A snapshot on NPS in Italy: Distribution of drugs in seized materials analysed in an Italian forensic laboratory in the period 2013–2015

Sex-specific behavioural, metabolic, and immunohistochemical changes after repeated administration of the synthetic cannabinoid AKB48 in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

AKB48 is a synthetic cannabinoid illegally sold for its psychoactive cannabis-like effects that have been associated with acute intoxication and whose effects are poorly known.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Using a behavioural, neurochemical, and immunohistochemical approach, we investigated the pharmaco-toxicological effects, pharmacokinetics, and neuroplasticity at cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the cerebellum and cortex induced by repeated AKB48 administration in male and female mice.

KEY RESULTS

The effects of AKB48 varied significantly depending on sex and treatment duration. The first injection impaired sensorimotor responses and reduced body temperature, analgesia, and breath rate to a greater extent in females than in males; the second injection induced stronger effects in males while the third injection of AKB48 induced weaker responses in both sexes, suggesting emergence of tolerance. The CB1 receptor antagonist NESS-0327 prevented the effects induced by repeated AKB48, confirming a CB1 receptor-mediated action. Blood AKB48 levels were higher in females than in males and repeated administration caused a progressive rise of AKB48 levels in both sexes, suggesting an inhibitory effect on cytochrome activity. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis revealed higher expression of CB1 receptors in the cerebellum and cortex of females, and a rapid CB1 receptor down-regulation in cerebellar and cortical areas following repeated AKB48 injections, with neuroadaptation occurring generally more rapidly in females than in males.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

We have shown for the first time that AKB48 effects significantly vary with prolonged use and that sex affects the pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic responses to repeated administration, suggesting a sex-tailored approach in managing AKB48-induced intoxication.

A simple, quick and non-destructive approach for sampling drugs of abuse in tablets and blotter for qualitative analysis by paper spray mass spectrometry

This study presents the development of a simple, fast, and inexpensive approach for the direct analysis of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in seized tablets and blotter paper, with improved sample preservation and increased analytical frequency. Paper triangles were gently rubbed against the surface of the samples containing synthetic drugs and then subjected to analysis by paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PS-MS). Seized samples containing lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and several other substances from the classes of amphetamines, N-benzyl-substituted phenethylamines, synthetic cathinones, and synthetic cannabinoids, were analysed. Three types of paper were tested (filter paper, blotter paper, and synthetic paper) and several combinations of spray solvents were studied for the optimization. All samples were weighed and photographed before and after sequences of analysis in order to attest to the sample preservation. The results revealed that the approach is excellent for sample preservation, with less than 5% of mass loss even after 27 consecutive analyses. Moreover, no significant signal decreases were observed in mass spectrometry (MS) even after the experiments. It was possible to unequivocally identify illicit substances from seized samples (pills and blotter paper). By overcoming the solubilization and wet extraction process used for sample preparation, the waste was restricted to a volume of only 10 μL of solvent for the PS-MS analysis. The main advantage of our approach over existing methods is the sample preparation, which is simple and quick since the samples are just rubbed against the PS paper. This brings enormous benefits in terms of analytical frequency, economy of time and low consumption of solvents. Another important point is that the sample can remain intact for further analysis, which is crucial in forensic analysis.

Structural and functional perspectives on interactions between synthetic cathinones and monoamine transporters

Synthetic cathinone derivatives comprise a family of psychoactive compounds structurally related to amphetamine. Over the last decade, clandestine chemists have synthesized a consistent stream of innovative cathinone derivatives to outpace governmental regulatory restrictions. Many of these unregulated substances are produced and distributed as designer drugs. Two of the principal chemical scaffolds exploited to expand the synthetic cathinone family are methcathinone and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (or α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-PVP). These compounds' main physiological targets are monoamine transporters, where they promote addiction by potentiating dopaminergic neurotransmission. This chapter describes techniques used to study the pharmacodynamic properties of cathinones at monoamine transporters in vitro. Biochemical techniques described include uptake inhibition and release assays in rat brain synaptosomes and in mammalian expression systems. Electrophysiological techniques include current measurements using the voltage clamp technique. We describe a Ca2+ mobilization assay wherein voltage-gated Ca2+ channels function as reporters to study the action of synthetic cathinones at monoamine transporters. We discuss results from systematic structure-activity relationship studies on simple and complex cathinones at monoamine transporters with an emphasis on identifying structural moieties that modulate potency and selectivity at these transporters. Moreover, different profiles of selectivity at monoamine transporters directly predict compounds associated with behavioral and subjective effects within animals and humans. In conclusion, clarification of the structural aspects of compounds which modulate potency and selectivity at monoamine transporters is critical to identify and predict potential addictive drugs. This knowledge may allow prompt allocation of resources toward drugs that represent the greatest threats after drugs are identified by forensic laboratories.

Locomotor and discriminative stimulus effects of three benzofuran compounds in comparison to abused psychostimulants

Aims

Benzofurans are used recreationally, due their ability to cause psychostimulant and/or entactogenic effects, but unfortunately produce substantial adverse effects, including death. Three benzofurans 5-(2-aminopropyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran (5-APDB), 5-(2-aminopropyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran (5-MAPB) and 6-(2-aminopropyl) benzofuran (6-APB) were tested to determine their behavioral effects in comparison with 2,3-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, and methamphetamine.

Methods

Locomotor activity was tested in groups of 8 male Swiss-Webster mice in an open-field task to screen for locomotor stimulant or depressant effects and to identify behaviorally active doses and times of peak effect. Discriminative stimulus effects were tested in groups of 6 male Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate MDMA (1.5 mg/kg), cocaine (10 mg/kg), or methamphetamine (1 mg/kg) from saline using a FR 10 for food in a two-lever operant task.

Results

In the locomotor activity test, MDMA (ED50 = 8.34 mg/kg) produced peak stimulant effects 60 to 80 min following injection. 5-MAPB (ED50 = 0.92 mg/kg) produced modest stimulant effects 50 to 80 min after injection, whereas 6-APB (ED50 = 1.96 mg/kg) produced a robust stimulant effect 20 to 50 min after injection. 5-APDB produced an early depressant phase (ED50 = 3.38 mg/kg) followed by a modest stimulant phase (ED50 = 2.57 mg/kg) 20 to 50 min after injection. In the drug discrimination tests, 5-APDB (ED50 = 1.02 mg/kg), 5-MAPB (ED50 = 1.00 mg/kg) and 6-APB (ED50 = 0.32 mg/kg) fully substituted in MDMA-trained rats, whereas only 5-MAPB fully substituted for cocaine, and no compounds fully substituted for methamphetamine.

Conclusions

The synthetic benzofuran compound 5-APDB and 5-MAPB produced weak locomotor effects, whereas 6-APB produced robust locomotor stimulant effects. All compounds were more potent than MDMA. All three compounds fully substituted in MDMA-trained rats suggesting similar subjective effects. Taken together, these results suggest that these benzofuran compounds may have abuse liability as substitutes for MDMA.

Drug regulations and trafficking: Synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones in Hungary

In principle, new psychoactive substances (NPSs) are produced to circumvent drug regulations. However, the mixed success of regulatory efforts suggests that the dynamics of marketing is incompletely understood. To address this issue, we conducted a comprehensive study on the marketing of all synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones present in Hungary over ten years. Market evaluation was based on drug seizure data and chemical analyses provided by the Hungarian Institute for Forensic Sciences. Over ten years, 18 synthetic cannabinoids and 11 cathinones were identified. Total seizure counts were 22,906 and 10,273, respectively. When new synthetic cannabinoids emerged, seizures increased exponentially, but rapidly declined after their banning. In parallel, new synthetic cannabinoids emerged on the market. The systematic monitoring of local legislation allowed large sales between market introduction and legal control. Cathinones were also marketed in successive waves, but trading intensity was not associated with local regulations. Sales remained low throughout, likely because the risks involved by the temporal mismatch between marketing and legal control. One can hypothesize that marketing was driven by general trends in EU regulations or by measures taken by large countries. Our findings imply the existence of two different strategies for NPS marketing. The choice between the two may depend on multiple factors from the availability of skills required by rapid marketing adjustments to cost/benefit evaluations for various market segments. Studying NPS market strategies in neighboring and distant EU countries may help analyzing and predicting market events.

Structure-Activity Relationships for a Recently Controlled Synthetic Cathinone Dopamine Transporter Reuptake Inhibitor: α-Pyrrolidinohexiophenone (α-PHP)

α-Pyrrolidinohexiophenone (α-PHP) is the one-carbon unit α-extended homolog of the better-known and widely abused synthetic cathinone central stimulant α-PVP ("flakka"); both are now U.S. Schedule I controlled substances. Structurally, α-PVP and α-PHP possess a common terminal N-pyrrolidine moiety and differ only with respect to the length of their α-alkyl chain. Using a synaptosomal assay, we previously reported that α-PHP is at least as potent as α-PVP as a dopamine transporter (DAT) reuptake inhibitor. A systematic structure-activity study of synthetic cathinones (e.g., α-PHP) as DAT reuptake inhibitors (i.e., transport blockers), a mechanism thought responsible for their abuse liability, has yet to be conducted. Here, we examined a series of 4-substituted α-PHP analogues and found that, with one exception, all behaved as relatively (28- to >300-fold) selective DAT versus serotonin transporter (SERT) reuptake inhibitors with DAT inhibition potencies of most falling within a very narrow (i.e., <3-fold) range. The 4-CF3 analogue of α-PHP was a confirmed "outlier" in that it was at least 80-fold less potent than the other analogues and displayed reduced (i.e., no) DAT vs SERT selectivity. Consideration of various physicochemical properties of the CF3 group, relative to that of the other substituents involved here, provided relatively little insight. Unlike with DAT-releasing agents, as previously reported by us, a QSAR study was precluded because of the limited range of empirical results (with the exception of the 4-CF3 analogue) for DAT reuptake inhibition.

Genotoxicity Evaluation of The Novel Psychoactive Substance MTTA

MTTA, also known as mephtetramine, is a stimulant novel psychoactive substance characterized by a simil-cathinonic structure. To date, little has been studied on its pharmaco-toxicological profile, and its genotoxic potential has never been assessed. In order to fill this gap, the aim of the present work was to evaluate its genotoxicity on TK6 cells in terms of its ability to induce structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations by means of a cytofluorimetric protocol of the "In Vitro Mammalian Cell Micronucleus (MN) test". To consider the in vitro effects of both the parental compound and the related metabolites, TK6 cells were treated with MTTA in the absence or presence of an exogenous metabolic activation system (S9 mix) for a short-term time (3 h) followed by a recovery period (23 h). No statistically significant increase in the MNi frequency was detected. Specifically, in the presence of S9 mix, only a slight increasing trend was observable at all tested concentrations, whereas, without S9 mix, at 75 µM, almost a doubling of the negative control was reached. For the purposes of comprehensive evaluation, a long-term treatment (26 h) was also included. In this case, a statistically significant enhancement in the MNi frequency was observed at 50 µM.

Development and Validation of a GC-MS-EI Method to Determine α-PHP in Blood: Application to Samples Collected during Medico-Legal Autopsies

New psychoactive substances (NPSs) still represent an issue of great concern worldwide despite efforts made by national and international control systems to limit the spread of these substances. Alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (α-PHP) is a fairly recent synthetic cathinone (the second largest group of monitored substances in Europe) with only a few published studies on the substance. Though there is a low incidence of NPS consumption in Portugal, a recent increase in apprehensions and detections in biological matrices of the substance was verified. An analytical methodology was developed and validated for determining and quantitating α-PHP in blood. Solid-phase extraction was employed for sample preparation (500 μL), which was further analyzed by gas chromatography--mass spectrometry-electron ionization in single-ion monitoring mode with cocaine-d3 as the internal standard. Method validation followed the guidelines of the American National Standards Institute/AAFS Standards Board (ANSI/ASB Standard 036). The procedure was linear between 10 and 1,000 ng/mL, with determination coefficients (r2) higher than 0.999. Carryover was not observed. A limit of detection of 5 ng/mL and a limit of quantitation of 10 ng/mL were achieved. Intraday and intermediate precision and bias assessment showed satisfactory results (coefficient of variation <17.7%; bias <11.6%), and extraction efficiency ranged from 98.5% to 103.3%. The stability of the substance was considered acceptable for at least 6 h at room temperature, 48 h in the autosampler and 21 days after five freeze/thaw cycles. The developed methodology was applied to 15 real samples from the Laboratory of Chemistry and Forensic Toxicology, Centre Branch of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Portugal, with drug concentrations ranging from 15 to 227 ng/mL. Available information for each case is also detailed in the present article.

An overview of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) in northeast Brazil: NMR-based identification and analysis of ecstasy tablets by GC-MS

The actual illicit market for synthetic drugs is characterized by a wide variety of psychoactive substances of different chemical and pharmacological classes, such as amphetamine-type stimulants and new psychoactive substances. The knowledge about its chemical composition, as well as the nature and quantity of the active substances present, is important for emergency care in intoxication cases by these substances and to establish adequate chemical and toxicological analysis procedures in forensic laboratories. The aim of this work was to study the prevalence of amphetamine-type stimulants and new psychoactive substances in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, in the northeast region of Brazil, involving samples of drugs seized by the local police forces from 2014 to 2019. In a total of 121 seized and analyzed samples, in which ecstasy tablets predominated (n = 101), nineteen substances were identified using GC-MS and ¹D NMR techniques, comprising classical synthetic drugs and new psychoactive substances (NPS). In order to determine the composition of ecstasy tablets, an analytical method based on GC-MS was applied after validation. Analyzes of 101 ecstasy tablets showed that MDMA was the main substance, being found in 57% of the samples, in amounts between 27.3 and 187.1 mg per tablet. In addition, mixtures of MDMA, MDA, synthetic cathinones and caffeine were observed in 34 samples. These results demonstrate that the variety of substances found and the composition of seized materials in northeast Brazil is similar to other studies carried out previously in other Brazilian regions.

Detection, discrimination and quantification of amphetamine, cathinone and nor-ephedrine regioisomers using benchtop 1 H and 19 F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Amphetamine and cathinone derivatives are abused recreationally due to the sense of euphoria they provide to the user. Methodologies for the rapid detection of the drug derivative present in a seized sample, or an indication of the drug class, are beneficial to law enforcement and healthcare providers. Identifying the drug class is prudent because derivatisation of these drugs, to produce regioisomers, for example, occurs frequently to circumvent global and local drug laws. Thus, newly encountered derivatives might not be present in a spectral library. Employment of benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) could be used to provide rapid analysis of seized samples as well as identifying the class of drug present. Discrimination of individual amphetamine-, methcathinone-, N-ethylcathinone and nor-ephedrine-derived fluorinated and methylated regioisomers is achieved herein using qualitative automated ¹ H NMR analysis and compared to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) data. Two seized drug samples, SS1 and SS2, were identified to contain 4-fluoroamphetamine by ¹ H NMR (match score median = 0.9933) and GC-MS (RR_t  = 5.42-5.43 min). The amount of 4-fluoroamphetamine present was 42.8%-43.4% w/w and 48.7%-49.2% w/w for SS1 and SS2, respectively, from quantitative ¹⁹ F NMR analysis, which is in agreement with the amount determined by GC-MS (39.9%-41.4% w/w and 49.0%-49.3% w/w). The total time for the qualitative ¹ H NMR and quantitative ¹⁹ F NMR analysis is ~10 min. This contrasts to ~40 min for the GC-MS method. The NMR method also benefits from minimal sample preparation. Thus, benchtop NMR affords rapid, and discriminatory, analysis of the drug present in a seized sample.

Pharmaco-Toxicological Effects of Atypical Synthetic Cathinone Mephtetramine (MTTA) in Mice: Possible Reasons for Its Brief Appearance over NPSs Scene

Over the last year, NPSs have been steadily on the rise in the illicit drug market. Among these, synthetic cathinones seem to become increasingly popular among young adults, mainly because of their ability to replicate the effects of traditional psychostimulant drugs, such as cocaine, MDMA and amphetamines. However, scarce data are available about the in vivo pharmaco-toxicology of these new substances. To this end, this study focused on evaluation of effects induced by repeated administration of mephtetramine (MTTA 0.1-30 mg/kg i.p.) in mice. This atypical cathinone highlighted a sensorial (inhibition of visual and acoustic reflexes) and transient physiological parameter (decrease in breath rate and temperature) change in mice. Regarding motor activity, both a dose-dependent increase (accelerod test) and biphasic effect (drag and mobility time test) have been shown. In addition, blood and urine samples have been analysed to enrich the experimental featuring of the present study with reference to evaluation of potential toxicity related to consumption of MTTA. The latter analysis has particularly revealed important changes in blood cells count and blood and urine physicochemical profile after repeated treatment with this atypical cathinone. Moreover, MTTA induced histological changes in heart, kidney and liver samples, emphasizing its potential toxicity.

Behavioral and Pharmacokinetics Studies of N-Methyl-2-Aminoindane (NM2AI) in Mice: An Aminoindane Briefly Used in the Illicit Drug Market

Drug forums are considered as the main platform sources that have contributed to the increase in NPS popularity, especially for those not yet known to law enforcement and therefore not yet illegal. An example is the new synthetic stimulant NM2AI, which has a very short history of human use and abuse. Little is known regarding this compound, but some information from internet forums and the scientific literature indicates NM2AI as a structural derivate of MDAI, which is known for its entactogenic activity. Indeed, the purpose of this study is to evaluate, for the first time, the in vivo acute effect induced by the intraperitoneal injection of NM2AI (1-10-30-100 mg/kg) in mice. We demonstrate the sensory (by visual placing and object tests) and physiological (core temperature measurement) function variations, nociceptor (by tail pinch test) and strength (grip test) alterations, and sensorimotor (time on rod and mobility) decrease. Moreover, we verify the mild hallucinogenic effect of NM2AI (by startle/prepulse inhibition test). Lastly, we perform a pharmacokinetic study on mice blood samples, highlighting that the main active metabolite of NM2AI is 2-aminoindane (2AI). Taken together, our data confirm the suspected entactogenic activity of NM2AI; however, these in vivo effects appear atypical and less intense with respect to those induced by the classic stimulants, in surprising analogy with what is reported by networked users.

Nationwide investigation on the use of new psychoactive substances in Italy through urban wastewater analysis

New psychoactive substances (NPS) emerged in the mid-2000s as a legal alternative to established illicit drugs. Despite the high individual and public harm associated to NPS, little is known about their real extent of use. New strategies are required to deal with the challenging monitoring of NPS, affected by the high number of substances available in the market, their rapid change and level of innovation, and their easy distribution mainly through the web. In this study, a wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach was applied for a nationwide monitoring of the use of eight categories of NPS in the population, including fentanyl analogues. Sixty-two biomarkers of NPS were selected following an established criterion, that included the most frequently and recently reported. A selective analytical method based on solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated for NPS analysis in wastewater. Composite wastewater samples (24 h) were collected in 33 Italian cities in October-November 2020 and analyzed according the validated method. Results highlighted the use of ten NPS, mainly synthetic cathinones and tryptamines, all over Italy. Methcathinone was found in all the cities and the highest mass loads corresponded to 3-methylmethcathinone with values up to 3.8 mg/day/1000 inhabitants. Low levels of fentanyl (found in 9 cities) and its main metabolite norfentanyl (11) were found whereas no fentanyl analogues were identified. As far as we know, this is the first time that the use of fentanyl and its analogues was investigated in Italy by wastewater analysis. WBE is a useful tool to rapidly evaluate emerging trends of NPS use, complementing common indicators (i.e. population surveys, seizures) and helping to establish measures for public health protection.

Fourth Generation of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists: A Review on the Latest Insights

BACKGROUND

Over the past few years, an emerging number of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) entered the illicit market. NPSs are designed to resemble the effects of classical drugs of abuse, reinforcing their effects and duration. Among the most abused NPS, synthetic cannabinoids are cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) that mimic the effect of the main psychotropic phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

METHODS

We herein reviewed the international literature to provide available information on the newest SCRAs generation.

RESULTS

Compared to the previous SCRAs generations, the structures of the last generation result in increased affinity for and efficacy at cannabinoid CB₁ receptors, which are thought to be mainly responsible for the psychoactive effects of THC and its analogues. Accordingly, these more potent cannabimimetic effects may increase the number of adverse reactions such as neurological disorders (e.g., psychosis, agitation, irritability, paranoia, confusion, and anxiety), psychiatric episodes (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, self-harm), other physical conditions (e.g., tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever) and deaths. In the last decade, more than a hundred SCRAs from different chemical classes emerged on the illicit web market. SCRAs have been thoroughly studied: they were physico-chemically characterized, and pharmaco-toxicological characteristics were investigated. The last SCRAs generations include increasingly potent and toxic compounds, posing a potential health threat to consumers.

CONCLUSION

From November 2017 to February 2021, at least 20 new "fourth-generation" SCRAs were formally reported to international drug agencies. Our understanding of the neurotoxicity of these compounds is still limited due to the lack of global data, but their potency and their toxicity are likely higher than those of the previous generations.

Toxicological Analysis of Illicit Drugs Seized in Naples (Italy) and First Detection of Synthetic Cannabinoids during COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has consistently raised the number of drug seizures, in United States as in Europe. The COVID-19 pandemic has also changed the typology of seizures from “more traditional” drugs to New Psychoactive Substances (NPSs), depending on geographical area. In Europe, the most frequent NPSs are synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) and cathinones, nonetheless synthetic opioids and phenethylamines are widely used. The aim of the study is the detection of NPS and other substances of abuse available in the black market, by quali/quantitative methods in LC-MS/MS and GC-MS. From 2018 to 2021, 268 seizures occurred in total and were analyzed by the Forensic Toxicology Laboratory (FTL) of Naples (Italy). The distribution of analyzed seizures over the years is the following: 53 in 2018, 61 in 2019, 89 in 2020 and 65 during the first semester of 2021. Cannabis was the most detected drug both in hashish and marijuana seizures, followed by cocaine > heroine > prescribed drugs > ketamine−amphetamine MDMA. No NPSs were seized until June 2021, when NPSs were found in two different seizures: Case #1 showed a bar of Cannabis resin containing a low level of Δ9THC = 0.57% associated to SC AB-FUBINACA in 4.5%; Case #2 showed a vegetal resinous substance (Δ9THC = 0.27%) with SC 5F-APINACA (4.1%) associated with methadone (1.0%). The detection of NPSs is alarming evidence that can lead to an increase in the risk of overdose or other negative and unpredictable consequences, such as violent or self-harming behavior in unaware users of cannabis derivatives considered of “natural” origin.

Neuropsychopharmacology of Emerging Drugs of Abuse: meta- and para-Halogen-Ring-Substituted α-PVP (“flakka”) Derivatives

Changes in the molecular structure of synthetic cathinones has led to an increase in the number of novel emerging drugs in the illicit drug market at an unprecedented rate. Unfortunately, little is known about the neuropsychopharmacology of recently emerged halogen-substituted α-PVP derivatives. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of para- and meta-halogen (F-, Cl-, and Br-) substitutions on the in vitro, in silico, and in vivo effects of α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP) derivatives. HEK293 cells expressing the human dopamine or serotonin transporter (hDAT and hSERT) were used for the uptake inhibition and transporter affinity assays. Molecular docking was used to model the interaction mechanism against DAT. Swiss CD-1 mice were used for the horizontal locomotor activity, open field test, and conditioned place preference paradigm. All compounds demonstrated potent DA uptake inhibition and higher DAT selectivity than cocaine. Meta-substituted cathinones showed higher DAT/SERT ratios than their para- analogs, which correlates with an increased psychostimulant effect in vivo and with different meta- and para-in silico interactions at DAT. Moreover, all compounds induced rewarding and acute anxiogenic effects in mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates the role of meta- and para-halogen substitutions in the mechanism of action and provides the first evidence of the rewarding and anxiety-like properties of halogenated α-PVP derivatives.

Fast Quantitative LC-MS/MS Determination of Illicit Substances in Solid and Liquid Unknown Seized Samples

Narcotic and psychotropic substances are natural, synthetic, or semisynthetic compounds that are present in both solid and liquid illicit products. The alterations effects on the central nervous system related to their use can be psycholeptic, psychoanaleptic, or psychodiseptic and are able to generate tolerance, addiction, or dependence phenomena, creating social and public order problems. In this scenario, the analytical evaluations that aim to determine these analytes in seized nonbiological samples, and which assume the character of judicial evidence, must meet high analytical requirements of reliability, transparency, and procedures uniformity at a national level. For the first time in the literature, the herein validated method is able to provide the simultaneous quantitative determination of 37 of the most common narcotic substances as well as the most commonly used excipients/adulterants found in seized illicit material. Additionally, the validated method can process both solid and liquid samples maintaining the precision and trueness levels (intraday and interday) in accordance with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Agency international guidelines (<14.31 and <13.41%, respectively). Furthermore, it provides a simple and fast procedure for sample preparation using the dilute and shoot approach, exploiting the sensitivity and selectivity of the LC-MS/MS instrument configuration used and the signal acquisition in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode (both positive and negative polarization modes).

Unexpected results found in larvae samples from two postmortem forensic cases

Purpose

In forensics, entomological specimens can be used as additional/alternative matrices to detect xenobiotics when human specimens are limited in their application. Despite some advantages over implementing putrefied human remains, most medico-legal laboratories do not include entomotoxicological procedures as routine analytical methods. We thus applied two authentic cases to evaluate necrophagous larvae’s potential as complementary matrices for toxicological analysis after extensive postmortem decomposition.

Methods

Larvae and postmortem human samples, including hair, stomach contents, pericardial fluid, liver, lung, and skeletal muscle, were collected at autopsy. Samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for pharmaceutical substances, illicit drugs, and new psychoactive substances, including synthetic cannabinoids, benzodiazepines, new synthetic opioids, and stimulants.

Results

Nearly all substances detected in human specimens, including several benzodiazepines and synthetic cannabinoids, were also detected in larvae. Surprisingly, some drugs, including the new psychoactive substances EAM-2201 and U-47700, were found exclusively in larvae and hair. The benzodiazepine etizolam was detected only in liver, lungs, and stomach contents, possibly resulting from characteristic tissue distribution in humans and/or larvae.

Conclusions

Antemortem external hair contamination with synthetic cannabinoids from side-stream smoke and postmortem hair contamination with substances in putrefaction fluids can be supposed in these cases. Our findings suggest that supplementary information can indeed be gained from analyzing larvae additional to those human specimens that are typically used for toxicological analysis after extensive postmortem decomposition. Nevertheless, these results represent merely two cases, requiring in-depth studies to determine whether such findings can identify acute intoxications as possible causes of death.

Development of a simple and rapid screening method for the detection of 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine in forensic samples

1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP) is a synthetic drug with hallucinogenic effects that has often been found in seized samples. In this context, easy to use point-of-care tests can be of great value in preliminary forensic analysis. Herein, we proposed a simple, fast, and portable electrochemical method for the detection of mCPP in seized samples. The method is based on the use of disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) and rapid screening procedures by square-wave voltammetry using minimal sample sizes (100 μL). mCPP showed an irreversible electrochemical oxidation process at +0.65 V on SPCE (vs Ag) using 0.04 mol L^-1 Britton Robinson (BR) buffer solution (pH 7) as the supporting electrolyte. The proposed method exhibited a linear correlation (r = 0.998) between peak current and mCPP concentration in the range of 1-30 μmol L^-1 (LOD = 0.1 μmol L^-1). Interference studies were performed for adulterants and other classes of drugs of abuse, which can also be found in seized samples containing mCPP, such as caffeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 1-benzylpiperazine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylone, mephedrone, ethylone and 3, 4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone. The developed method presents great potential as a rapid and simple screening tool to detect mCPP in forensic samples.

Seizures of New Psychoactive Substances on the Italian territory during the COVID-19 pandemic

In recent years, the availability and the consequent consumption of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) have proliferated at an unprecedented rate, posing a significant risk to the public health and challenging the law enforcement efforts to tackle the black market. In particular, large availability on Internet and unmonitored shipping have facilitated the diffusion of NPS on national territories. In this scenario, the forensic activity based on the process of drug detection, including investigation, seizure, recognition and analytical identification is crucial to get insights into the drug black market transformation. In this study, we describe the results obtained from the analysis of hundreds of packages seized during the months of year 2020, and suspected to contain NPS because not reacting with standard field test kits. We focused on the analysis by GC-MS and HPLC-HRMS, and NPS in particular, trying to underline the most common molecules present on the Italian territory during the COVID-19 pandemic. NPS were identified in 92.6% of the samples. The most prevalent compounds were synthetic cathinones, and 3-MMC in particular, which alone accounted for 18.6% of the total cases. Other prevalent molecules were 5F-MDMB-PICA, 2-FDCK, 1cp-LSD and 1P-LSD. Fentanyl was never detected. The information obtained from drug seizures is crucial to publish national alerts, which are in turn important to assist the legislative effort to ban new compounds and the update of toxicological and analytical methods.

Metabolism Study of N-Methyl 2-Aminoindane (NM2AI) and Determination of Metabolites in Biological Samples by LC-HRMS

Since the widespread diffusion of new psychoactive substances, forensic laboratories are often required to identify new drugs and their metabolites for which information or reference standards are lacking. We performed a study on N-methyl-2-aminoindane (NM2AI) metabolism in silico and in vivo, in order to identify the main metabolites to be screened in the different biological samples. We performed the in silico metabolism prediction of NM2AI using MetaSiteTM software and subsequently verified the presence of metabolites in the blood, urine and hair of mice after NM2AI administration. The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) with a benchtop Orbitrap Exactive mass detector. This allowed the evaluation of the agreement between software prediction and experimental results in biological samples. LC-HRMS analysis identified seven main metabolites in the urine. They were identified, by their accurate masses and fragmentation patterns, as 2-aminoindane (2AI), two hydroxy-2AI and four hydroxy-NM2AI; one of the hydroxy-NM2AI and one of the hydroxy-2AI underwent also to conjugation. NM2AI and 2AI were also detected by LC-HRMS in the hair and blood. Based on these findings, we developed an LC-HRMS method for the screening of NM2AI and metabolites in urine, blood and hair samples. This can be of primary effectiveness to uncover the abuse of NM2AI and related possible intoxications.

International snapshot of new psychoactive substance use: Case study of eight countries over the 2019/2020 new year period

There is considerable concern around the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS), but still little is known about how much they are really consumed. Analysis by forensics laboratories of seized drugs and post-mortem samples as well as hospital emergency rooms are the first line of identifying both 'new' NPS and those that are most dangerous to the community. However, NPS are not necessarily all seized by law enforcement agencies and only substances that contribute to fatalities or serious afflictions are recorded in post-mortem and emergency room samples. To gain a better insight into which NPS are most prevalent within a community, complementary data sources are required. In this work, influent wastewater was analysed from 14 sites in eight countries for a variety of NPS. All samples were collected over the 2019/2020 New Year period, a time which is characterized by celebrations and parties and therefore a time when more NPS may be consumed. Samples were extracted in the country of origin following a validated protocol and shipped to Australia for final analysis using two different mass spectrometric strategies. In total, more than 200 were monitored of which 16 substances were found, with geographical differences seen. This case study is the most comprehensive wastewater analysis study ever carried out for the identification of NPS and provides a starting point for future, ongoing monitoring of these substances.

Illicit drugs seizures in 2013-2018 and characteristics of the illicit market within the Neapolitan area

The study presents results of toxicological analysis performed on seized material in Neapolitan area in the period from 2013 to 2018. A constancy in THC and heroin percentages is evidenced (%THC ~10% and ~11.5% for marijuana and hashish; heroine: 20-24%), with mean values exceeding the European data. Data on cocaine revealed a constant increment of active principle percentage over the studied period (from 40% in 2013 to ~65% in 2018), with peak of 70% in 2017; also, number of samples exceeding the mean value increased over years. Active principles contents resulted higher than the ones reported in other Italian area ever the same period; marijuana was prevalent on hashish, confirming an Italian trend different from other European countries. A map of the Campania region evidenced two main "storage" districts, one corresponding to the city center and the second located in the northern part. If compared with literature data on the presence of local mafia, these areas are perfectly superimposable to those with the highest risk of homicides, thus confirming the degree of radicalization of local organizations and the relative weight of proceeds from drugs sale. Moreover, such radicalization within the territory seems to be the main reason of the absence of new psychoactive substances among the seized material.

LC-HRMS characterization of the skin pigmentation and sexual enhancers melanotan II and bremelanotide sold on the black market of performance and image enhancing drugs

The spread of performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) often requires forensic toxicology laboratories to identify unknown compounds without reference standards. We characterized the PIEDs melanotan II and bremelanotide, not legally marketed, in eight unknown samples confiscated by police together with anabolic steroids, hormone modulators, sexual enhancers and stimulants, intended for the black market of bodybuilders, using liquid chromatography-high resolution/high accuracy Orbitrap mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The characterization was carried out by the accurate mass measurements of MH⁺ ionic species, the study of their isotopic patterns and the associated relative isotopic abundance (RIA) values, as well as the accurate mass measurements of collision-induced product ions obtained in fragmentation experiments. LC-HRMS confirmed itself as a powerful analytical tool to elucidate the elemental composition and structural characteristics of unknown compounds.

Psychoactive substances in human breast milk: a review of analytical strategies for their investigation

WHO recommends breastfeeding for the first 6 months of newborn's life. Due to its physicochemical properties, breast milk may contain undesirable components originated from mother's feeding, medication and illicit drugs consumption. Some of these substances transferred from bloodstream to milk and delivered to the infant can cause harmful effects. For the last decades, analytical advances enabled the analysis of several substances in milk using different techniques. Thereby, it is possible to evaluate infant's level of exposure to these substances. This review presents the information published in the main scientific dissemination media about psychoactive drugs investigation in human breast milk, involving the sample preparation techniques and chromatographic validated methods developed in the past 10 years.

Four Synthetic Cathinones: 3-Chloromethcathinone, 4-Chloromethcathinone, 4-Fluoro-α-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone, and 4-Methoxy-α-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone Produce Changes in the Spontaneous Locomotor Activity and Motor Performance in Mice with Varied Profiles

Two chloromethcathinones, 3-chloromethcathinone (3-CMC) and 4-chloromethcathinone (4-CMC), and two para-substituted α-pyrrolidinophenones, 4-methoxy-α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (4-MeO-PVP) and 4-fluoro-α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (4-F-PVP), represent synthetic cathinones, the second most frequently abused group of new psychoactive substances (NPSs), which has aroused a worldwide health concern in the last decade. Synthetic cathinones act as psychostimulants by elevating extracellular levels of monoaminergic neurotransmitters. This study investigates effects of 3-CMC, 4-CMC, 4-MeO-PVP, and 4-F-PVP on the spontaneous locomotor activity and motor performance of mice. Additionally, neurotoxicity of substituted methcathinones against SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells was evaluated. All test cathinones stimulate in a dose-dependent manner horizontal locomotor activity of mice. Consistently to our prior findings, pyrrovalerones, but not methcathinone derivatives, produce dose-dependent elevation of vertical locomotor activity (rearing behavior). None of the tested compounds decreases the time spent on the accelerating rotarod, pointing to the lack of considerable motor disability in mice after acute exposition. Only 4-MeO-PVP at the high tested dose (20 mg/kg) increases motor performance of mice. Considering that α-pyrrolidinophenones are highly potent and selective DA uptake inhibitors, while chloromethcathinones enhance non-selective DA/5-HT release, we suggest that the increase of vertical locomotor activity and performance on rotarod in mice may serve as a behavioral indicator of the monoaminergic profile of synthetic cathinones. Finally, this study gives first insights into cytotoxicity of both 3-CMC and 4-CMC displayed against SH-SY5Y cells, which emerges and intensifies after prolonged incubation, suggesting the indirect mechanism of action, unrelated to interactions with monoamine transporters.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Toxicometabolomics of the new psychoactive substances α-PBP and α-PEP studied in HepaRG cell incubates by means of untargeted metabolomics revealed unexpected amino acid adducts

Toxicometabolomics, essentially applying metabolomics to toxicology of endogenous compounds such as drugs of abuse or new psychoactive substances (NPS), can be investigated by using different in vitro models and dedicated metabolomics techniques to enhance the number of relevant findings. The present study aimed to study the toxicometabolomics of the two NPS α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)butan-1-one, α-PBP) and α-pyrrolidinoheptaphenone (1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)heptan-1-one, α-PEP, PV8) in HepaRG cell line incubates. Evaluation was performed using reversed-phase and normal-phase liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry in positive and negative ionization mode, respectively, to analyze cells and cell media. Statistical evaluation was performed using one-way ANOVA, principal component discriminant function analysis, as well as hierarchical clustering. In general, the analysis of cells did not mainly reveal any features, but the parent compounds of the drugs of abuse. For α-PBP an increase in N-methylnicotinamide was found, which may indicate hepatotoxic potential of the substance. After analysis of cell media, significant features led to the identification of several metabolites of both compounds. Amino acid adducts with glycine and alanine were found, and these have not been described in any study before and are likely to appear in vivo. Additionally, significant changes in the metabolism of cholesterol were revealed after incubation with α-PEP. In summary, the application of metabolomics techniques after HepaRG cells exposure to NPS did not lead to an increased number of identified drug metabolites compared to previously published studies, but gave a wider perspective on the physiological effect of the investigated compounds on human liver cells.

Pharmacological and Behavioral Effects of the Synthetic Cannabinoid AKB48 in Rats

AKB48 is a designer drug belonging to the indazole synthetic cannabinoids class, illegally sold as herbal blend, incense, or research chemicals for their psychoactive cannabis-like effects. In the present study, we investigated the in vivo pharmacological and behavioral effects of AKB48 in male rats and measured the pharmacodynamic effects of AKB48 and simultaneously determined its plasma pharmacokinetic. AKB48 at low doses preferentially stimulated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell (0.25 mg/kg) and impaired visual sensorimotor responses (0.3 mg/kg) without affecting acoustic and tactile reflexes, which are reduced only to the highest dose tested (3 mg/kg). Increasing doses (0.5 mg/kg) of AKB48 impaired place preference and induced hypolocomotion in rats. At the highest dose (3 mg/kg), AKB48 induced hypothermia, analgesia, and catalepsy; inhibited the startle/pre-pulse inhibition test; and caused cardiorespiratory changes characterized by bradycardia and mild bradipnea and SpO2 reduction. All behavioral and neurochemical effects were fully prevented by the selective CB₁ receptor antagonist/inverse agonist AM251. AKB48 plasma concentrations rose linearly with increasing dose and were correlated with changes in the somatosensory, hypothermic, analgesic, and cataleptic responses in rats. For the first time, this study shows the pharmacological and behavioral effects of AKB48 in rats, correlating them to the plasma levels of the synthetic cannabinoid.

Chemical Compound Studied in This Article: AKB48 (PubChem CID: 57404063); AM251 (PubChem CID: 2125).

A case report positive for synthetic cannabinoids: are cardiovascular effects related to their protracted use?

The use of synthetic cannabinoids is being increasingly recognised worldwide, but the chemical compositions and physiological effects of these drugs are poorly characterised and are continually changing. New substances are constantly being added to the content of synthetic cannabinoids and they are rarely identified on toxicological screening tests. Due to their structures synthetic cannabinoids and their effects have been compared to the psychoactive compound, Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), found in marijuana. On the molecular level, they are potent cannabinoid receptor agonists that also may have affinity for other types of receptors such as those on platelets. Reported symptoms of toxicity include anxiety, agitation, paranoia, hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, excessive sweating, nausea, and vomiting. They can also be linked to serious adverse cardiovascular events and can affect the cardiovascular system causing hypotension and bradycardia, myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation, prolonged QTc, and Mobitz type II atrioventricular block, as well as interfere with the aggregation of platelets. We present a case report of a cardiac tamponade with toxicological findings positive for synthetic cannabinoids. This case highlights the importance of testing routinely for novel psychoactive compounds, and recognising their potential to cause life-threatening conditions.

Identification of synthetic cannabinoids that were seized, consumed, or associated with deaths in Kuwait in 2018 using GC-MS and LC-MS-MS analysis

Synthetic cannabinoids are gaining much popularity worldwide. Although the death rate associated with their use is rising, these drugs are the largest and fastest growing class of novel psychoactive substances. Despite increased concerns regarding adverse effects stemming from the use of synthetic cannabinoids, there is no published data on the subject for the Gulf region or Kuwait, specifically. The current study investigates the diversity of synthetic cannabinoids in Kuwait in 2018. In total, 434 cases from the Narcotics and Psychotropic Laboratory, 70 cases from the Toxicology Laboratory, and six cases from the Forensic Medicine Department were reviewed and analyzed. Numerous synthetic cannabinoid types were identified using GC-MS and LC-MS-MS. The majority of synthetic cannabinoids were members of the indazole-3-carboxamide or indole-3-carboxamide families. Members from the indazole-3-carboxamide family identified in Kuwait were 5F-ADB, FUB-AMB, ADB-FUBINACA, AB-FUBINACA, 5F-ADB-PINACA, 5F-AKB-48, 5Cl-AKB-48, MDMB-FUBINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA, APINACA, and AB-PINACA whereas MDMB-CHMICA, 5F-MDMB-PICA, ADB-BICA, and MMB-CHMICA belonged to the indole-3-carboxamide family. In addition, members of other families were identified, including CBL2201 and UR-144, which belonged to indole-3-carboxylate and cyclopropylindole families, respectively. The most common synthetic cannabinoids were 5F-ADB, FUB-AMB, and 5Cl-AKB-48. Various mixes of two, three, or four types of synthetic cannabinoids were identified, and mixtures of synthetic cannabinoids with other illicit drugs were also present. Our findings show that in Kuwait, the most common mix of synthetic cannabinoids is FUB-AMB with 5F-ADB. These two types were mixed, either together or individually, with methamphetamine, tramadol, heroin, ^Δ9THC, and ketamine. Most importantly, our results reveal the synthetic cannabinoid types that were associated with six reported deaths.

Types of synthetic cannabinoids seized from illicit trafficking in the territory of the Siberian Federal District (Russia) between 2009-2018

BACKGROUND

In the last decade, new psychoactive substances including synthetic cannabinoids (SC) have appeared and are rapidly spreading in the Siberian Federal District of Russia. The determination of the individual composition of the synthetic cannabinoids is very important, first of all, for assessing the risk of harming the health of potential consumers as well as for determining sources of their appearance.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the types of synthetic cannabinoids, the dynamics of their occurrence and distribution in the illegal market of drugs in the territory of the Siberian Federal District (Russia) for the period from January 2009 till December 2018. Compare the results obtained with the SC distribution trends in other countries.

METHOD

A retrospective analysis of databases (narcotic reports, chromatograms, mass-spectrums) obtained from GC-MS studies of 2142 samples taken from illicit trafficking in the territory of the Siberian Federal District (Russia) from January 2009 to December 2018 was conducted.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

During the analyzed period, 61 individual SCs of various types were identified in the studied samples. Of these, the AB-PINACA-CHM, MDMB(N)-2201, CBL-2201, TMCP-2201 were found most frequently (10-24% cases). In single cases JWH-018-Br, JWH-018-CI, JWH-019, MBA-2201 and QCBL(N)-2201 were identified. The share of the other identified individual SC did not exceed 10%. The results obtained are compared with the SC distribution trends in some countries of the Asia-Pacific region, the European Union and Turkey. Creating an objective global picture of the prevalence of SC requires a unified approach to the provision of relevant representative data.

Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) characterisation of sildenafil based products seized on the Italian illegal market

The commerce of illegal and counterfeit medicinal products on internet is a serious criminal problem. Drugs for erectile dysfunction such as phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor are the most commonly counterfeited medicines in Europe. The search of possible toxic chemical substances in seized products is needed. Moreover, the profiling of the material can be the source of relevant forensic information. For the first time a combined approach based on liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is proposed and tested, allowing characterisation of both authentic and illegal pharmaceuticals containing sildenafil seized in Italy. LC-HRMS allowed the detection and identification of unknown impurities not reported on labels in illegal products and the quantitation of the sildenafil. INAA showed to be suitable to provide both qualitative and quantitative information for forensic purposes on 23 elements, allowing discrimination between legal and illegal products.

Para-Halogenation Affects Monoamine Transporter Inhibition Properties and Hepatocellular Toxicity of Amphetamines and Methcathinones

Halogenated derivatives of amphetamine-type stimulants are appearing on the drug market, often with altered pharmacological profile and sometimes different legal status compared to the non-halogenated substances. The aim of the present study was to investigate the pharmacological profile and hepatocellular toxicity of para-halogenated amphetamines and cathinones. The potential of amphetamine, 4-fluoroamphetamine, 4-chloroamphetamine, methcathinone, 4-fluoromethcathinone, and 4-chloromethcathinone to inhibit the monoamine transporters for norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin was determined in transporter-transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Cell membrane integrity, ATP content, oxygen consumption rate, and superoxide levels were measured in human hepatoma HepG2 cells after exposure to the substances for 24 h. All compounds inhibited the norepinephrine transporter at submicromolar concentrations and the dopamine transporter at low micromolar concentrations. The selectivity of the compounds to inhibit the dopamine versus serotonin transporter decreased with increasing size of the para-substituent, resulting in potent serotonin uptake inhibition for the halogenated derivatives. All substances depleted the cellular ATP content at lower concentrations (0.25–2 mM) than cell membrane integrity loss occurred (≥0.5 mM), suggesting mitochondrial toxicity. The amphetamines and 4-chloromethcathinone additionally impaired the mitochondrial respiratory chain, confirming mitochondrial toxicity. The following toxicity rank order for the para-substituents was observed: chloride > fluoride > hydrogen. In conclusion, para-halogenation of stimulants increases the risk for serotonergic neurotoxicity. Furthermore, para-halogenation may increase hepatic toxicity mediated by mitochondrial impairment in susceptible users.

Systematic Structure-Activity Studies on Selected 2-, 3-, and 4-Monosubstituted Synthetic Methcathinone Analogs as Monoamine Transporter Releasing Agents

Methcathinone analogs are appearing on the clandestine market at a rate nearly out-pacing the ability of investigators to examine them on an individual basis. To formulate structure-activity relationship (SAR) generalities, we examined the releasing ability of several simple methcathinone analogs at the three monoamine transporters (i.e., the dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters, DAT, NET, and SERT, respectively) using in vitro assay methods. The analogs included methcathinone and 14 other compounds monosubstituted at the 2-, 3-, or 4-position. In general, (a) the 2-substituted analogs were less potent than either the 3- or 4-substituted analogs, (b) the 3- and 4-substituted analogs were relatively similar in potency, (c) methcathinone was the most selective as a DAT-releasing agent, and (d) the 3- and 4-CF₃ analogs were the least DAT-selective. For the 15 compounds, there was a significant correlation ( r > 0.9) between DAT and NET potency, suggesting relatively similar structure-activity relationships (at least for the compounds examined here). Several of the compounds have appeared on the clandestine market since our studies were initiated, and the present results provide new information on how they might act.

Methcathinone and 3-Fluoromethcathinone Stimulate Spontaneous Horizontal Locomotor Activity in Mice and Elevate Extracellular Dopamine and Serotonin Levels in the Mouse Striatum

Methcathinone (MC) and 3-fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC) are well-known members of the synthetic cathinone derivatives, the second most abused group of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). They are considered as methamphetamine-like cathinones, as they elicit their psychostimulatory effects via inhibition of monoamine uptake and enhanced release. The present study examines the effects of MC and 3-FMC on the spontaneous locomotor activity of mice and extracellular levels of dopamine and serotonin in the mouse striatum. Both MC and 3-FMC produced a dose-dependent increase of horizontal locomotor activity, but no significant changes in rearing behavior were observed. The locomotor stimulation induced by MC and 3-FMC is mediated by activation of dopaminergic neurotransmission, as selective D₁-dopamine receptor antagonist, SCH 23390, abolished the effects of both drugs. In line with pharmacological data obtained by previous in vitro studies, MC and 3-FMC produced potent increases of extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels in the mouse striatum. Taken together, results presented within this study confirm previous findings and expand our knowledge on the pharmacology of MC and 3-FMC along with their behavioral effects.

Patterns of NPS Use and Risk Reduction in Slovenia

BACKGROUND

The following study presents factors influencing the decision to use/not to use new psychoactive substances (NPS), various patterns of NPS use, the problems experienced by users, and the methods for reducing the risks associated with NPS use.

OBJECTIVES

The study seeks to provide an in-depth look into the characteristics of NPS use and support the planning of targeted interventions in the field of NPS.

METHODS

The study involved 19 in-depth interviews carried out with 25 individuals divided into three subsamples in order to gain insight into the various experiences of NPS users. The interviews were conducted in Slovenia between December 2013 and October 2014. The sample was obtained by using the convenience sampling and snowball sampling methods.

RESULTS

The main pattern of NPS use determined by the study concerned synthetic cathinones, specifically 3-MMC, with binge use spanning several days being a prominent feature. The main risks involving NPS use were: mixing various drugs, inappropriate dosing, lack of information prior to use, and the use of unknown substances. Several users spoke about effective strategies for reducing risks, such as obtaining information beforehand, using one's own implements and using only small quantities of unknown substances. Conclusions/Importance: The study revealed various factors based on which users decide to use NPS. Furthermore, users reported a number of problems resulting from NPS use, while risk reduction strategies are employed to a much lesser extent. Based on the results obtained, specific intervention efforts concerning NPS use and targeting specific groups of younger users were designed.