1
|
Das BK, Panda SP, Pradhan SP, Raut SS, Kumari M, Meena DK. Molecular insights into STAT1a protein in rohu ( Labeo rohita): unveiling expression profiles, SRC homology domain recognition, and protein-protein interactions triggered by poly I: C. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1398955. [PMID: 38994355 PMCID: PMC11237311 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1398955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction STAT1a is an essential signal transduction protein involved in the interferon pathway, playing a vital role in IFN-alpha/beta and gamma signaling. Limited information is available about the STAT protein in fish, particularly in Indian major carps (IMC). This study aimed to identify and characterize the STAT1a protein in Labeo rohita (LrSTAT1a). Methods The full-length CDS of LrSTAT1a transcript was identified and sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses were performed based on the nucleotide sequences. The in-vivo immune stimulant poly I: C was used to treat various tissues, and the expression of LrSTAT1a was determined using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). A 3D model of the STAT1a protein was generated using close structure homologs available in the database and checked using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Results The full-length CDS of Labeo rohita STAT1a (LrSTAT1a) transcript consisted of 3238 bp that encoded a polypeptide of 721 amino acids sequence was identified. Phylogenetic analyses were performed based on the nucleotide sequences. Based on our findings, other vertebrates share a high degree of conservation with STAT1a. Additionally, we report that the in vivo immune stimulant poly I: C treatment of various tissues resulted in the expression of LrSTAT1a as determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). In the current investigation, treatment with poly I: C dramatically increased the expression of LrSTAT1a in nearly every organ and tissue, with the brain, muscle, kidney, and intestine showing the highest levels of expression compared to the control. We made a 3D model of the STAT1a protein by using close structure homologs that were already available in the database. The model was then checked using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Consistent with previous research, the MD study highlighted the significance of the STAT1a protein, which is responsible for Src homology 2 (SH2) recognition. An important H-bonding that successfully retains SH2 inside the STAT1a binding cavity was determined to be formed by the conserved residues SER107, GLN530, SER583, LYS584, MET103, and ALA106. Discussion This study provides molecular insights into the STAT1a protein in Rohu (Labeo rohita) and highlights the potential role of STAT1a in the innate immune response in fish. The high degree of conservation of STAT1a among other vertebrates suggests its crucial role in the immune response. The in-vivo immune stimulation results indicate that STAT1a is involved in the immune response in various tissues, with the brain, muscle, kidney, and intestine being the most responsive. The 3D model and MD study provide further evidence of the significance of STAT1a in the immune response, specifically in SH2 recognition. Further research is necessary to understand the specific mechanisms involved in the IFN pathway and the role of STAT1a in the immune response of IMC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Basanta Kumar Das
- Aquatic Environmental Biotechnology (AEB) Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Soumya Prasad Panda
- Aquatic Environmental Biotechnology (AEB) Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Smruti Priyambada Pradhan
- Aquatic Environmental Biotechnology (AEB) Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Subhashree Subhasmita Raut
- Aquatic Environmental Biotechnology (AEB) Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Mala Kumari
- Riverine & Estuaries Fisheries Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) -Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Dharmendra Kumar Meena
- Open Water Aquaculture Production and Management (OWAPM) Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Marjan P, Martyniuk CJ, Arlos MJ, Servos MR, Ruecker NJ, Munkittrick KR. Identifying transcriptomic indicators of tertiary treated municipal effluent in longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae) caged under semi-controlled conditions in experimental raceways. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 923:171257. [PMID: 38417510 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
To evaluate effects of tertiary treated wastewater treatment plant effluent (MWWE) on transcriptomic responses in longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae; LND) we conducted a semi-controlled study in experimental raceways (Advancing Canadian Water Assets facility) imbedded in the Pine Creek treatment plant (Calgary, AB). LND collected from a reference site in the Bow River (REF) were caged in raceways containing either 5 % Pine Creek effluent (PC) or Bow River water (BR; control) over 28 d. Liver transcriptomes were analyzed in males and females sampled on days 7, 14 and 28 from BR and PC, and compared to REF fish on day 0. Concurrent with the caging, selected environmental substances of concern were analyzed in the BR and PC. Significantly different unigenes (SDUs) in females (vs males) within both BR and PC raceways increased over time and compared to REF fish. Moreover, SDUs in females and males within the same treatment (i.e., BR, PC) showed a temporal increase as well as compared to REF fish. Time was the dominant factor affecting SDUs, whereas sex and treatment had less of an impact on the transcriptome profiling. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis of BR vs PC over time revealed effects on genes involved in growth, metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids, and immune system on day 7; however, by day 28, 80-100 % of the transcripts localized to enriched biomarkers were associated with tissue immune responses in both sexes. Exposure to 5 % effluent had significant effects on female liver somatic index but no effects were observed on other phenotypic health indices in either sex. BR was used as the source of reference water, but analyses showed trace amounts of ESOCs. Analyses did not point towards definitive response patterns that could be used in field-based ecotoxicogenomic studies on the impacts of well-treated MWWE but suggested compromised adaptive immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricija Marjan
- University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, 2500 University Dr NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
| | - Christopher J Martyniuk
- University of Florida, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, 2187 Mowry Rd., Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Maricor J Arlos
- University of Alberta, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 9211-116 Street NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mark R Servos
- University of Waterloo, Department of Biology, 200 University Ave. W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Norma J Ruecker
- The City of Calgary, Water Services, UEP-Water Resources, 2100, Station M, #35B, Calgary, AB T2P 2M5, Canada
| | - Kelly R Munkittrick
- University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, 2500 University Dr NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liang Y, Liu H, Li X, Huang W, Huang B, Xu J, Xiong J, Zhai S. Molecular insight, expression profile and subcellular localization of two STAT family members, STAT1a and STAT2, from Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Gene 2020; 769:145257. [PMID: 33164823 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.145257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and STAT2 are critical components of type I and type II IFNs signaling. To date, seven STAT family proteins have been identified from mammals. However, the information on STAT genes in teleost fish is still limited. In the present study, two STAT family genes (STAT1a and STAT2) were identified from Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica and designated as AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2. The open reading frames of AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 are 2244 bp and 2421 bp, encoding for polypeptides of 747 aa and 806 aa, respectively. Both AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 contain the conserved domains of STAT proteins. Phylogenetic analysis was performed based on the STATs protein sequences, and showed that AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 shared the closest relationship with Oncorhynchus mykiss. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 were expressed in most examined tissues, with the highest expression both in blood. Significantly up-regulated transcripts of AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 were detected in response to poly I:C stimulation, and Edwardsiella tarda induced increase in the expression of AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 genes. Subcellular localization analysis showed that in both IFNγ-stimulated and unstimulated EPC cells AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 were mainly distributed in the cytoplasm, but few AjSTAT1a was distributed in the nucleus. All these results suggested that AjSTAT1a and AjSTAT2 may be critical for regulating the host innate immune defense against pathogens invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liang
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Fujian Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Breeding and Healthy Aquaculture, Xiamen 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Cultivation and High-value Utilization of Marine Organisms in Fujian Province, Xiamen 361000, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Haizi Liu
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Wenshu Huang
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Bei Huang
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Jisong Xu
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Jing Xiong
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Shaowei Zhai
- Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China; Engineering Research Center of the Modern Technology for Eel Industry, Ministry of Education, P.R. China, Xiamen 361021, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ignatz EH, Braden LM, Benfey TJ, Caballero-Solares A, Hori TS, Runighan CD, Fast MD, Westcott JD, Rise ML. Impact of rearing temperature on the innate antiviral immune response of growth hormone transgenic female triploid Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 97:656-668. [PMID: 31891812 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.12.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
AquAdvantage Salmon (growth hormone transgenic female triploid Atlantic salmon) are a faster-growing alternative to conventional farmed diploid Atlantic salmon. To investigate optimal rearing conditions for their commercial production, a laboratory study was conducted in a freshwater recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) to examine the effect of rearing temperature (10.5 °C, 13.5 °C, 16.5 °C) on their antiviral immune and stress responses. When each temperature treatment group reached an average weight of 800 g, a subset of fish were intraperitoneally injected with either polyriboinosinic polyribocytidylic acid (pIC, a viral mimic) or an equal volume of sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Blood and head kidney samples were collected before injection and 6, 24 and 48 h post-injection (hpi). Transcript abundance of 7 antiviral biomarker genes (tlr3, lgp2, stat1b, isg15a, rsad2, mxb, ifng) was measured by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) on head kidney RNA samples. Plasma cortisol levels from blood samples collected pre-injection and from pIC and PBS groups at 24 hpi were quantified by ELISA. While rearing temperature and treatment did not significantly affect circulating cortisol, all genes tested were significantly upregulated by pIC at all three temperatures (except for tlr3, which was only upregulated in the 10.5 °C treatment). Target gene activation was generally observed at 24 hpi, with most transcript levels decreasing by 48 hpi in pIC-injected fish. Although a high amount of biological variability in response to pIC was evident across all treatments, rearing temperature significantly influenced transcript abundance and/or fold-changes comparing time- and temperature-matched pIC- and PBS-injected fish for several genes (tlr3, lgp2, stat1b, isg15a, rsad2 and ifng) at 24 hpi. As an example, significantly higher fold-changes of rsad2, isg15a and ifng were found in fish reared at 10.5 °C when compared to 16.5 °C. Multivariate analysis confirmed that rearing temperature modulated antiviral immune response. The present experiment provides novel insight into the relationship between rearing temperature and innate antiviral immune response in AquAdvantage Salmon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric H Ignatz
- AquaBounty Canada, 718 Route 310, Fortune, PE, C0A 2B0, Canada; Memorial University, Fisheries and Marine Institute, 155 Ridge Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5R3, Canada; Memorial University, Department of Ocean Sciences, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.
| | - Laura M Braden
- AquaBounty Canada, 718 Route 310, Fortune, PE, C0A 2B0, Canada; Hoplite Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Tillmann J Benfey
- University of New Brunswick, Department of Biology, 10 Bailey Drive, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada.
| | - Albert Caballero-Solares
- Memorial University, Department of Ocean Sciences, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.
| | - Tiago S Hori
- Center for Aquaculture Technologies Canada, 20 Hope Street, Souris, PE, C0A 2B0, Canada.
| | - C Dawn Runighan
- AquaBounty Canada, 718 Route 310, Fortune, PE, C0A 2B0, Canada.
| | - Mark D Fast
- Hoplite Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Jillian D Westcott
- Memorial University, Fisheries and Marine Institute, 155 Ridge Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5R3, Canada.
| | - Matthew L Rise
- Memorial University, Department of Ocean Sciences, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wu H, Zhang Y, Lu X, Xiao J, Feng P, Feng H. STAT1a and STAT1b of black carp play important roles in the innate immune defense against GCRV. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 87:386-394. [PMID: 30703549 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) plays an important role in the Janus kinase (JAK)-STAT signaling of human and mammals; however, the mechanism of STAT1 in innate immune activation of teleost fishes remains largely unknown. In this study, two STAT1 homologues (bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b) of black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) have been cloned and characterized. Both bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b transcription in host cells was obviously increased in response to the stimulation of poly (I:C), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), grass carp reovirus (GCRV) and interferon (IFN); however, the increase rate of bcSTAT1b transcription post stimulation was obviously higher than that of bcSTAT1a. bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b were distributed in both cytoplasm and nucleus in the immunofluorescence staining assay. Self-association of bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b, and the interaction between bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b have been detected through co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) assay; and the data of native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) implied that bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b might form homodimer and heterodimer in vivo like their mammalian counterparts. Both bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b presented IFN-inducing ability in report assay, and both bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b showed antiviral activities against GCRV in EPC cells. Our data support the conclusion that both bcSTAT1a and bcSTAT1b play important roles in host antiviral innate immune activation initiated by GCRV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Yinyin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Xingyu Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Jun Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Pinghui Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Hao Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wang T, Lin P, Guo S, Wang Y, Zhang Z, Feng J. Molecular characterization and expression analysis of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) in Japanese eel Anguilla japonica. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 86:956-964. [PMID: 30590158 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) is one of critical signal transduction proteins of interferon (IFN) pathway and the structure and function of this protein have been well identified in mammals, but the information about the STAT1 is still limited in teleost fishes. In the present study, the full-length cDNA sequence of STAT1 (AjSTAT1) in Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) was identified and characterized. Multiple alignment of the amino acid sequence showed that the AjSTAT1 protein has the typical conserved domains including the amino-terminal, coiled-coil, DNA-binding, linker, Src homology 2 (SH2), transcriptional activation domains (TAD). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed a broad expression for AjSTAT1 in a wide range of tissues, with the predominant expression in liver, followed by the spleen, intestine, gills, skin, kidney, and the very low expression in heart and muscle. The AjSTAT1 expressions in liver, spleen and kidney were significantly induced following injection with LPS, the viral mimic poly I:C, and Aeromonas hydrophila infection. In vitro, the AjSTAT1 transcripts of Japanese eel liver cells were significantly enhanced by the treatment of poly I:C or the stimulation of the high concentration of Aeromonas hydrophila (1 × 107 cfu/mL and 1 × 108 cfu/mL). Subcellular localization showed that in the natural state AjSTAT1was uniformly distributed in the cytoplasm, but AjSTAT1 was found to aggregated in the cytoplasm as well as partly in the nucleus after the stimulation of LPS and poly I:C. These results collectively suggested AjSTAT1 is an important transcription factor possibly involved in Japanese eel defense against viral and bacterial infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Wang
- College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, Fujian Province, China; Engineer Research Center of Eel Modern Industry Technology, Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Healthy Mariculture for the East China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Peng Lin
- College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, Fujian Province, China; Engineer Research Center of Eel Modern Industry Technology, Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Healthy Mariculture for the East China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Songlin Guo
- College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, Fujian Province, China; Engineer Research Center of Eel Modern Industry Technology, Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Healthy Mariculture for the East China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Yilei Wang
- College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, Fujian Province, China; Engineer Research Center of Eel Modern Industry Technology, Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Healthy Mariculture for the East China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Ziping Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Jianjun Feng
- College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, Fujian Province, China; Engineer Research Center of Eel Modern Industry Technology, Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Healthy Mariculture for the East China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jin Y, Zhou T, Li N, Liu S, Xu X, Pan Y, Tan S, Shi H, Yang Y, Yuan Z, Wang W, Luo J, Gao D, Dunham R, Liu Z. JAK and STAT members in channel catfish: Identification, phylogenetic analysis and expression profiling after Edwardsiella ictaluri infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 81:334-341. [PMID: 29274790 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2017.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathway is one of the main pleiotropic cascades used to transmit information from extracellular receptors to the nucleus, which results in DNA transcription and expression of genes involved in immunity, proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and cell survival. Members of JAK family and STAT family have been extensively studied in different mammalian species because of their important roles in innate and adaptive immune responses. However, they have not been systematically studied among teleost fish species. In this study, five JAK family members and eight STAT family members were identified and characterized from channel catfish. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted to properly annotate these genes. Syntenic analysis was also conducted to establish orthology, and confirm the results from phylogenetic analysis. Compared to mammals, more members of the JAK and STAT family were identified in channel catfish genome. Expression of JAK and STAT family members was detected in healthy catfish tissues, but was induced in gill, liver, and intestine after bacterial challenge. Notably, the significant upregulation of STAT1b gene in catfish liver, gill and intestine after Edwardsiella ictaluri infection supported the notion that high STAT1 expression are involved in defense against pathogens. Collectively, the increased expression of JAK and STAT members in tested tissues suggested their crucial function in defending the host against pathogen invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Jin
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Tao Zhou
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Ning Li
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Shikai Liu
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Xiaoyan Xu
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Ying Pan
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Suxu Tan
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Huitong Shi
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Yujia Yang
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Zihao Yuan
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Wenwen Wang
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Jian Luo
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Dongya Gao
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Rex Dunham
- The Fish Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Aquatic Genomics Unit, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Zhanjiang Liu
- Department of Biology, College of Art and Sciences, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bathige SDNK, Umasuthan N, Godahewa GI, Thulasitha WS, Jayasinghe JDHE, Wan Q, Lee J. Molecular insights of two STAT1 variants from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) and their transcriptional regulation in response to pathogenic stress, interleukin-10, and tissue injury. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 69:128-141. [PMID: 28818616 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1) is critically involved in mediating cytokine-driven signaling, and triggers the transcription of target genes to activate cellular functions. Although the structural and functional aspects of STAT members have been well described in mammals, only limited information is available for the STAT genes in teleost fishes. In the present study, two variants of STAT1 genes (RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L) were identified from rock bream and characterized at the cDNA and genomic sequence levels. RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L were found to share a common domain architecture with mammalian STAT1. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that RbSTAT1 shows a common evolutionary trajectory with other STAT1 counterparts, whereas RbSTAT1L showed a separate path, implying that it could be a novel member of the STAT family. The genomic organizations of RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L illustrated a similar exon-intron pattern with 23 exons in the coding sequence. Transcription factor-binding sites, which are mostly involved in the regulation of immune responses, were predicted at the putative promoter regions of the RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L genes. SYBR Green qPCR analysis revealed the ubiquitous expression of RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L transcripts in different fish tissues with the highest level observed in peripheral blood cells. Significantly modulated transcripts were noted upon viral (rock bream iridovirus [RBIV]), bacterial (Edwardsiella tarda and Streptococcus iniae), and pathogen-associated molecular pattern (lipopolysaccharide and poly I:C) stimulations. The WST-1 cell viability assay affirmed the potential antiviral capacity of RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L against RBIV. A possible role of RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L in the wound healing process was revealed according to their modulated expression in injured fish. In addition, the transcriptional regulation of RbSTAT1 and RbSTAT1L was analyzed by qPCR following stimulation with rock bream interleukin-10. Taken together, these findings suggest that the STAT1-mediated Janus kinase/STAT pathway might at least in part be involved in the regulatory mechanisms underlying the immune defensive roles against microbial pathogens and the wound healing process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S D N K Bathige
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Navaneethaiyer Umasuthan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - G I Godahewa
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - William Shanthakumar Thulasitha
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Department of Zoology, University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka
| | - J D H E Jayasinghe
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Qiang Wan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jehee Lee
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 63243, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Maisey K, Montero R, Corripio-Miyar Y, Toro-Ascuy D, Valenzuela B, Reyes-Cerpa S, Sandino AM, Zou J, Wang T, Secombes CJ, Imarai M. Isolation and Characterization of Salmonid CD4+ T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:4150-63. [PMID: 27053758 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
This study reports the isolation and functional characterization of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) CD4-1(+) T cells and the establishment of an IL-15-dependent CD4-1(+) T cell line. By using Abs specific for CD4-1 and CD3ε it was possible to isolate the double-positive T cells in spleen and head kidney. The morphology and the presence of transcripts for T cell markers in the sorted CD4-1(+)CD3ε(+) cells were studied next. Cells were found to express TCRα, TCRβ, CD152 (CTLA-4), CD154 (CD40L), T-bet, GATA-3, and STAT-1. The sorted CD4-1(+) T cells also had a distinctive functional attribute of mammalian T lymphocytes, namely they could undergo Ag-specific proliferation, using OVA as a model Ag. The OVA-stimulated cells showed increased expression of several cytokines, including IFN-γ1, IL-4/13A, IL-15, IL-17D, IL-10, and TGF-β1, perhaps indicating that T cell proliferation led to differentiation into distinct effector phenotypes. Using IL-15 as a growth factor, we have selected a lymphoid cell line derived from rainbow trout head kidney cells. The morphology, cell surface expression of CD4-1, and the presence of transcripts of T cell cytokines and transcription factors indicated that this is a CD4-1(+) T cell line. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the presence of CD4-1(+)CD3ε(+) T cells in salmonids. As in mammals, CD4-1(+) T cells may be the master regulators of immune responses in fish, and therefore these findings and the new model T cell line developed will contribute to a greater understanding of T cell function and immune responses in teleost fish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Maisey
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ruth Montero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Yolanda Corripio-Miyar
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Daniela Toro-Ascuy
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Beatriz Valenzuela
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ana María Sandino
- Laboratorio de Virología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jun Zou
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Tiehui Wang
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Christopher J Secombes
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Mónica Imarai
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Alameda 3363, Santiago, Chile;
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Collet B, Urquhart K, Monte M, Collins C, Garcia Perez S, Secombes CJ, Hall M. Individual Monitoring of Immune Response in Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar following Experimental Infection with Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137767. [PMID: 26397117 PMCID: PMC4580571 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Monitoring the immune response in fish over the progression of a disease is traditionally carried out by experimental infection whereby animals are killed at regular intervals and samples taken. We describe here a novel approach to infectiology for salmonid fish where blood samples are collected repeatedly in a small group of PIT-tagged animals. This approach contributes to the reduction of animals used in research and to improved data quality. Two groups of 12 PIT-tagged Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were i.p infected with Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV) or culture medium and placed in 1 m3 tanks. Blood samples were collected at 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 21 and 25 days post infection. The viral load, immune and stress response were determined in individual fish by real-time quantitative PCR (QPCR) on the blood cells, as well as the haematocrit used as an indicator of haemolysis, a clinical consequence of ISAV infection. "In-tank" anaesthesia was used in order to reduce the stress related to chase and netting prior to sampling. The data were analysed using a statistical approach which is novel with respect to its use in fish immunology. The repeated blood collection procedure did not induce stress response as measured by HSP70 and HSP90 gene expression in the un-infected animals. A strong increase in viraemia as well as a significant induction of Mx and γIP gene expression were observed in the infected group. Interleukin 10 was found induced at the later stage of the infection whereas no induction of CD8 or γ IFN could be detected. These results and the advantages of this approach are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Collet
- Aquaculture and Fish Health, Marine Scotland, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Katy Urquhart
- Aquaculture and Fish Health, Marine Scotland, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Milena Monte
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Collins
- Aquaculture and Fish Health, Marine Scotland, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Sandro Garcia Perez
- Aquaculture and Fish Health, Marine Scotland, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Chris J. Secombes
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm Hall
- Aquaculture and Fish Health, Marine Scotland, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Collins C, Ganne G, Collet B. Isolation and activity of the promoters for STAT1 and 2 in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 40:644-647. [PMID: 25128593 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) 1 and 2 molecules are part of the interferon (IFN) type I and type II (γIFN) signalling pathways, key pathways in the innate immune response. Genomic sequence regions upstream from the 5-prime Salmo salar ORFs were obtained and shown to have functional activity through their incorporation into luciferase reporter constructs and subsequent activation by salmonid alpha virus (SAV). The STAT1 and STAT2 putative promoter regions were also induced by co-transfected plasmids expressing γIFN and IFN type I respectively. Two IFN-induced gene regulatory motifs (GAAANN) associated in a complete Interferon Stimulating Response Element (ISRE) were identified in the STAT1 putative promoter sequence and several GAS elements conforming to Boehm's consensus TTNCNNNAA. Sixteen IFN-induced gene regulatory motifs (GAAANN) could be identified in the STAT2 putative promoter region but no Boehm's GAS element nor ISRE. A palindromic sequence that conforms to Decker's consensus GAS element TTCNNN(N)GAA was identified. The reporter constructs generated here may prove an additional tool for refining knowledge on interferon signalling in fish and the inhibition of such by some fish viral pathogens.
Collapse
|
12
|
Cofre C, Gonzalez R, Moya J, Vidal R. Phenotype gene expression differences between resistant and susceptible salmon families to IPNV. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2014; 40:887-96. [PMID: 24306554 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-013-9894-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) is an economically important pathogen of the salmonid aquaculture industry. Selective breeding has been employed to improve resistance to this infectious disease, and it is of importance to investigate the expression profile of immune genes of Atlantic salmon with different genetic background in response to this virus. This study examined the immune modulation response of eight candidate genes in head kidney tissue in two families of Atlantic salmon with high and low mortalities, after challenge with IPNV. The results showed that the expression pattern of target genes differed in the two families. Generally, higher expression of antiviral, pro-inflammatory genes and transcription factors such as tripartite motif, NF-κB, IFNI, STAT1, protein kinase R, and Vig-2 in the resistant family were observed at the same time point. One may speculate the functional importance of these putative candidate genes in the characterization of the IPNV-resistant (low mortalities) immune phenotype. Therefore, on our findings, we suggest that future salmonids studies aiming to identify candidate genes/pathway or vaccines evaluation should consider validating detected genes/pathway across different genetic backgrounds or immune phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Cofre
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Genomics and Evolutionary Studies, Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad Santiago de Chile, Av. Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins 3363, Estación Central, Santiago, Chile
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cheng CH, Chou CM, Chu CY, Chen GD, Lien HW, Hwang PP, Chang MS, Huang CJ. Differential regulation of Tetraodon nigroviridis Mx gene promoter activity by constitutively-active forms of STAT1, STAT2, and IRF9. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 38:230-243. [PMID: 24680831 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Induction of interferons (IFNs) produces an innate immune response through activation of the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Type I IFN signaling activates downstream gene expression through the IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) complex, while type II IFN (IFN-γ) signaling is mediated through active STAT1 protein. The IFN target gene Mx is involved in the defense against viral infection. However, the mechanism by which Tetraodon (pufferfish) Mx is regulated by IFN signaling has not been identified. In this study, we describe the cloning and expression of Tetraodon STAT1, STAT2, and IFN regulatory factor 9 (IRF9). By combining constitutively-active STAT1 (STAT1-JH1) and STAT2 (STA2-JH1) fusion proteins with IRF9, we demonstrate that a constitutively-active ISGF3 complex increases the transcriptional activity of the Tetraodon Mx promoter via direct binding to two IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) sites. In addition, a constitutively-active TnIRF9-S2C containing a fusion of the C-terminal region of STAT2 and IRF9 also activated the Mx promoter through binding to the ISRE sites. Furthermore, constitutively-active STAT1-JH1 elevates Mx promoter activity through two IFN gamma-activated sequence (GAS) elements. The Mx promoter is also activated by constitutively-active TnIRF9-S2C and STAT1-JH1 protein, as determined using an in vivo luciferase assay. We conclude that the Tetraodon Mx gene is activated via Type I (IFN-1) and Type II (IFN-γ) signaling. These results provide mechanistic insights into the role of IFN signaling in teleosts, and the in vivo luciferase assay may be suitable as a tool for studying induction and regulation by IFNs in teleost fish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Hsiung Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan.
| | - Chih-Ming Chou
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ying Chu
- The Center of Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan
| | - Gen-Der Chen
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Huang-Wei Lien
- Institute of Fisheries Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Pung-Pung Hwang
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Mau-Sun Chang
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Jen Huang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan; Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Munang'andu HM, Mutoloki S, Evensen Ø. Acquired immunity and vaccination against infectious pancreatic necrosis virus of salmon. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:184-196. [PMID: 23962742 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 08/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Acquired immunity plays an important role in the protection of salmonids vaccinated against infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) infections. In recent years, vaccine research has taken a functional approach to find the correlates of protective immunity against IPNV infections. Accumulating evidence suggests that the humoral response, specifically IgM is a correlate of vaccine protection against IPNV infections. The role of IgT on the other hand, especially at the sites of virus entry into the host is yet to be established. The kinetics of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell gene expression have also been shown to correlate with protection in salmonids, suggesting that other arms of the adaptive immune response e.g. cytotoxic T cell responses and Th1 may also be important. Overall, the mechanisms of vaccine protection observed in salmonids are comparable to those seen in other vertebrates suggesting that the immunological basis of vaccine protection has been conserved across vertebrate taxa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hetron Mweemba Munang'andu
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Section of Aquatic Medicine and Nutrition, P.O. Box 8146 Dep, N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Stephen Mutoloki
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Section of Aquatic Medicine and Nutrition, P.O. Box 8146 Dep, N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Øystein Evensen
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Section of Aquatic Medicine and Nutrition, P.O. Box 8146 Dep, N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Collet B. Innate immune responses of salmonid fish to viral infections. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:160-73. [PMID: 23981327 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are the most serious pathogenic threat to the production of the main aquacultured salmonid species the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. The viral diseases Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis (IPN), Pancreatic Disease (PD), Infectious Haemorrhagic Necrosis (IHN), Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS), and Infectious Salmon Anaemia (ISA) cause massive economic losses to the global salmonid aquaculture industry every year. To date, no solution exists to treat livestock affected by a viral disease and only a small number of efficient vaccines are available to prevent infection. As a consequence, understanding the host immune response against viruses in these fish species is critical to develop prophylactic and preventive control measures. The innate immune response represents an important part of the host defence mechanism preventing viral replication after infection. It is a fast acting response designed to inhibit virus propagation immediately within the host, allowing for the adaptive specific immunity to develop. It has cellular and humoral components which act in synergy. This review will cover inflammation responses, the cell types involved, apoptosis, antimicrobial peptides. Particular attention will be given to the type I interferon system as the major player in the innate antiviral defence mechanism of salmonids. Viral evasion strategies will also be discussed.
Collapse
|
16
|
Sobhkhez M, Hansen T, Iliev DB, Skjesol A, Jørgensen JB. The Atlantic salmon protein tyrosine kinase Tyk2: molecular cloning, modulation of expression and function. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 41:553-563. [PMID: 23872231 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Tyk2, a member of the Janus Kinase (JAK) family of protein tyrosine kinases, is required for interferon-α/β binding and signaling in higher vertebrates. Currently, little is known about the role of the different JAKs in signaling responses to interferon (IFN) in lower vertebrates including fish. In this paper we report the identification and characterization of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) Tyk2. Four cDNA sequences, two containing an open reading frame encoding full-length Tyk protein and two with an up-stream in frame stop codon, were identified. The deduced amino acid sequences of the salmon full-length Tyk2 proteins showed highest identity with Tyk2 from other species and their transcripts were ubiquitously expressed. Like in mammals the presented data suggests that salmon Tyk2 is auto-phosporylated when ectopically expressed in cells. In our experiments, full-length salmon Tyk2 overexpressed in CHSE-cells phosphorylated itself, while both a kinase-deficient mutant and the truncated Tyk2 (Tyk-short) were inactive. Interestingly, the overexpression of full length Tyk2 was shown to up-regulate the transcript levels of the IFN induced gene Mx, thus indicating the involvement of salmon Tyk2 in the salmon IFN I pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehrdad Sobhkhez
- Norwegian College of Fisheries Science, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Tso CH, Hung YF, Tan SP, Lu MW. Identification of the STAT1 gene and the characterisation of its immune response to immunostimulants, including nervous necrosis virus (NNV) infection, in Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:1339-1348. [PMID: 23954694 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 07/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT)-1 is an indispensable signal transduction protein that is involved in the interferon pathway. STAT-1 plays an important role in the innate immune response. The full-length cDNA of Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) STAT-1, MgSTAT1, was cloned. Phylogenetic analysis was performed based on the amino acid sequence. Our results indicate that STAT1 is highly conserved with other vertebrates. We also report the expression of MgSTAT1 in different tissues treated with immune stimulants, including LPS, CpG ODN, and poly (I:C), in vivo. The expression of MgSTAT1 was significantly induced in the head kidney upon treatment with poly (I:C) compared to the control. Moreover, the results indicate that MgSTAT1 is up-regulated during nervous necrosis virus (NNV) infection. This study reveals that similar to the mammalian antiviral response, MgSTAT1 mediates the immune response in Malabar grouper.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hsi Tso
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, No. 2, Beining Rd., Keelung 20224, Taiwan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Ballesteros NA, Saint-Jean SSR, Perez-Prieto SI, Coll JM. Trout oral VP2 DNA vaccination mimics transcriptional responses occurring after infection with infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:1249-57. [PMID: 23041507 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Revised: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Time-course and organ transcriptional response profiles in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss were studied after oral DNA-vaccination with the VP2 gene of the infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) encapsulated in alginates. The profiles were also compared with those obtained after infection with IPNV. A group of immune-related genes (stat1, ifn1, ifng, mx1, mx3, il8, il10, il11, il12b, tnf2, mhc1uda, igm and igt) previously selected from microarray analysis of successful oral vaccination of rainbow trout, were used for the RTqPCR analysis. The results showed that oral VP2-vaccination qualitatively mimicked both the time-course and organ (head kidney, spleen, intestine, pyloric ceca, and thymus) transcriptional profiles obtained after IPNV-infection. Highest transcriptional differential expression levels after oral vaccination were obtained in thymus, suggesting those might be important for subsequent protection against IPNV challenges. However, transcriptional differential expression levels of most of the genes mentioned above were lower in VP2-vaccinated than in IPNV-infected trout, except for ifn1 which were similar. Together all the results suggest that the oral-alginate VP2-vaccination procedure immunizes trout against IPNV in a similar way as IPNV-infection does while there is still room for additional improvements in the oral vaccination procedure. Some of the genes described here could be used as markers to further optimize the oral immunization method.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A Ballesteros
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas-CSIC, Dpto. Microbiología Molecular y Biología de la Infección, c/Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Ballesteros NA, Saint-Jean SSR, Encinas PA, Perez-Prieto SI, Coll JM. Oral immunization of rainbow trout to infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (Ipnv) induces different immune gene expression profiles in head kidney and pyloric ceca. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:174-185. [PMID: 22521628 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Induction of neutralizing antibodies and protection by oral vaccination with DNA-alginates of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss against infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) was recently reported. Because orally induced immune response transcript gene profiles had not been described yet neither in fish, nor after IPNV vaccination, we studied them in head kidney (an immune response internal organ) and a vaccine entry tissue (pyloric ceca). By using an oligo microarray enriched in immune-related genes validated by RTqPCR, the number of increased transcripts in head kidney was higher than in pyloric ceca while the number of decreased transcripts was higher in pyloric ceca than in head kidney. Confirming previous reports on intramuscular DNA vaccination or viral infection, mx genes increased their transcription in head kidney. Other transcript responses such as those corresponding to interferons, their receptors and induced proteins (n=91 genes), VHSV-induced genes (n=25), macrophage-related genes (n=125), complement component genes (n=176), toll-like receptors (n=31), tumor necrosis factors (n=32), chemokines and their receptors (n=121), interleukines and their receptors (n=119), antimicrobial peptides (n=59), and cluster differentiation antigens (n=58) showed a contrasting and often complementary behavior when head kidney and pyloric ceca were compared. For instance, classical complement component transcripts increased in head kidney while only alternative pathway transcripts increased in pyloric ceca, different β-defensins increased in head kidney but remained constant in pyloric ceca. The identification of new gene markers on head kidney/pyloric ceca could be used to follow up and/or to improve immunity during fish oral vaccination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A Ballesteros
- Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas, CSIC, C/Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Rakus KŁ, Irnazarow I, Adamek M, Palmeira L, Kawana Y, Hirono I, Kondo H, Matras M, Steinhagen D, Flasz B, Brogden G, Vanderplasschen A, Aoki T. Gene expression analysis of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) lines during Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infection yields insights into differential immune responses. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 37:65-76. [PMID: 22212509 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Revised: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), also known as koi herpesvirus (KHV), is the etiological agent of a virulent and lethal disease in common and koi carp. This study aimed to determine the genetic basis underlying the common carp immune response to the CyHV-3 virus. Two common carp lines (R3 and K) were infected with CyHV-3 by immersion. The R3 line presented a 20% higher survival rate compared to the K line and significantly lower viral loads as measured at day 3 post infection (p.i.). Microarray analysis using a common carp slides containing a number of 10,822 60-mer probes, revealed that 581 genes in line K (330 up-regulated, 251 down-regulated) and 107 genes in line R3 (77 up-regulated, 30 down-regulated), showed at least a 2-fold difference in expression at day 3 p.i. compared to day 0. Genes which showed at least a 4-fold difference in expression in both lines were selected as potential markers of a CyHV-3 infection in common carp. Additionally, 76 genes showed at least 2-fold differentially expression between K and R3 lines at day 3 p.i. Significantly higher expression of several immune-related genes including number of those which are involve in pathogen recognition, complement activation, MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation and development of adaptive mucosal immunity was noted in more resistant R3 line. Further real-time PCR based analysis provided evidence for higher activation of CD8(+) T cells in R3 line. This study uncovered wide array of immune-related genes involved into antiviral response of common carp toward CyHV-3. It is also demonstrated that the outcome of this severe disease in large extent could be controlled by genetic factors of the host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Ł Rakus
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Ichthyobiology & Aquaculture in Gołysz, Kalinowa 2, 43-520 Chybie, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Laing KJ, Hansen JD. Fish T cells: recent advances through genomics. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 35:1282-1295. [PMID: 21414347 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This brief review is intended to provide a concise overview of the current literature concerning T cells, advances in identifying distinct T cell functional subsets, and in distinguishing effector cells from memory cells. We compare and contrast a wealth of recent progress made in T cell immunology of teleost, elasmobranch, and agnathan fish, to knowledge derived from mammalian T cell studies. From genome studies, fish clearly have most components associated with T cell function and we can speculate on the presence of putative T cell subsets, and the ability to detect their differentiation to form memory cells. Some recombinant proteins for T cell associated cytokines and antibodies for T cell surface receptors have been generated that will facilitate studying the functional roles of teleost T cells during immune responses. Although there is still a long way to go, major advances have occurred in recent years for investigating T cell responses, thus phenotypic and functional characterization is on the near horizon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kerry J Laing
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer, Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Castro R, Bernard D, Lefranc MP, Six A, Benmansour A, Boudinot P. T cell diversity and TcR repertoires in teleost fish. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 31:644-654. [PMID: 20804845 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2010.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2010] [Revised: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 08/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
In vertebrates, the diverse and extended range of antigenic motifs is matched to large populations of lymphocytes. The concept of immune repertoire was proposed to describe this diversity of lymphocyte receptors--IG and TR--required for the recognition specificity. Immune repertoires have become useful tools to describe lymphocyte and receptor populations during the immune system development and in pathological situations. In teleosts, the presence of conventional T cells was first proposed to explain graft rejection and optimized specific antibody production. The discovery of TR genes definitely established the reality of conventional T cells in fish. The development of genomic and EST databases recently led to the description of several key T cell markers including CD4, CD8, CD3, CD28, CTLA4, as well as important cytokines, suggesting the existence of different T helper (Th) subtypes, similar to the mammalian Th1, Th2 and Th17. Over the last decade, repertoire studies have demonstrated that both public and private responses occur in fish as they do in mammals, and in vitro specific cytotoxicity assays have been established. While such typical features of T cells are similar in both fish and mammals, the structure of particular repertoires such as the one of gut intra-epithelial lymphocytes seems to be very different. Future studies will further reveal the particular characteristics of teleost T cell repertoires and adaptive responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Castro
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Workenhe ST, Rise ML, Kibenge MJT, Kibenge FSB. The fight between the teleost fish immune response and aquatic viruses. Mol Immunol 2010; 47:2525-36. [PMID: 20797792 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2009] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Teleost fish represent a transition point on the phylogenetic spectrum between invertebrates that depend only on innate immunity and mammals that heavily depend on adaptive immunity. The major mechanisms of the teleost fish innate immune response are suggested to be similar to mammals, although fine details of the process require further studies. Within the innate immune response the type I interferon (IFN) system is an essential innate antiviral component that protects fish from some virus infections. The current progress of cloning and functional characterization of fish antiviral genes is promising in further elucidation of the fish antiviral response. The adaptive immune system of fish utilizes cellular components more or less similar to mammals. Teleost fish produce IgM as a primary antibody response and lack isotype switching to mount virus-specific antibodies during the infection process. Despite this, the development of successful fish rhabdoviral vaccines suggest that vaccination may prove to be an effective way of promoting fish adaptive immune responses to viruses. This paper reviews the bony fish antiviral response with specific discussion on the evolutionary mechanisms that allow aquatic viruses to co-exist with their host. Detailed aspects of the teleost type I IFN system are also addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel T Workenhe
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, P.E.I. C1A 4P3, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Jia W, Zhou X. Molecular structural and functional characterization of STAT1 gene regulatory region in teleost Channa argus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 135:146-151. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Revised: 11/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
25
|
Skjesol A, Hansen T, Shi CY, Thim HL, Jørgensen JB. Structural and functional studies of STAT1 from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). BMC Immunol 2010; 11:17. [PMID: 20353564 PMCID: PMC2855521 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-11-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type I and type II interferons (IFNs) exert their effects mainly through the JAK/STAT pathway, which is presently best described in mammals. STAT1 is involved in signaling pathways induced by both types of IFNs. It has a domain-like structure including an amino-terminus that stabilizes interaction between STAT dimers in a promoter-binding situation, a coiled coil domain facilitating interactions to other proteins, a central DNA-binding domain, a SH2 domain responsible for dimerization of phosphorylated STATs and conserved phosphorylation sites within the carboxy terminus. The latter is also the transcriptional activation domain. RESULTS A salmon (Salmo salar) STAT1 homologue, named ssSTAT1a, has been identified and was shown to be ubiquitously expressed in various cells and tissues. The ssSTAT1a had a domain-like structure with functional motifs that are similar to higher vertebrates. Endogenous STAT1 was shown to be phosphorylated at tyrosine residues both in salmon leukocytes and in TO cells treated with recombinant type I and type II IFNs. Also ectopically expressed ssSTAT1 was phosphorylated in salmon cells upon in vitro stimulation by the IFNs, confirming that the cloned gene was recognized by upstream tyrosine kinases. Treatment with IFNs led to nuclear translocation of STAT1 within one hour. The ability of salmon STAT1 to dimerize was also shown. CONCLUSIONS The structural and functional properties of salmon STAT1 resemble the properties of mammalian STAT1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Skjesol
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø N- 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tom Hansen
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø N- 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Cheng-Yin Shi
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø N- 9037 Tromsø, Norway
- Current address: Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, PR China
| | - Hanna L Thim
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø N- 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jorunn B Jørgensen
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø N- 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Collet B, Ganne G, Bird S, Collins CM. Isolation and expression profile of a gene encoding for the Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription STAT2 in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 33:821-829. [PMID: 19428483 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2009.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2008] [Revised: 01/21/2009] [Accepted: 01/25/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT)-2 is a molecule involved in the type I interferon (IFN) signalling pathway. The full length cDNA sequence of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) ssSTAT2 was determined and phylogenetic analysis of the amino acid sequence grouped this novel salmon gene to the STAT2 clade. This represents the first fish STAT2 report. The gene encodes for a 802 aa polypeptide that has 38% identity to the human or murine STAT2. The expression was monitored by qPCR in the kidney of animals over the time of infection with the Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV) and in TO cells infected with Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV) or with the Salmon Alphavirus (SAV). SAV and ISAV induced an approximate 10-fold increase in the level of expression of ssSTAT2 gene whilst IPNV only induced a 1.5-fold increase.
Collapse
|
27
|
Collet B, Collins C. Comparative gene expression profile in two Atlantic salmon cell lines TO and SHK-1. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2009; 130:92-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Revised: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
|