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Świątek S, Czyrski A. Analytical Methods for Determining Psychoactive Substances in Various Matrices: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2024:1-27. [PMID: 39155524 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2024.2388123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances pose significant challenges and dangers to society due to their impact on perception, mood, and behavior, leading to health and life disturbances. The consumption of these substances is largely influenced by their legal status, cultural norms, and religious beliefs. Continuous development and chemical modifications of psychoactive substances complicate their control, detection, and determination in the human body. This paper addresses the terminological distinctions between psychoactive and psychotropic substances and drugs. It provides a comprehensive review of analytical methods used to identify and quantify 25 psychoactive substances in various biological matrices, including blood, urine, saliva, hair, and nails. The analysis categorizes these substances into four primary groups: stimulants, neuroleptics, depressants, and hallucinogens. The study specifically focuses on chromatographic and spectrophotometric methods, as well as other novel analytical techniques. Methodology includes a review of scientific articles containing validation studies of these methods and innovative approaches to psychoactive substance determination. Articles were sourced from the PubMed database, with most research originating from the twenty first century. The paper discusses the limits of detection and quantitation for each method, along with current trends and challenges in the analytical determination of evolving psychoactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Świątek
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
- Doctoral School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poznań, Poland
| | - Andrzej Czyrski
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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Papoutsis I, Hatzidouka V, Ntoupa SP, Angelis A, Dona A, Sakelliadis E, Spiliopoulou C. Determination of Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-carboxy-Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol in human plasma and urine after a commercial cannabidiol oil product intake. Forensic Toxicol 2024; 42:191-201. [PMID: 38592642 PMCID: PMC11269327 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-024-00686-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cannabidiol (CBD) products are widely used for pain relief, sleep improvement, management of seizures etc. Although the concentrations of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) in these products are low (≤0.3% w/w), it is important to investigate if its presence and/or that of its metabolite 11-nor-carboxy-Δ9-THC, is traceable in plasma and urine samples of individuals who take CBD oil products. METHODS A sensitive GC/MS method for the determination of Δ9-THC, 11-nor-carboxy-Δ9-THC and CBD in plasma and urine samples was developed and validated. The sample preparation procedure included protein precipitation for plasma samples and hydrolysis for urine samples, solid-phase extraction and finally derivatization with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide) with 1% trimethylchlorosilane. RESULTS For all analytes, the LOD and LOQ were 0.06 and 0.20 ng/mL, respectively. The calibration curves were linear (R2 ≥ 0.992), and absolute recoveries were ≥91.7%. Accuracy and precision were within the accepted range. From the analysis of biologic samples of 10 human participants who were taking CBD oil, it was realized that Δ9-THC was not detected in urine, while 11-nor-carboxy-Δ9-THC (0.69-23.06 ng/mL) and CBD (0.29-96.78 ng/mL) were found in all urine samples. Regarding plasma samples, Δ9-THC (0.21-0.62 ng/mL) was detected in 10, 11-nor-carboxy-Δ9-THC (0.20-2.44 ng/mL) in 35, while CBD (0.20-1.58 ng/mL) in 25 out of 38 samples, respectively. CONCLUSION The results showed that Δ9-THC is likely to be found in plasma although at low concentrations. In addition, the detection of 11-nor-carboxy-Δ9-THC in both urine and plasma samples raises questions and concerns for the proper interpretation of toxicological results, especially considering Greece's zero tolerance law applied in DUID and workplace cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Papoutsis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
| | - Vasiliki Hatzidouka
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stamatina-Panagoula Ntoupa
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Apostolis Angelis
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Artemisia Dona
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Emmanouil Sakelliadis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Chara Spiliopoulou
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Kale R, Chaturvedi D, Dandekar P, Jain R. Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:1133-1149. [PMID: 38314866 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00786c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Kale
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Deepa Chaturvedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
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Proença P, Teixeira HM, Martinho B, Monteiro C, Franco J, Corte-Real F. LC-MS-MS-MS3 for the determination and quantification of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in blood samples. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:606-614. [PMID: 37494426 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the high prevalence of cannabinoids in forensic toxicology analysis, it is crucial to have an efficient method that allows the use of a small sample amount and that requires a minimal sample preparation for the determination and quantification of low concentrations. A simple, highly selective and high throughput liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methodology (LC-MS-MS-MS3) was developed for the determination and quantification of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-∆9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in blood samples. Chromatographic analysis of THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH and their deuterated internal standards was preceded by protein precipitation (PPT) of 0.1 mL of blood samples with acetonitrile. Chromatographic separation was achieved by use of an Acquity UPLC® HHS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm i.d., 1.8 μm) reversed-phase column, using a gradient elution of 2 mM aqueous ammonium formate, 0.1% formic acid and methanol at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min, with a run time of 10 min. For the MS-MS-MS3 analysis, a SCIEX QTRAP® 6500+ triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometer was used via electrospray ionization (ESI), operated in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) and linear ion trap mode (MS3). The method was validated in accordance with internationally accepted criteria and guidelines, and proved to be selective and linear between 0.5 and 100 ng/mL (r2 > 0.995). The lower limits of quantification (LLOQ) corresponded to the lowest concentrations used for the calibration curves. The coefficients of variation obtained for accuracy and precision were <15%. The mean recoveries were between 88.0% and 117.2% for the studied concentration levels (1 ng/mL, 5 ng/mL and 50 ng/mL). No significant interfering compounds, matrix effects or carryover were observed. The validated method provides a sensitive, efficient and robust procedure for the quantification of cannabinoids in blood, using LC-MS-MS-MS3 and a sample volume of 0.1 mL. This work is also a proof of concept for using LC-MS3 technique to determine drugs in biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Proença
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Martinho
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Carla Monteiro
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - João Franco
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Francisco Corte-Real
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
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THC and THC-COOH hair concentrations: Influence of age, gender, consumption habits, cosmetics treatment, and hair features. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 225:115237. [PMID: 36638568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Evaluation of Cannabis consumption is required for many purposes (i.e., workplace drug testing and driving license renewal). Hair analysis represents the most adopted and reliable approach for the investigation of repeated or chronic exposure to Cannabis. The main markers are the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its main metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), as stated by the Society of Hair Testing (SoHT) and the European Workplace Drug Testing Society (EWDTS). In this paper we presented an observational study on the hair concentrations of THC and THC-COOH and influences due to age, gender, consumption habits, and hair features. Data were collected from analysis of scalp hair samples (3-cm proximal segment) provided by subjects tested for THC consumption for personal purposes (i.e., workplace drug testing, personal use proving). The subjects provided an informed consent and a short questionnaire. A new analytical method was previously developed and then adopted. It consisted in a hydrolysis (1 mL of 1 M NaOH at 65 °C, 20 min) and a liquid-liquid extraction (with hexane/ethyl acetate,90/10, v/v in presence of 1.5 mL of H2SO4 1 M) of 25 mg of hair. A liquid chromatograph - tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) equipped with a C18 column was used. The acquisition was in multiple reaction monitoring for the following transitions: 315→259, 193 m/z, for THC; 318→196, 123 m/z, for THC-d3; 345→299, 193 m/z for THC-COOH; 348→196, 302 m/z for THC-COOH-d3. Correlation between THC and THC-COOH hair concentrations was analyzed by Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. In order to study the influences of several variables, a new value, Sqrt(THC*THCCOOH), was adopted. Its effectiveness and reliability were proved by the Principal Component Analysis. Relationships between the Sqrt(THC*THCCOOH) and the variables were studied through the Stepwise regression (p = 0.05). The normality of data distribution was tested by the Shapiro-Wilk test. The Lower limits of quantification were 10.0 (THC) and 0.2 (THC-COOH) pg/mg. Accuracy and precision always met the acceptable criteria. Recoveries were > 78% and ion suppression was observed for both the compounds. Data from 126 hair samples were included in this study: 54 subjects(42.9%) were positive both for THC and THC-COOH; none of the samples was positive for a single substance. Concentrations ranged from 0.18 to 1.75 ng/mg (median: 0.78 ng/mg) for THC and from 0.04 to 0.85 ng/mg (median: 0.31 ng/mg) for THC-COOH. Cannabinoids levels seemed to decrease with the age, with lower amounts in the subjects aged > 40 years (p < 0.05). Also years of consumption seemed to have a significant impact on hair concentrations, as higher levels were observed in consumers from > 10 years (p = 0.013). Moreover, this study further provided evidences of a significant reduction of THC and THC-COOH in bleached hair (p = 0.042).
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Antunes M, Barroso M, Gallardo E. Analysis of Cannabinoids in Biological Specimens: An Update. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:2312. [PMID: 36767678 PMCID: PMC9915035 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20032312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are still the most consumed drugs of abuse worldwide. Despite being considered less harmful to human health, particularly if compared with opiates or cocaine, cannabis consumption has important medico-legal and public health consequences. For this reason, the development and optimization of sensitive analytical methods that allow the determination of these compounds in different biological specimens is important, involving relevant efforts from laboratories. This paper will discuss cannabis consumption; toxicokinetics, the most detected compounds in biological samples; and characteristics of the latter. In addition, a comprehensive review of extraction methods and analytical tools available for cannabinoid detection in selected biological specimens will be reviewed. Important issues such as pitfalls and cut-off values will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Antunes
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Avenida Infante D. Henrique, 6201-506 Covilha, Portugal
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, Rua Manuel Bento de Sousa 3, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, Rua Manuel Bento de Sousa 3, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Avenida Infante D. Henrique, 6201-506 Covilha, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, EM506, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
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Hehet P, Franz T, Kunert N, Musshoff F. Fast and highly sensitive determination of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) metabolites in hair using liquid chromatography-multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS 3 ). Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1614-1622. [PMID: 35648798 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In hair analysis, identification of 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), one of the major endogenously formed metabolites of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is considered unambiguous proof of cannabis consumption. Due to the complex hair matrix and low target concentrations of THC-COOH in hair, this kind of investigation represents a great analytical challenge. The aim of this work was to establish a fast, simple, and reliable LC-MS3 routine method for sensitive detection of THC-COOH in hair samples. Furthermore, the LC-MS3 method developed also included the detection of derivatized 11-hydroxy-∆9 -THC (11-OH-THC) as an additional marker of cannabis use. Hair sample preparation prior to detection of the two THC metabolites was based on digestion of the hair matrix under alkaline conditions followed by an optimized liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure. Sample preparation by LLE proved to be more suitable than solid-phase extraction (SPE) due to less laborious and time-consuming steps while still yielding satisfactory results. A significant improvement in analytical detection was introduced by multistage fragmentation (MS3 ), which led to enhanced sensitivity and selectivity and thus low limits of quantification (0.1 pg/mg hair). The MS3 method included two transitions for THC-COOH (m/z 343 → 299 → 245 and m/z 343 → 299 → 191) encompassing the quantifier (m/z 245) and the qualifier ion (m/z 191). The method was fully validated, and successful application to authentic toxicology case samples was demonstrated by the analysis of more than 2000 hair samples from cannabis users with THC-COOH concentrations determined ranging from 0.1 to >15 pg/mg hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Hehet
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Franz
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
| | - Natalie Kunert
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
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At the Origins of Tobacco-Smoking and Tea Consumption in a Virgin Population (Yakutia, 1650–1900 A.D.): Comparison of Pharmacological, Histological, Economic and Cultural Data. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10121271. [PMID: 34943186 PMCID: PMC8698326 DOI: 10.3390/biology10121271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: The way tobacco and tea spread among virgin populations is of major interest our understanding of how ancient economic and cultural practices could have influenced current habits. (2) Methods: hair concentrations of theobromine, theophylline, caffeine, nicotine, and cotinine were measured in hair samples from 47 frozen bodies of people from eastern Siberia, dated from the contact with Europeans to the assimilation of people into Russian society. (3) Results: hair concentration of theobromine, theophylline, and caffeine vary with the type of beverage consumed: green, black, or local herbal teas. Shortly after the first contacts, a few heavy consumers of tobacco were found among light or passive consumers. Tobacco-related co-morbidities began to be recorded one century after and heavy tea users were only found from the 19th century (4) Conclusions: Economic factors and social and family contacts seem to have played a decisive role in tobacco consumption very early on. Behavioral evolution governed the process of substance integration into Siberian culture and was a determinant for the continuity of its use across long periods of time. Analyzing the respective contributions of social and economic processes in the use of these substances opens avenues of investigation for today’s public health.
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Schaefer VD, Müller VV, Feltraco Lizot LDL, Hahn RZ, Schneider A, Antunes MV, Linden R. Sensitive determination of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and complementary cannabinoids in hair using alkaline digestion and mixed-mode solid phase extraction followed by liquid-chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 328:111047. [PMID: 34649099 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Hair drug testing can be used for the evaluation of cannabis use with a large detection window, and is required for professional driving license granting in Brazil. A positive hair result for cannabis use requires quantification of the metabolite THC-COOH above the cutoff value of 0.2 ng/g. The achievement of such lower limit of quantification is challenging, particularly with the use of liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometers (LC-MS/MS). In this study, a very sensitive LCMS/ MS assay for the simultaneous quantification of THC-COOH along with THC, CBD, and CBN was developed and validated. Sample preparation was based on hair hydrolysis, followed by selective ion-exchange solid-phase extraction. The extraction yield was 101.5-101.6% for THC-COOH, 92.3-97.4% for THC, 89.7-95.2% for CBN, and 104.9-121.1% for CBD. Internal standard corrected matrix effects were - 2.7 to - 1,1 for THCCOOH and - 11.5 to - 0.1% for the other analytes. The lower limit of quantification was 01 ng/g for THC-COOH and 25 ng/g for THC, CBD, and CBN. The assay fulfilled validation guidelines acceptance criteria. The measurement uncertainties were determined and the assay was ISO17025 accredited, being currently used in routine testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitoria Daniela Schaefer
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program on Toxicology and Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil
| | - Victória Vendramini Müller
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program on Toxicology and Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Roberta Zilles Hahn
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil
| | - Anelise Schneider
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program on Toxicology and Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil
| | - Marina Venzon Antunes
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program on Toxicology and Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil
| | - Rafael Linden
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program on Toxicology and Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brazil.
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Al-Zahrani MA, Al-Asmari AI, Al-Zahrani FF, Torrance HJ, Watson DG. Quantification of cannabinoids in human hair using a modified derivatization procedure and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1095-1107. [PMID: 33491296 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for detecting of the main cannabinoids, cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the primary metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in hair samples. Extraction of the cannabinoids was carried out by a polymeric strong anion mixed-mode solid-phase extraction cartridge and then employing methanolic HCl followed by 2-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium-p-toluenesulfonate (FMP-TS) as a derivatization procedure of carboxyl and phenolic groups, respectively, offering enhanced sensitivity for the detection of THC-COOH in hair matrices. Formation of a methyl ester increased its lipophilicity and removed the negative charge on the carboxyl group. Calibration curves were prepared over the range of 0.02-4 pg/mg of hair for THC and CBN and 0.2-12 pg/mg of hair for THC-COOH. The extraction recovery was between 81% and 105% for all compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2 and 20 pg/mg, respectively, for both CBN and THC and 0.1 and 0.2 pg/mg, respectively, for THC-COOH, which met the society of hair testing recommendation. Intra-assay and interassay precision were always lower than 4% and 11%, respectively for these cannabinoids, whereas intra-assay and interassay bias were between +14% and -18% and +15% and -12%, respectively. Twenty-seven hair specimens from cannabis users were investigated. The concentrations of CBN, THC and THC-COOH gave ranges of (0.022-2.562 ng/mg), (0.049-0.431 ng/mg) and (0.222-4.867 pg/mg), respectively. This new method of derivatization improves the LOD to ensure detection of the metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour A Al-Zahrani
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Medina, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Farouq F Al-Zahrani
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Naïf College for National Security, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hazel J Torrance
- Forensic Medicine and Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David G Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Cobo-Golpe M, de-Castro-Ríos A, Cruz A, López-Rivadulla M, Lendoiro E. Determination and Distribution of Cannabinoids in Nail and Hair Samples. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 45:969-975. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Hair has been used for decades in toxicology as a biological matrix for long-term detection of substances. Nails are another keratinized matrix that is being studied as an alternative when hair cannot be obtained. Although cannabis is the most prevalent illicit drug in the world, cannabinoid distribution in nails compared with hair has been scarcely studied. In this work, we described two methods for the determination of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and main metabolites of THC [11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), 11-hydroxy-THC (OHTHC) and 8-β-11-dihydroxyTHC (diOHTHC)] in nail and hair samples. After an alkaline hydrolysis, samples were submitted to solid-phase extraction and analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS-MS). The methods were fully validated, with good linearity (r2 > 0.99) in the range of 20 to 100 to 20,000 pg/mg. No endogenous or exogenous interferences were found. Accuracy was from 99.5% to 109.8%, and imprecision was <6.9%. Ion suppression (up to −74.4%) was observed for all the analytes, except for diOHTHC at low concentrations in hair (46.1%). Extraction efficiency ranged from 21.5% to 84.5%. The methods were applied to matched nail and hair specimens from 23 cannabis users to study the incorporation and distribution of the cannabinoids into these matrices. Only CBD, CBN and THC were detected in the samples, with much higher concentrations in fingernails than in toenails and hair. Correlations between analyte concentrations in the different matrices and with reported drug consumption were studied. A preliminary cut-off for THC in toenails was calculated using the cut-off proposed by the Society of Hair Testing in hair for the identification of chronic cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cobo-Golpe
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
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Brighenti V, Protti M, Anceschi L, Zanardi C, Mercolini L, Pellati F. Emerging challenges in the extraction, analysis and bioanalysis of cannabidiol and related compounds. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 192:113633. [PMID: 33039911 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a bioactive terpenophenolic compound isolated from Cannabis sativa L. It is known to possess several properties of pharmaceutical interest, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, neuroprotective and anti-convulsant, being it active as a multi-target compound. From a therapeutic point of view, CBD is most commonly used for seizure disorder in children. CBD is present in both medical and fiber-type C. sativa plants, but, unlike Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), it is a non-psychoactive compound. Non-psychoactive or fiber-type C. sativa (also known as hemp) differs from the medical one, since it contains only low levels of THC and high levels of CBD and related non-psychoactive cannabinoids. In addition to medical Cannabis, which is used for many different therapeutic purposes, a great expansion of the market of hemp plant material and related products has been observed in recent years, due to its usage in many fields, including food, cosmetics and electronic cigarettes liquids (commonly known as e-liquids). In this view, this work is focused on recent advances on sample preparation strategies and analytical methods for the chemical analysis of CBD and related compounds in both C. sativa plant material, its derived products and biological samples. Since sample preparation is considered to be a crucial step in the development of reliable analytical methods for the determination of natural compounds in complex matrices, different extraction methods are discussed. As regards the analysis of CBD and related compounds, the application of both separation and non-separation methods is discussed in detail. The advantages, disadvantages and applicability of the different methodologies currently available are evaluated. The scientific interest in the development of portable devices for the reliable analysis of CBD in vegetable and biological samples is also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Brighenti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Michele Protti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FaBiT), Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Lisa Anceschi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy; Doctorate School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine (CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103/287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Chiara Zanardi
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Laura Mercolini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FaBiT), Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Federica Pellati
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
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Is there an interest for hair analysis in non-intentional pediatric cannabis intoxication? Forensic Sci Int 2020; 313:110377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Nahar L, Onder A, Sarker SD. A review on the recent advances in HPLC, UHPLC and UPLC analyses of naturally occurring cannabinoids (2010-2019). PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2020; 31:413-457. [PMID: 31849137 DOI: 10.1002/pca.2906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Organic molecules that bind to cannabinoid receptors are called cannabinoids, and they have similar pharmacological properties like the plant, Cannabis sativa L. Hyphenated liquid chromatography (LC), incorporating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC, also known as ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography, UHPLC), usually coupled to an ultraviolet (UV), UV-photodiode array (PDA) or mass spectrometry (MS) detector, has become a popular analytical tool for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids in various matrices. OBJECTIVE To review literature on the use of various LC-based analytical methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids published since 2010. METHODOLOGY A comprehensive literature search was performed utilising several databases, like Web of Knowledge, PubMed and Google Scholar, and other relevant published materials including published books. The keywords used, in various combinations, with cannabinoids being present in all combinations, in the search were Cannabis, hemp, cannabinoids, Cannabis sativa, marijuana, analysis, HPLC, UHPLC, UPLC, quantitative, qualitative and quality control. RESULTS Since 2010, several LC methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids have been reported. While simple HPLC-UV or HPLC-UV-PDA-based methods were common in cannabinoids analysis, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS, UPLC (or UHPLC)-UV-PDA, UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS and UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS/MS, were also used frequently. Applications of mathematical and computational models for optimisation of different protocols were observed, and pre-analyses included various environmentally friendly extraction protocols. CONCLUSIONS LC-based analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids has dominated the cannabinoids analysis during the last 10 years, and UPLC and UHPLC methods have been shown to be superior to conventional HPLC methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lutfun Nahar
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Alev Onder
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Satyajit D Sarker
- Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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Pichini S, Mannocchi G, Gottardi M, Pérez-Acevedo AP, Poyatos L, Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Farré M, Pacifici R, Busardò FP. Fast and sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS analysis of cannabinoids and their acid precursors in pharmaceutical preparations of medical cannabis and their metabolites in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of treated individual. Talanta 2020; 209:120537. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.120537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Abd-Elsalam WH, Alsherbiny MA, Kung JY, Pate DW, Löbenberg R. LC–MS/MS quantitation of phytocannabinoids and their metabolites in biological matrices. Talanta 2019; 204:846-867. [PMID: 31357374 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Shah I, Al-Dabbagh B, Salem AE, Hamid SAA, Muhammad N, Naughton DP. A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair. BMC Chem 2019; 13:106. [PMID: 31428743 PMCID: PMC6694587 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-019-0627-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis products (marijuana, weed, hashish) are among the most widely abused psychoactive drugs in the world, due to their euphorigenic and anxiolytic properties. Recently, hair analysis is of great interest in analytical, clinical, and forensic sciences due to its non-invasiveness, negligible risk of infection and tampering, facile storage, and a wider window of detection. Hair analysis is now widely accepted as evidence in courts around the world. Hair analysis is very feasible to complement saliva, blood tests, and urinalysis. In this review, we have focused on state of the art in hair analysis of cannabis with particular attention to hair sample preparation for cannabis analysis involving pulverization, extraction and screening techniques followed by confirmatory tests (e.g., GC–MS and LC–MS/MS). We have reviewed the literature for the past 10 years’ period with special emphasis on cannabis quantification using mass spectrometry. The pros and cons of all the published methods have also been discussed along with the prospective future of cannabis analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iltaf Shah
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Bayan Al-Dabbagh
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Alaa Eldin Salem
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Saber A A Hamid
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Neak Muhammad
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Declan P Naughton
- 2School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Surrey, UK
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Gonçalves J, Rosado T, Soares S, Simão AY, Caramelo D, Luís Â, Fernández N, Barroso M, Gallardo E, Duarte AP. Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their Use as Therapeutic Drugs, Toxicological Aspects, and Analytical Determination. MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 6:E31. [PMID: 30813390 PMCID: PMC6473697 DOI: 10.3390/medicines6010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Although the medicinal properties of Cannabis species have been known for centuries, the interest on its main active secondary metabolites as therapeutic alternatives for several pathologies has grown in recent years. This potential use has been a revolution worldwide concerning public health, production, use and sale of cannabis, and has led inclusively to legislation changes in some countries. The scientific advances and concerns of the scientific community have allowed a better understanding of cannabis derivatives as pharmacological options in several conditions, such as appetite stimulation, pain treatment, skin pathologies, anticonvulsant therapy, neurodegenerative diseases, and infectious diseases. However, there is some controversy regarding the legal and ethical implications of their use and routes of administration, also concerning the adverse health consequences and deaths attributed to marijuana consumption, and these represent some of the complexities associated with the use of these compounds as therapeutic drugs. This review comprehends the main secondary metabolites of Cannabis, approaching their therapeutic potential and applications, as well as their potential risks, in order to differentiate the consumption as recreational drugs. There will be also a focus on the analytical methodologies for their analysis, in order to aid health professionals and toxicologists in cases where these compounds are present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Gonçalves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Sofia Soares
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ana Y Simão
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Débora Caramelo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ângelo Luís
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Nicolás Fernández
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Toxicología y Química Legal, Laboratorio de Asesoramiento Toxicológico Analítico (CENATOXA). Junín 956 7mo piso. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA), Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina.
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses - Delegação do Sul, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ana Paula Duarte
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
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Cho HS, Cho B, Sim J, Baeck SK, In S, Kim E. Detection of 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol in the hair of drug abusers by LC–MS/MS analysis. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 295:219-225. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Di Marco Pisciottano I, Guadagnuolo G, Soprano V, De Crescenzo M, Gallo P. A rapid method to determine nine natural cannabinoids in beverages and food derived from Cannabis sativa by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry on a QTRAP 4000. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2018; 32:1728-1736. [PMID: 30030940 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Phytocannabinoids are natural compounds produced by Cannabis spp. Some of these compounds show psychotropic effects on humans and are therefore used as drugs of abuse. These compounds are present in food and beverages containing ingredients from hemp, and thus can reach consumers. The Italian Ministry of Health planned to evaluate the intake of cannabinoids from food containing hemp ingredients. Thus, we were asked to develop and validate a multi-residue test method to determine nine phytocannabinoids in beverages and food. METHODS Nine natural phytocannabinoids, hereafter called cannabinoids, were cleaned up from food by solid-liquid extraction, while beverages were simply diluted prior to analysis. The cannabinoids were separated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, and on-line determination was carried out by tandem mass spectrometry using a 4000 QTRAP mass spectrometer with a TurboIonSpray source, in multiple-reaction monitoring mode, using both positive and negative ionization. RESULTS Each compound was determined down to 0.25 ng/mL in solvent. In-house validation was carried out; the mean recoveries ranged from 83.4% to 101.2% in food, and from 84.5% to 104.5% in beverages. The limits of quantification were 20 μg/kg for food and 2 μg/L for beverages. CONCLUSIONS A reliable and rapid method for the identification and quantification of the psychotropic Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol, its non-psychoactive precursor Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A, and seven other cannabinoids was developed and validated, to monitor the content of these substances in food and beverages produced using hemp seeds, flour and oil as ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Di Marco Pisciottano
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, via Salute 2, Portici, NA, 80055, Italy
| | - Grazia Guadagnuolo
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, via Salute 2, Portici, NA, 80055, Italy
| | - Vittorio Soprano
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, via Salute 2, Portici, NA, 80055, Italy
| | - Michele De Crescenzo
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, via Salute 2, Portici, NA, 80055, Italy
| | - Pasquale Gallo
- Department of Chemistry, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, via Salute 2, Portici, NA, 80055, Italy
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Kieliba T, Lerch O, Andresen-Streichert H, Rothschild MA, Beike J. Simultaneous quantification of THC-COOH, OH-THC, and further cannabinoids in human hair by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron ionization applying automated sample preparation. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:267-278. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Kieliba
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | | | | | - Markus A. Rothschild
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | - Justus Beike
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
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Franz T, Skopp G, Schwarz G, Musshoff F. Proof of active cannabis use comparing 11-hydroxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol with 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:1573-1578. [PMID: 29845743 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Testing hair for cannabis use has increasingly been scrutinised due to exposure to second-hand smoke or environmental contamination. Confirmation of drug use involving detection of metabolites such as 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) and 11-hydroxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) having very rarely been considered. We developed a new, simplified procedure with regard to expenditure of time and material to determine delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, qualitatively), as well as THC-OH and THC-COOH (quantitatively) from 587 hair samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) which was compared to hitherto established methods (n = 3). Compared to conventional methanolic extraction alkaline dissolution resulted in higher concentrations for THC-OH. Concentrations determined from specimens ranged from 0.01 to 18.7 ng THC/mg hair, 0.05-37.6 pg THC-OH/mg hair, and from 0.1 to 54.3 pg THC-COOH/mg hair. THC was detectable in 70.4% samples along with both metabolites from more than half of these samples. In 12.9% of THC-positive cases, neither THC-OH nor THC-COOH were present. In 8.9% of THC-negative cases, it was possible to detect metabolites either alone or in combination. THC-OH could more frequently be detected than THC-COOH and appeared to be less susceptible to cosmetic treatment. In summary, THC-OH turned out to be a further suitable marker to prove cannabis use. Determination of both metabolites is recommended to unequivocally differentiate consumption from external exposure or contamination.
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Abstract
Drug use during pregnancy constitutes a major preventable worldwide public health issue. Birth defects, growth retardation and neurodevelopmental disorders are associated with tobacco, alcohol or drugs of abuse exposure during pregnancy. Besides these adverse health effects, drug use during pregnancy also raises legal and social concerns. Identification and quantification of drug markers in maternal and newborn biological samples offers objective evidence of exposure and complements maternal questionnaires. We reviewed the most recent analytical methods for quantifying drugs of abuse, tobacco, alcohol and psychotropic drugs in maternal, newborn and maternal-fetal unit biological samples by gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In addition, manuscripts comparing the usefulness of different biological samples to detect drug exposure during pregnancy were reviewed.
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Montgomery M, LeBeau M, Morris-Kukoski C. New Hair Testing Conclusions. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 41:161-162. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Thalhamer B, Himmelsbach M, Buchberger W. Trace level determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in a perfume using liquid chromatography high resolution tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography mass spectrometry. FLAVOUR FRAG J 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ffj.3344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Thalhamer
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, The Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences; Johannes Kepler University Linz; Altenberger Straße 69 4040 Linz Austria
| | - Markus Himmelsbach
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, The Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences; Johannes Kepler University Linz; Altenberger Straße 69 4040 Linz Austria
| | - Wolfgang Buchberger
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, The Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences; Johannes Kepler University Linz; Altenberger Straße 69 4040 Linz Austria
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Heinl S, Lerch O, Erdmann F. Automated GC–MS Determination of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabinol and Cannabidiol in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 40:498-503. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Cesbron A, Tokayeva L, Loilier M, Le Boisselier R, Gaulier JM, Coquerel A. Intoxication grave au cannabis par ingestion accidentelle chez un nourrisson de 16 mois. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Yamamuro T, Tsujikawa K, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Highly sensitive quantification of unconjugated 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in a cannabis user's hair using micropulverized extraction. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 262:e34-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Techniques and technologies for the bioanalysis of Sativex®, metabolites and related compounds. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:829-45. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2015-0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sativex® is an oromucosal spray indicated for the treatment of moderate-to-severe spasticity in multiple sclerosis and is also an effective analgesic for advanced cancer patients. Sativex contains Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol in an approximately 1:1 ratio. The increasing prevalence of medicinal cannabis products highlights the importance of reliable bioanalysis and re-evaluation of the interpretation of positive test results for THC, as legal implications may arise in workplace, roadside and sports drug testing situations. This article summarizes published research on the bioanalysis of THC and cannabidiol, with particular focus on Sativex. Common screening and confirmatory testing of blood, urine, oral fluid and hair samples are outlined. Correlations between matrices and current analytical pitfalls are also addressed.
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Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Yamamuro T, Tsujikawa K, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Micro-pulverized extraction pretreatment for highly sensitive analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in hair by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2015; 29:2158-2166. [PMID: 26467228 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE A primary metabolite of Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxytetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), serves as an effective indicator for cannabis intake. According to the recommendations of the Society of Hair Testing, at least 0.2 pg/mg of THC-COOH (cut-off level) must be present in a hair sample to constitute a positive result in a drug test. Typically, hair is digested with an alkaline solution and is subjected to gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS) with negative ion chemical ionization (NICI). METHODS It is difficult to quantify THC-COOH at the cut-off level using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) without acquisition of second-generation product ions in triple quadrupole-ion trap mass spectrometers, because large amounts of matrix components in the low-mass range produced by digestion interfere with the THC-COOH peak. Using the typical pretreatment method (alkaline dissolution) and micro-pulverized extraction (MPE) with a stainless bullet, we compared the quantification of THC-COOH using GC/MS/MS and LC/MS/MS. RESULTS MPE reduced the amount of matrix components in the low-mass range and enabled the quantification of THC-COOH at 0.2 pg/mg using a conventional triple quadrupole liquid chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer. On the other hand, the MPE pretreatment was unsuitable for GC/MS/MS, probably due to matrix components in the high-mass range. The proper combination of pretreatments and instrumental analyses was shown to be important for detecting trace amounts of THC-COOH in hair. CONCLUSIONS In MPE, samples can be prepared rapidly, and LC/MS/MS is readily available, unlike GC/MS/MS with NICI. The combination of MPE and LC/MS/MS might therefore be used in the initial screening for THC-COOH in hair prior to confirmatory analysis using GC/MS/MS with NICI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Hajime Miyaguchi
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamuro
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Kenji Tsujikawa
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Tatsuyuki Kanamori
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Yuko T Iwata
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Inoue
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
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Moosmann B, Roth N, Auwärter V. Finding cannabinoids in hair does not prove cannabis consumption. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14906. [PMID: 26443501 PMCID: PMC4595642 DOI: 10.1038/srep14906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Hair analysis for cannabinoids is extensively applied in workplace drug testing and in child protection cases, although valid data on incorporation of the main analytical targets, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH), into human hair is widely missing. Furthermore, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A), the biogenetic precursor of THC, is found in the hair of persons who solely handled cannabis material. In the light of the serious consequences of positive test results the mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair urgently need scientific evaluation. Here we show that neither THC nor THCA-A are incorporated into human hair in relevant amounts after systemic uptake. THC-COOH, which is considered an incontestable proof of THC uptake according to the current scientific doctrine, was found in hair, but was also present in older hair segments, which already grew before the oral THC intake and in sebum/sweat samples. Our studies show that all three cannabinoids can be present in hair of non-consuming individuals because of transfer through cannabis consumers, via their hands, their sebum/sweat, or cannabis smoke. This is of concern for e.g. child-custody cases as cannabinoid findings in a child’s hair may be caused by close contact to cannabis consumers rather than by inhalation of side-stream smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Roth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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Multi-class method for biomonitoring of hair samples using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:8725-34. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9026-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Taschwer M, Schmid MG. Determination of the relative percentage distribution of THCA and Δ9-THC in herbal cannabis seized in Austria – Impact of different storage temperatures on stability. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 254:167-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Chindarkar NS, Park HD, Stone JA, Fitzgerald RL. Comparison of Different Time of Flight-Mass Spectrometry Modes for Small Molecule Quantitative Analysis. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 39:675-85. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkv057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Montesano C, Simeoni MC, Vannutelli G, Gregori A, Ripani L, Sergi M, Compagnone D, Curini R. Pressurized liquid extraction for the determination of cannabinoids and metabolites in hair: Detection of cut-off values by high performance liquid chromatography–high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1406:192-200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Winckel M, Dulaurent S, Morichon J, Gaulier JM. CANHAIRKID (évaluation des analyses capillaires dans le diagnostic d’exposition significative des enfants au cannabis) : résultats préliminaires. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Maternal and neonatal hair and breast milk in the assessment of perinatal exposure to drugs of abuse. Bioanalysis 2015; 7:1273-97. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.15.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal exposure to one or more drugs of abuse can affect the neonate temporarily or permanently. In addition to meconium, the evaluation of perinatal exposure to drugs of abuse has been achieved by testing biological matrices coming from the newborn (neonatal hair) and from the pregnant or nursing mother (maternal hair and breast milk). These matrices have the advantage of noninvasive collection and account for a sizable time window of active and passive exposure. Sensitive and specific analytical methods are required to determine minute amounts of drugs of abuse and metabolites in these matrices. The present manuscript reviews the newest analytical methods developed to detect drugs of abuse as well as ethanol biomarkers in maternal and neonatal hair and breast milk.
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Míguez-Framil M, Cocho JÁ, Tabernero MJ, Bermejo AM, Moreda-Piñeiro A, Bermejo-Barrera P. An improved method for the determination of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabinol and cannabidiol in hair by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2014.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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