclusions

While data analysis focused on the supply side of the performance-enhancing substances market, the high number of seizures of performance-enhancing substances in Israel represents evidence of the existence of a high demand and a large consumer base for these products. Consequently, there is a need for developing further enforcement, treatment, and prevention policies that do not currently exist in Israel. Policymakers should consider prioritizing law enforcement action and incentivizing intelligence sharing to monitor suspected shipment sources and specific points of entry. Additionally, the results demonstrate that there is a need in reforming the penal law to discourage the use of performance-enhancing substances. Similar measures have already been applied in countries like Spain, Italy, and Belgium. Furthermore, policy-makers should consider enhancing health ministry agencies with a higher enforcement capacity by giving them further investigative and inquiry authority. Due to the troubling magnitude of the phenomenon, policymakers should also prioritize educational and prevention strategies.

Deliberate fires: From data to intelligence

Deliberate fires are a very common problem affecting all countries around the world. They create a high sense of insecurity within communities, consuming and straining many resources (human and financial). Yet, despite various attempts, significantly tackling and reducing deliberate fires has remained largely ineffective, mainly due to the case-by-case approach implemented in responding to these incidents. Drawing on the repetitive nature of some types of deliberate fires, it was shown that adopting an intelligence-based approach is promising in tackling and reducing repetitive deliberate fires. This paper presents a two-fold procedure developed to produce intelligence on a dataset of fire events that were either deliberate or unknown in origin. Firstly, through the creation of a relevant dataset (which is a peculiar problem due to the specificities of the event of fire) and secondly through the application of specific analyses. This procedure was implemented on a dataset of fire events collated from a nine-year period in the State of Geneva, Switzerland. Results show that rudimentary data and simple processing can already generate valuable intelligence, often unsuspected until then. These results provide responding agencies with a clearer understanding of the problem, which can also support their decision-making process. This study proposes the basis for the development of an integrated real-time intelligence process. Such a process would allow the systematic and real-time monitoring of fire events in general and deliberate fires in particular by providing an immediate view of the problem, detecting recurrent events and revealing linkages between cases indicating repetitions. In terms of policies and governance, such a study should encourage institutions that deal with fires to collectively reshape their objectives, share data and analyses, and coordinate their actions to reduce harm.

Application of the Athlete's Performance Passport for Doping Control: A Case Report

The efficient use of testing resources is a key issue in the fight against doping. The longitudinal tracking of sporting performances to identify unusual improvements possibly caused by doping, so-called “athlete's performance passport” (APP) is a new concept to improve targeted anti-doping testing. In fact, unusual performances by an athlete would trigger a more thorough testing program. In the present case report, performance data is modeled using the critical power concept for a group of athletes based on their past performances. By these means, an athlete with unusual deviations from his predicted performances was identified. Subsequent target testing using blood testing and the athlete biological passport resulted in an anti-doping rule violation procedure and suspension of the athlete. This case demonstrates the feasibility of the APP approach where athlete's performance is monitored and might serve as an example for the practical implementation of the method.

A call for policy guidance on psychometric testing in doping control in sport

One of the fundamental challenges in anti-doping is identifying athletes who use, or are at risk of using, prohibited performance enhancing substances. The growing trend to employ a forensic approach to doping control aims to integrate information from social sciences (e.g., psychology of doping) into organised intelligence to protect clean sport. Beyond the foreseeable consequences of a positive identification as a doping user, this task is further complicated by the discrepancy between what constitutes a doping offence in the World Anti-Doping Code and operationalized in doping research. Whilst psychology plays an important role in developing our understanding of doping behaviour in order to inform intervention and prevention, its contribution to the array of doping diagnostic tools is still in its infancy. In both research and forensic settings, we must acknowledge that (1) socially desirable responding confounds self-reported psychometric test results and (2) that the cognitive complexity surrounding test performance means that the response-time based measures and the lie detector tests for revealing concealed life-events (e.g., doping use) are prone to produce false or non-interpretable outcomes in field settings. Differences in social-cognitive characteristics of doping behaviour that are tested at group level (doping users vs. non-users) cannot be extrapolated to individuals; nor these psychometric measures used for individual diagnostics. In this paper, we present a position statement calling for policy guidance on appropriate use of psychometric assessments in the pursuit of clean sport. We argue that, to date, both self-reported and response-time based psychometric tests for doping have been designed, tested and validated to explore how athletes feel and think about doping in order to develop a better understanding of doping behaviour, not to establish evidence for doping. A false 'positive' psychological profile for doping affects not only the individual 'clean' athlete but also their entourage, their organisation and sport itself. The proposed policy guidance aims to protect the global athletic community against social, ethical and legal consequences from potential misuse of psychological tests, including erroneous or incompetent applications as forensic diagnostic tools in both practice and research.

Time for change: a roadmap to guide the implementation of the World Anti-Doping Code 2015

A medical and scientific multidisciplinary consensus meeting was held from 29 to 30 November 2013 on Anti-Doping in Sport at the Home of FIFA in Zurich, Switzerland, to create a roadmap for the implementation of the 2015 World Anti-Doping Code. The consensus statement and accompanying papers set out the priorities for the antidoping community in research, science and medicine. The participants achieved consensus on a strategy for the implementation of the 2015 World Anti-Doping Code. Key components of this strategy include: (1) sport-specific risk assessment, (2) prevalence measurement, (3) sport-specific test distribution plans, (4) storage and reanalysis, (5) analytical challenges, (6) forensic intelligence, (7) psychological approach to optimise the most deterrent effect, (8) the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) and confounding factors, (9) data management system (Anti-Doping Administration & Management System (ADAMS), (10) education, (11) research needs and necessary advances, (12) inadvertent doping and (13) management and ethics: biological data. True implementation of the 2015 World Anti-Doping Code will depend largely on the ability to align thinking around these core concepts and strategies. FIFA, jointly with all other engaged International Federations of sports (Ifs), the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), are ideally placed to lead transformational change with the unwavering support of the wider antidoping community. The outcome of the consensus meeting was the creation of the ad hoc Working Group charged with the responsibility of moving this agenda forward.