Oral immunization with recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing OmpAI confers protection against Aeromonas veronii challenge in common carp, Cyprinus carpio

Acanthopanax senticosus cultures fermented by Lactobacillus rhamnosus enhanced immune response through improvement of antioxidant activity and inflammation in crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been recognized as safe microorganism that improve micro-flora disturbances and enhance immune response. A well-know traditional herbal medicine, Acanthopanax senticosus (As) was extensively utilized in aquaculture to improve growth performance and disease resistance. Particularly, the septicemia, skin wound and gastroenteritis caused by Aeromonas hydrophila threaten the health of aquatic animals and human. However, the effects of probiotic fermented with A. senticosus product on the immune regulation and pathogen prevention in fish remain unclear. Here, the aim of the present study was to elucidate whether the A. senticosus fermentation by Lactobacillus rhamnosus improve immune barrier function. The crucian carp were fed with basal diet supplemented with L. rhamnosus fermented A. senticosus cultures at 2 %, 4 %, 6 % and 8 % bacterial inoculum for 8 weeks. After trials, the weight gain rate (WGR), specific growth rate (SGR) were significantly increased, especially in LGG-6 group. The results confirmed that the level of the CAT, GSH-PX, SOD, lysozyme, and MDA was enhanced in fish received with probiotic fermented product. Moreover, the L. rhamnosus fermented A. senticosus cultures could trigger innate and adaptive immunity, including the up-regulation of the C3, C4, and IgM concentration. The results of qRT-PCR revealed that stronger mRNA transcription of IL-1β, IL-10, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and MyD88 genes in the liver, spleen, kidney, intestine and gills tissues of fish treated with probiotic fermented with A. senticosus product. After infected with A. hydrophila, the survival rate of the LGG-2 (40 %), LGG-4 (50 %), LGG-6 (60 %), LGG-8 (50 %) groups was higher than the control group. Meanwhile, the pathological damage of the liver, spleen, head-kidney, and intestine tissues of probiotic fermentation-fed fish could be alleviated after pathogen infection. Therefore, the present work indicated that L. rhamnosus fermented A. senticosus could be regard as a potential intestine-target therapy strategy to protecting fish from pathogenic bacteria infection.

Proteomic profile of epidermal mucus from Labeo rohita reveals differentially abundant proteins after Aeromonas hydrophila infection

We report the proteomic profile of Epidermal Mucus (EM) from Labeo rohita and identified the differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) against Aeromonas hydrophila infection through label-free liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Using discovery-based proteomics, a total of 2039 proteins were quantified in nontreated group and 1,328 proteins in the treated group, of which 114 were identified as DAPs in both the groups. Of the 114 DAPs, 68 proteins were upregulated and 46 proteins were downregulated in the treated group compared to nontreated group. Functional annotations of these DAPs shows their association with metabolism, cellular process, molecular process, cytoskeletal, stress, and particularly immune system. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis and Fisher's exact test between the two groups shows that most of the proteins were immune-related, which were significantly associated with the proteasome, phagosome, and Salmonella infection pathways. Overall, this study shows a basic and primary way for further functional research of the involvement of vitellogenin 2, alpha-2-macroglobulin-like protein, toll-like receptors (TLR-13), calpain, keratin-like proteins, and heat shock proteins against bacterial infection. Nonetheless, this first-ever comprehensive report of a proteomic sketch of EM from L. rohita after A. hydrophila infection provides systematic protein information to broadly understand the biological role of fish EM against bacterial infection.

Transcriptomic insights into the immune response of the intestine to Aeromonas veronii infection in northern snakehead (Channa argus)

Intestinal inflammation is a protective response that is implicated in bacterial enteritis triggered by gastrointestinal infection. The immune mechanisms elicited in teleost against the infection of Aeromonas veronii are largely unknown. In this study, we performed a de novo northern snakehead (Channa argus) transcriptome assembly using Illumina sequencing platform. On this basis we performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of northern snakehead intestine from A. veronii-challenge and phosphate buffer solution (PBS)-challenge fish, and 2076 genes were up-regulated and 1598 genes were down-regulated in the intestines infected with A. veronii. The Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis indicated that the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched to 27, 21 and 20 GO terms in biological process, cellular component, and molecular function, respectively. A Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that 420 DEGs were involved in 194 pathways. Moreover, 33 DEGs were selected for quantitative real-time PCR analysis to validate the RNA-seq data. The results reflected the consistency of the expression levels between qRT-PCR and RNA-seq data. In addition, a time-course analysis of the mRNA expression of 33 immune-related genes further indicated that the intestinal inflammation to A. veronii infection simultaneously regulated gene expression alterations. The present study provides transcriptome data of the teleost intestine, allowing us to understand the mechanisms of intestinal inflammation triggered by bacterial pathogens. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT: All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and Supplementary files. The RNA-seq raw sequence data are available in NCBI short read archive (SRA) database under accession number PRJNA615958.

Oral vaccination with recombinant Lactobacillus casei with surface displayed OmpK fused to CTB as an adjuvant against Vibrio mimicus infection in Carassius auratus

Vibrio mimicus (V. mimicus) is a pathogenic bacterium that causes diseases in humans and various aquatic animals. A particularly efficient way to provide protection against V. mimicus is through vaccination. However, there are few commercial vaccines against V. mimics, especially oral vaccines. In our study, two surface-display recombinant Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) Lc-pPG-OmpK and Lc-pPG-OmpK-CTB were constructed using L. casei ATCC393 as an antigen delivery vector, outer membrane protein K (OmpK) of V. mimicus as an antigen, and cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) as a molecular adjuvant; furthermore, the immunological effects of recombinant L.casei in Carassius auratus (C. auratus) were assessed. The results indicated that oral recombinant L.casei Lc-pPG-OmpK and Lc-pPG-OmpK-CTB stimulated higher levels of serum-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) and increased the activity of acid phosphatase (ACP), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), lysozyme (LYS), lectin, C3, and C4 in C. auratus, compared with control groups (Lc-pPG group and PBS group). Furthermore, the expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in the liver, spleen, head kidney, hind intestine and gills of C. auratus was significantly increased, compared with that in the controls. These results demonstrated that the two recombinant L. casei strains could effectively trigger humoral and cellular immunity in C. auratus. In addition, two recombinant L.casei strains were able to survive and colonize the intestine of C. auratus. Importantly, after being challenged with V. mimicus, C. auratus fed Lc-pPG-OmpK and Lc-pPG-OmpK-CTB exhibited greater survival rates than the controls (52.08% and 58.33%, respectively). The data showed that recombinant L. casei could elicit a protective immunological response in C. auratus. The effect of the Lc-pPG-OmpK-CTB group was better than that of the Lc-pPG-OmpK group, and Lc-pPG-OmpK-CTB was found to be an effective candidate for oral vaccination.

Immunization effect of recombinant Lactobacillus casei displaying Aeromonas veronii Aha1 with an LTB adjuvant in carp

Aeromonas veronii is an important aquatic zoonotic, which elicits a range of diseases, such as haemorrhagic septicemia. To develop an effective oral vaccine against Aeromonas veronii infection in carp, the Aeromonas veronii adhesion (Aha1) gene was used as a target molecule to attach to intestinal epithelial cells. Two anchored recombinant. Lactic acid bacteria strains (LC-pPG-Aha1 1038 bp and LC-pPG-Aha1-LTB 1383 bp) were constructed by fusing them with the E. coli intolerant enterotoxin B subunit (LTB) gene and using Lactobacillus casei as antigen delivery vector to evaluate immune effects of these in carp. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to confirm that protein expression was successful. Additionally, levels of specific IgM in serum and the activities of ACP, AKP, SOD, LYS, C3, C4, and lectin enzymes-were assessed. Cytokines IL-10, IL-1β, TNF-α, IgZ1, and IgZ2 were measured in the liver, spleen, kidney, intestines, and gills tissue by qRT-PCR, which showed an increasing trend compared with the control group (P < 0.05). A colonization assay showed that the two L. casei recombinants colonized the middle and hind intestines of immunized fish. When immunized carp were experimentally challenged with Aeromonas veronii the relative percentage protection of LC-pPG-Aha1 was 53.57%, and LC-pPG-Aha1-LTB was 60.71%. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that Aha1 is a promising candidate antigen when it is displayed on lactic acid bacteria (Lc-pPG-Aha1 and Lc-pPG-Aha1-LTB) seems promising for a mucosal therapeutic approach. We plan to investigate the molecular mechanism of the L. casei recombinant in regulating the intestinal tissue of carp in future studies.

Dietary supplementation of probiotics fermented Chinese herbal medicine Sanguisorba officinalis cultures enhanced immune response and disease resistance of crucian carp (Carassius auratus) against Aeromonas hydrophila

Aeromonas hydrophila, a Gram-negative bacterium, is one of the major pathogens causing bacterial sepsis in aquatic animals due to drug resistance and pathogenicity, which could cause high mortality and serious economic losses to the aquaculture. Sanguisorba officinalis (called DiYu in Chinese, DY) is well known as herbal medicine, which could inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria, hemostasis and regulate the immune response. Moreover, the active ingredients in DY could remarkably reduce drug resistance. In this study, we investigated the effects of probiotic fermentation cultures on A. hydrophila through in vitro and in vivo experiments. Three lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LGG), Lactobacillus casei (LC) and Lactobacillus plantarum (LP), were selected to ferment the Chinese herbal medicine DY. The assays of antagonism showed that all three fermented cultures could influence the ability of A. hydrophila growth, among which L. rhamnosus fermented DY cultures appeared to be the strongest inhibitory effect. In addition, the biofilm determination revealed that L. rhamnosus fermented DY cultures could significantly inhibit the biofilm formation of A. hydrophila compared to the other groups. Furthermore, protease, lecithinase and urease activities were found in the three fermentation cultures. Three probiotics fermented DY cultures were orally administration with crucian carp to evaluate the growth performance, immunological parameters and pathogen resistance. The results showed that the three fermentation cultures could promote the growth performance of crucian carp, and the immunoglobulins, antioxidant-related enzymes and immune-related genes were significantly enhanced. Besides, the results showed that crucian carp received L. rhamnosus (60.87%), L. casei (56.09%) and L. plantarum (41.46%) fermented DY cultures had higher survival rates compared with the control group after infection with A. hydrophila. Meanwhile, the pathological tissue results revealed that the probiotic fermented cultures could largely improve the tissues damage caused by the pathogenic bacteria. In conclusion, this study proved that the fermentation cultures of three probiotics could effectively inhibit the growth of A. hydrophila, regulate the level of immune response and improve the survival rate against A. hydrophila in crucian carp. The present data suggest that probiotic fermented Sanguisorba officinalis act as a potential gut-targeted therapy regimens to protecting fish from pathogenic bacteria infection.

Oral vaccination with recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing Aeromonas hydrophila Aha1 against A. hydrophila infections in common carps

The immunogenicity of Aha1, an OMP of Aeromonas hydrophila mediating the adhesion of bacteria onto the mucosal surface of hosts has been established. In this study, recombinant vectors, pPG1 and pPG2, carrying a 1366 bp DNA fragment that was responsible for encoding the 49 kDa Aha1 from A. hydrophila were constructed, respectively, then electroporated into a probiotic strain Lactobacillus casei CC16 separately to generate two types of recombinants, L. casei-pPG1-Aha1 (Lc-pPG1-Aha1) and L. casei-pPG2-Aha1 (Lc-pPG2-Aha1). Subsequently, these were orally administered into common carps to examine their immunogenicity. The expression and localization of the expressed Aha1 protein relative to the carrier L. casei was validated via Western blotting, flow cytometry, and immune fluorescence separately. The recombinant vaccines produced were shown high efficacies, stimulated higher level of antibodies and AKP, ACP, SOD, LZM, C3, C4 in serum in hosts. Immune-related gene expressions of cytokines including IL-10, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ in the livers, spleens, HK, and intestines were up-regulated significantly. Besides, a more potent phagocytosis response was observed in immunized fish, and higher survival rates were presented in common carps immunized with Lc-pPG1-Aha1 (60%) and Lc-pPG2-Aha1 (50%) after re-infection with virulent strain A. hydrophila. Moreover, the recombinant L. casei were shown a stronger propensity for survivability in the intestine in immunized fish. Taken together, the recombinant L. casei strains might be promising candidates for oral vaccination against A. hydrophila infections in common carps.

Current status and development prospects of aquatic vaccines

Diseases are a significant impediment to aquaculture's sustainable and healthy growth. The aquaculture industry is suffering significant financial losses as a result of the worsening water quality and increasing frequency of aquatic disease outbreaks caused by the expansion of aquaculture. Drug control, immunoprophylaxis, ecologically integrated control, etc. are the principal control strategies for fish infections. For a long time, the prevention and control of aquatic diseases have mainly relied on the use of various antibiotics and chemical drugs. However, long-term use of chemical inputs not only increases pathogenic bacteria resistance but also damages the fish and aquaculture environments, resulting in drug residues in aquatic products, severely impeding the development of the aquaculture industry. The development and use of aquatic vaccines are the safest and most effective ways to prevent aquatic animal diseases and preserve the health and sustainability of aquaculture. To give references for the development and implementation of aquatic vaccines, this study reviews the development history, types, inoculation techniques, mechanisms of action, development prospects, and challenges encountered with aquatic vaccines.

Chitosan-polymer based nanovaccine as promising immersion vaccine against Aeromonas veronii challenge in red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.)

Red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.), one of the important freshwater fish species in fish farming in Thailand, has for long been suffering from a serious bacterial disease named epizootic ulcerative syndrome and hemorrhagic septicemia. The disease is mainly caused by Aeromonas veronii. Vaccine is proposed to be a major impact tool for sustainable control and prevention strategies. Vaccination by immersion has many benefits over injection. However, the conventional immersion method suffers from a low potency due to the inefficient uptake of antigens across mucosal tissue. Here, we developed a chitosan-polymer based nanovaccine together with an efficient delivery vehicle to enhance the immunogenicity of immersion vaccination, increasing bioavailability and inducing local immune responses during transit to mucosal inductive immune sites. The physiochemical properties of nanovaccine, which was modified on surface particle by using a mucoadhesive polymer, were assessed for size, zeta potential, and particle distribution. Our study demonstrated by SEM image and microscopic fluorescence image that nanovaccine greatly increased the binding and penetrating ability into gills when compared with formalin killed vaccine. The nano-sized particles were well dispersed in water and trapped in core nanoparticle as confirmed by TEM image. The efficacy of vaccine was performed by immersion challenge with virulent A.veronii after 30 days post vaccination in tilapia. The result revealed a high level of mortality in the control, empty-polymeric nanovaccine and formalin killed bacterin vaccine groups. A high relative percentage survival (RPS) of vaccinated fish was noted with chitosan-polymer based nanovaccine. Our studies indicated that this chitosan-polymer based nanovaccine derived from cell fragments and supernatant was the improved version of the conventional formalin killed vaccine. The chitosan polymer based particle could increase the efficacy of nanovaccine toward the target mucosal membrane and enhance protection against A. veronii infection in red tilapia.

Oral vaccination with recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing Aha1 fused with CTB as an adjuvant against Aeromonas veronii in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Aeromonas veronii (A. veronii) is a pathogenic that can infect human, animal and aquatic organisms, in which poses a huge threat to the health of many aquatic organisms such as Cyprinus carpio. In this study, Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) strain CC16 was used as antigen deliver carrier and fused with cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) as an adjuvant to construct the recombinant L. casei pPG-Aha1/Lc CC16(surface-displayed) and pPG-Aha1-CTB/Lc CC16(surface-displayed) expressing Aha1 protein of A. veronii, respectively. And the immune responses in Cyprinus carpio by oral route was explored. Our results demonstrated that the recombinant strains could stimulate high serum specific antibody immunoglobulin M (IgM) and induce a stronger acid phosphatase (ACP), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), C3, C4, lysozyme (LZM), Lectin and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in Cyprinus carpio compared with control groups. Meanwhile, the expression of Interleukin-10 (IL-10), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α), immunoglobulin Z1 (IgZ1) and immunoglobulin Z2 (IgZ2) in the tissues were significantly upregulated compared with Lc-pPG or PBS groups, indicating that humoral and cell immune response were triggered. Additionally, recombinant L. casei could survive and colonize in fish intestine. Significantly, recombinant L. casei provides immune protection against A. veronii infection, which Cyprinus carpio received pPG-Aha1-CTB/Lc CC16 (64.29%) and pPG-Aha1/Lc CC16 (53.57%) had higher survival rates compared with the controls. Thus, we demonstrated that recombinant pPG-Aha1/Lc CC16 and pPG-Aha1-CTB/Lc CC16 may be the promising strategy for the development of an oral vaccine against A. veronii.

Evaluation of UV-B protective properties of leaves and seeds of Achyranthes aspera in Asian catfish Clarias batrachus (Linn.)

The ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation is harmful to the aquatic organisms. The UV-B protective properties of leaves and seeds of herb Achyranthes aspera were evaluated in Clarias batrachus. Fish were fed with four diets-EFL1, EFL2 containing 0.25 and 0.5% leaves, EFS containing 0.5% seeds and control, CF. After 83 days of feeding, fish were exposed to UV-B (157 µW/cm²) for 7 days at the rate of 15 min/day. One batch of fish in each treatment was kept unexposed. Significantly higher final weight was found in EFS followed by EFL2 and EFL1 treatments. It was higher in unexposed fish compared to the exposed ones. Among exposed fish, significantly higher lysozyme was found in EFS and myeloperoxidase in EFS and EFL2 compared to others. Nitric oxide synthase and superoxide dismutase levels were significantly higher in liver and head kidney of EFS diet fed fish compared to others. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and carbonyl protein levels were minimum in EFS followed by EFL2. The independent sample t-test showed that nitric oxide synthase was significantly higher and myeloperoxidase and TBARS levels were significantly lower in unexposed group compared to the exposed fish in respective treatment. There were up-regulations of TNF-α, iNOS, NF-kB, BAX, Cytochrome c, SOD-c, Caspase 3, Caspase 9, BCL2 in liver and head kidney of leaves and seeds incorporated diets fed fish compared to control. Supplementation of A. aspera seeds and leaves at 0.5% level in diets gave UV-B protection to the fish.

Gut Immune System and the Implications of Oral-Administered Immunoprophylaxis in Finfish Aquaculture

The gastrointestinal immune system plays an important role in immune homeostasis regulation. It regulates the symbiotic host-microbiome interactions by training and developing the host's innate and adaptive immunity. This interaction plays a vital role in host defence mechanisms and at the same time, balancing the endogenous perturbations of the host immune homeostasis. The fish gastrointestinal immune system is armed with intricate diffused gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALTs) that establish tolerance toward the enormous commensal gut microbiome while preserving immune responses against the intrusion of enteric pathogens. A comprehensive understanding of the intestinal immune system is a prerequisite for developing an oral vaccine and immunostimulants in aquaculture, particularly in cultured fish species. In this review, we outline the remarkable features of gut immunity and the essential components of gut-associated lymphoid tissue. The mechanistic principles underlying the antigen absorption and uptake through the intestinal epithelial, and the subsequent immune activation through a series of molecular events are reviewed. The emphasis is on the significance of gut immunity in oral administration of immunoprophylactics, and the different potential adjuvants that circumvent intestinal immune tolerance. Comprehension of the intestinal immune system is pivotal for developing effective fish vaccines that can be delivered orally, which is less labour-intensive and could improve fish health and facilitate disease management in the aquaculture industry.

Protection of Teleost Fish against Infectious Diseases through Oral Administration of Vaccines: Update 2021

Immersion and intraperitoneal injection are the two most common methods used for the vaccination of fish. Because both methods require that fish are handled and thereby stressed, oral administration of vaccines as feed supplements is desirable. In addition, in terms of revaccination (boosting) of adult fish held in net pens, oral administration of vaccines is probably the only feasible method to obtain proper protection against diseases over long periods of time. Oral vaccination is considered a suitable method for mass immunization of large and stress-sensitive fish populations. Moreover, oral vaccines may preferably induce mucosal immunity, which is especially important to fish. Experimental oral vaccine formulations include both non-encapsulated and encapsulated antigens, viruses and bacteria. To develop an effective oral vaccine, the desired antigens must be protected against the harsh environments in the stomach and gut so they can remain intact when they reach the lower gut/intestine where they normally are absorbed and transported to immune cells. The most commonly used encapsulation method is the use of alginate microspheres that can effectively deliver vaccines to the intestine without degradation. Other encapsulation methods include chitosan encapsulation, poly D,L-lactide-co-glycolic acid and liposome encapsulation. Only a few commercial oral vaccines are available on the market, including those against infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), Spring viremia carp virus (SVCV), infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) and Piscirickettsia salmonis. This review highlights recent developments of oral vaccination in teleost fish.

Lactococcus lactis Expressing Type I Interferon From Atlantic Salmon Enhances the Innate Antiviral Immune Response In Vivo and In Vitro

In salmon farming, viruses are responsible for outbreaks that produce significant economic losses for which there is a lack of control tools other than vaccines. Type I interferon has been successfully used for treating some chronic viral infections in humans. However, its application in salmonids depends on the proper design of a vehicle that allows its massive administration, ideally orally. In mammals, administration of recombinant probiotics capable of expressing cytokines has shown local and systemic therapeutic effects. In this work, we evaluate the use of Lactococcus lactis as a type I Interferon expression system in Atlantic salmon, and we analyze its ability to stimulate the antiviral immune response against IPNV, in vivo and in vitro. The interferon expressed in L. lactis, even though it was located mainly in the bacterial cytoplasm, was functional, stimulating Mx and PKR expression in CHSE-214 cells, and reducing the IPNV viral load in SHK-1 cells. In vivo, the oral administration of this L. lactis producer of Interferon I increases Mx and PKR expression, mainly in the spleen, and to a lesser extent, in the head kidney. The oral administration of this strain also reduces the IPNV viral load in Atlantic salmon specimens challenged with this pathogen. Our results show that oral administration of L. lactis producing Interferon I induces systemic effects in Atlantic salmon, allowing to stimulate the antiviral immune response. This probiotic could have effects against a wide variety of viruses that infect Atlantic salmon and also be effective in other salmonids due to the high identity among their type I interferons.

Construction and immune efficacy of recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing OmpAI of Aeromonas veronii C5-I as molecular adjuvant

Despite advancements in diagnosis and control, Aeromonas infections are considered the leading cause of economic aquaculture loss. In this study, to enhance DNA vaccine efficacy against Aeromonas infections, a fused DNA fragment (1504 bp) of the OmpAI gene from Aeromonas veronii (A. veronii) combined with the C5-I gene from the common carp was generated with splicing by overlapping PCR (SOE-PCR) and expressed in Lactobacillus casei strain CC16. Protein C5-I served as a molecular adjuvant for the antigen OmpAI. Two types of fusion antigens were developed (anchored and secretory). Generally, anchored-type antigens are more effective in inducing immune responses in fish than secretory antigens. Western blot analysis showed that the bands of both antigens were present at 58 kDa. After oral immunization, both DNA vaccines enhanced the serum levels of AKP, ACP, SOD and LZM in immunized carp; the genes IL-10, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ in the heart, liver, spleen, head kidney, and intestinal tract were upregulated; and a stronger phagocytic response was triggered in immunized fish. In addition, common carp administered the fused antigens were more protected from Aeromonas challenge (60-73.3% protection). Recombinant Lactobacillus bacteria expressing the fused protein showed a greater propensity for colonization in the intestinal tract in immunized fish than in controls. Here, we provide a promising approach to improve DNA vaccine immunogenicity for protecting common carp from A. veronii infections.

Transcriptome analysis of the Macrobrachium nipponense hepatopancreas provides insights into immunoregulation under Aeromonas veronii infection

The oriental river prawn Macrobrachium nipponense is a commercially important freshwater shrimp that is widely farmed in China. Aeromonas veronii is a conditional pathogen of farmed shrimp, which has caused huge economic losses to the industry. Therefore, there is urgency to study the host-pathogen interactions between M. nipponense and A. veronii to screen individuals with antimicrobial resistance. In this study, we examined the hepatopancreas of moribund M. nipponense infected with A. veronii and healthy individuals at both the histopathological and transcriptomic levels. We showed that A. veronii infection resulted in tubular necrosis of the M. nipponense hepatopancreas. Such changes likely affect assimilation, storage, and excretion by the hepatopancreas, which could ultimately affect the survival and growth of infected individuals. Among the 61,345 unigenes obtained through RNA sequencing and de novo transcriptome assembly, 232 were differentially expressed between the two groups. KEGG and GO analyses revealed that these differentially expressed genes were implicated in pathways, including PPAR, PI3K/AKT, and AMPK signaling. The results of this study will contribute to an analysis of the immune response of M. nipponense to A. veronii infection at the transcriptomic level. Furthermore, the RNA-seq data generated here provide an important genomic resource for research on M. nipponense in the absence of a reference genome.

Oral immunization of trout fry with recombinant Lactococcus lactis NZ3900 expressing G gene of viral hemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV)

This study has investigated the ability of Lactococcus lactic (NZ3900) carried G gene of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) under nisin-controlled gene expression (NICE) system in rainbow trout (O.Mykiss). Two groups of trout fry (7 ± 0.65 g) were immunized with 1 × 10¹⁰ cfu/g and 1 × 10⁸ cfu/g recombinant L. lactis NZ3900, two groups of fish were fed 1 × 10¹⁰ cfu/g and 1 × 10⁸ cfu/g L. lactis vector free, and one group was fed by the basal diet as a control. Oral immunization was done on days 1-7 and boosting was performed on days 15-21. The relative expression of IFN-1 and MX-1 genes significantly increased in head kidney of vaccinated fish depend on vaccine dosage compared to the control group. Fish in vaccinated group also showed elevated VHSV-specific antibody levels compared to the control groups. Relative percent survival (RPS), under virulent isolate VHSV challenge were estimated 62%, 78% for 10⁸ cfu/g 10¹⁰ cfu/g feed vaccinated groups 21 days post-vaccination, while groups fed similar doses of L. lactis vector free illustrated 22% and 27% RPSs, respectively. The significant reduction of viral loads (transcript levels of N gene) were detected in the immunized groups. Increased weight gain and decreased feed consumption in vaccinated group attributed to the probiotic effect were also observed. In conclusion, our results demonstrate the ability of recombinant L. lactis as oral vaccine against VHS in rainbow trout, which can be considered as effective method against different fish pathogens.

Aeromonas veronii Infection in Commercial Freshwater Fish: A Potential Threat to Public Health

Aeromonas veronii is an important pathogen causing freshwater fish sepsis and ulcer syndrome. An increasing number of cases have demonstrated its significance as an aquatic zoonotic agent. The purpose of this study was to ensure the safety of freshwater products by evaluating the infection status of edible freshwater fish. In this experiment, we isolated A. veronii from several species of apparently healthy freshwater fish, including Carassius auratus, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, and Silurus asotus. A. veronii was identified through bacterial staining, culture characteristics, and 16S rDNA gene sequence. In addition, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to investigate the distribution of seven major virulence genes, including aerolysin (aer: 88.51%), cytotoxic enterotoxin (act: 71.26%), serine proteinase (ser: 54.02%), adhesin (Aha: 40.23%), phospholipase (lip: 45.98%), nuclease (exu: 51.72%), and quorum sensing-controlled virulence factor (LuxS: 59.77%). In total, 496 strains of Aeromonas were isolated, including 87 strains of A. veronii. The isolates of A. veronii were Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria, and the colonies are yellow on Rimler-Shotts (RS) medium and showed greater than 99% homology with A. veronii ATCC35624 according to analyses of the 16S rDNA sequence. Nearly 50% of the A. veronii isolates carried at least four or more virulence genes, 25% of the isolates carried at least five types of virulence genes, and 59.77% isolates carried the LuxS gene, and the isolates carrying more virulence genes were found to be more virulent. These results are of great significance for further improving the food safety assessment of freshwater aquatic products.

Effects of recombinant Lactobacillus casei on growth performance, immune response and disease resistance in crucian carp, Carassius auratus

In the present study, we constructed two recombinant Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) Lc-pPG-1-AcrV (surface-displayed) and Lc-pPG-2-AcrV (secretory) constitutively expressing AcrV protein of Aeromonas veronii (A. veronii). Expression of recombinant AcrV protein was verified by western blot and immunofluorescence technique. Compared with PBS group, the final weight (FW), weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) of fish fed Lc-pPG-1-AcrV, Lc-pPG-2-AcrV and Lc-pPG diets after 56 days observed significantly increase (p < 0.05), while the feed conversion ratio (FCR) showed a significantly decrease (p < 0.05). The recombinant L. casei strains were orally administrated to crucian carp, and significant increased (p < 0.05) the immunoglobulin M (IgM), elevated the acid phosphatase (ACP), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), lysozyme (LZM) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in serum. Moreover, leukocytes phagocytosis percentage and index of the recombinant L. casei were both enhanced. The results demonstrated that the recombinant L. casei could elicit systemic immune responses and increase the serum immunological index. The Interleukin-10 (IL-10), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) levels in liver, spleen, kidney and intestine have up regulated significantly in tissues (p < 0.05), suggesting that the recombinant L. casei has the ability to induce expression of cytokines and enhance the innate immune response. Higher survival rates were exhibited that crucian carp immunized with Lc-pPG-1-AcrV (67.5%) and Lc-pPG-2-AcrV (52.5%) after challenge with A. veronii. In conclusion, these two recombinant L. casei vaccine were effective in improving crucian carp growth, immunity response and disease resistance. The recombinant L. casei strains may be a promising candidate for the development of an oral vaccine against A. veronii.

Oral vaccination using Artemia coated with recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing cyprinid herpesvirus-3 envelope antigen induces protective immunity in common carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian) larvae

Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is the etiological agent of koi herpersvirus disease (KHVD), which causes serious economic losses in global common carp and ornamental koi carp production of larvae as well as adult type fish. To control KHVD, vaccines against CyHV-3 utilizing different immunization routes have been developed, among them, oral vaccination is the most desirable method to prevent fish diseases occurring at the early larval stage. Here, we developed an oral subunit vaccine through the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell surface display of CyHV-3 envelope protein pORF65, then, the recombinant yeast fed to Artemia which served as bio-encapsulation vector by subsequently feeding the common carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian) larvae. The fluorescent observation showed that the Artemia and S. cerevisiae could deliver intact antigen to the hindgut of carp larvae suggesting the possibility of the vector for oral immunization. On this basis, after three immunizations at a week interval, the oral vaccine induced high level of specific anti-pORF65 antibody. Meanwhile, a significant difference of immune-related genes expression occurred including cxca, IL-1β, IFN-a1, lysozyme, IgM and CD8α between vaccined group and blank control group. In addition, 30% of relative percent survival of carp larvae after immunization was obtained post the animal infection assay, offered an certain immune protection. Our results indicated that the oral pORF65 subunit vaccine bioencapsulated in Artemia induced the activation of immune response and high level of antibodies, which could be served as an oral vaccine candidate for the prevention of CyHV-3 infection.

Protective immunity against CyHV-3 infection via different prime-boost vaccination regimens using CyHV-3 ORF131-based DNA/protein subunit vaccines in carp Cyprinus carpio var. Jian

Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), also known as Koi Herpesvirus (KHV), causes Koi Herpesvirus Disease (KHVD) which leads to serious economic losses worldwide. To exploit DNA/subunit vaccine candidates, CyHV-3 ORF131 gene and cDNA was cloned and analyzed in the present study. Major B cell epitopes of deduced CyHV-3 pORF131 was also predicted. Then the complete CDS of CyHV-3 ORF131 was inserted into pEGFP-N1 vector and a modified pYD1/EBY100 system to construct the DNA and subunit vaccine, respectively. Subsequently, carp were immunized with homologous and heterologous prime-boost regimens relying on the constructed DNA and oral subunit vaccines. Then the protective immunity generated from different vaccines and regimens as well as the capacity of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as an oral vaccine vehicle was evaluated. Our study confirmed that CyHV-3 ORF131 gene consisted of 2 introns and 3 exons encoding a 428 amino acids peptide. Further analysis indicated that four fragments of CyHV-3 pORF131 contained the major B cell epitopes (Cys20~Val140, Ser169~Tyr245, Thr258~Pro390, Phe414~Gln428), which could be linked and expressed in E. coli (BL21) as a truncated pORF131. The expression of full-length CyHV-3 pORF131 by pEGFP-N1 and yeast surface display was verified by In vitro assays before vaccination. Immunization of carp with CyHV-3 ORF131 DNA and subunit vaccines could evoke the activation of immune-related genes such as CXCa, CXCR1, IL-1β, TNF-α, INF-a1, Mx-1, IgM, IgT1 and production of specific serum IgM measured by ELISA. RPS (relative percent of survival) ranging from 53.33% to 66.67% was acquired post challenge test. Moreover, flow cytometry analysis illustrated the delivery of surface-displayed CyHV-3 pORF131 to midgut after oral gavage. Thus, our findings suggest that CyHV-3 ORF131 can serve as DNA/subunit vaccines candidate and the yeast as an ideal oral vaccine vehicle.

Oral Administration of Lactobacillus Casei Expressing Flagellin A Protein Confers Effective Protection against Aeromonas Veronii in Common Carp, Cyprinus Carpio

Aeromonas veronii is a pathogen capable of infecting humans, livestock and aquatic animals, resulting in serious economic losses. In this study, two recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing flagellin A (FlaA) of A. veronii, Lc-pPG-1-FlaA (surface-displayed) and Lc-pPG-2-FlaA (secretory) were constructed. The immune responses in fish administered with recombinant L. casei were evaluated. The two recombinant L. casei were orally administered to common carp, which stimulated high serum IgM and induced higher ACP, AKP, SOD and LYZ activity. Using qRT-PCR, the expression of IL-10, IL-8, IL-1β, TNF-α and IFN-γ in the tissue of fish immunized with recombinant L. casei was significantly (p < 0.05) upregulated, which indicated that recombinant L. casei could activate the innate immune system to trigger the cell immune response and inflammatory response. Furthermore, recombinant L. casei was able to survive the intestinal environment and colonize in intestine mucosal. The study showed that after being challenged by A. veronii, fish administered with Lc-pPG-1-FlaA (70%) and Lc-pPG-2-FlaA (50%) had higher survival rates compared to Lc-pPG and PBS, indicating that recombinant L. casei might prevent A. veronii infection by activating the immune system to trigger immune responses. We demonstrated that flagellin as an antigen of vaccine, is acceptable for preventing A. veronii infection in fish. The recombinant L. casei expressing FlaA may be a novel mucosal vaccine for treating and controlling A. veronii.

Dietary Approaches to Attain Fish Health with Special Reference to their Immune System

Fish despite their low collocation in the vertebrate phylum possess a complete immune system. In teleost fish both innate and adaptive immune responses have been described with melanomacrophage centers (MMCs) equivalent to mammalian germinal centers. Primary lymphoid organs are represented by the thymus and kidney, while spleen and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues act as secondary lymphoid organs. Functions of either innate immune cells (e.g., macrophages and dendritic cells) or adaptive immune cells (T and B lymphocytes) will be described in detail, even including their products, such as cytokines and antibodies. In spite of a robust immune arsenal, fish are very much exposed to infectious agents (marine bacteria, parasites, fungi, and viruses) and, consequentially, mortality is very much enhanced especially in farmed fish. In fact, in aquaculture stressful events (overcrowding), microbial infections very frequently lead to a high rate of mortality. With the aim to reduce mortality of farmed fish through the reinforcement of their immune status the current trend is to administer natural products together with the conventional feed. Then, in the second part of the present review emphasis will be placed on a series of products, such as prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics, β-glucans, vitamins, fatty acids and polyphenols all used to feed farmed fish. With special reference to polyphenols, results of our group using red grape extracts to feed farmed European sea bass will be illustrated. In particular, determination of cytokine production at intestinal and splenic levels, areas of MMCs and development of hepatopancreas will represent the main biomarkers considered. All together, our own data and those of current literature suggests that natural product administration to farmed fish for their beneficial effects may, in part, solve the problem of fish mortality in aquaculture, enhancing their immune responses.

Comparative Study on A Novel Pathogen of European Seabass. Diversity of Aeromonas veronii in the Aegean Sea

Aeromonas veronii is an emerging pathogen causing severe pathology and mortalities in European seabass aquaculture in the Aegean Sea, Mediterranean. More than 50 strains of the pathogen were characterized biochemically and genetically in order to study the epidemiology of the disease, as well as the phylogeny and virulence of the bacterium. Based on the phenotypic characteristics, the isolates form three groups consisting of: (a) the West Aegean Sea, non-motile, non-pigment-producing strains, (b) the West Aegean Sea, motile, and pigment-producing strains and (c) the East Aegean Sea motile strains that produce minute amounts of pigment. All strains were highly similar at the genomic level; however, the pattern of West/East geographic origin was reflected in biochemical properties, in general genomic level comparison and in the putative virulent factors studied. Type VI secretion system was not detected in the western strains. The outer membrane protein (OMP) profile which contains proteins that are putative antigenic factors, was very similar between strains from the different areas. Although most of the OMPs were detected in all strains with great sequence similarity, diversification according to geographic origin was evident in known antigenic factors such as the maltoporin LamB. A systematic comparative analysis of the strains is presented and discussed in view of the emergence of A. veronii as a significant pathogen for the Mediterranean aquaculture.

Surface display of hirame novirhabdovirus (HIRRV) G protein in Lactococcus lactis and its immune protection in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

Background

Hirame novirhabdovirus (HIRRV) can infect a wide range of marine and freshwater fish, causing huge economic losses to aquaculture industry. Vaccine development, especially oral vaccine, has become an effective and convenient way to control aquatic infectious diseases. HIRRV glycoprotein (G), an immunogenic viral protein is a potential vaccine candidate for prevention of the disease. Here, we aimed to construct a recombinant Lactococcus lactis strain expressing HIRRV-G on the cell surface as an oral vaccine to prevent HIRRV.

Results

Glycoprotein gene of HIRRV was successfully cloned and expressed in L. lactis NZ9000 in a surface-displayed form, yielding Ll:pSLC-G. An approximately 81 kDa recombinant G protein (containing LysM anchoring motif) was confirmed by SDS-PAGE, western blotting and mass spectrometry analysis. The surface-displayed G protein was also verified by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry assays. Furthermore, to evaluate the potential of Ll:pSLC-G as oral vaccine candidate, flounders were continuously fed with commercial diet pellets coated with 1.0 × 10⁹ cfu/g of induced Ll:pSLC-G for 1 week. Four weeks later, booster vaccination was performed with the same procedure. Compared with the controls, Ll:pSLC-G elicited significantly higher levels of specific IgM against HIRRV in flounder gut mucus at the second week and in serum at the fourth week (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, oral immunization with Ll:pSLC-G could provide 60.7% protection against HIRRV infection and a significantly lower virus load was detected than the controls on the third day post-challenge (p < 0.01). Moreover, on the first day post 1-week feeding, approximately 10⁴–10⁵ recombinant L. lactis cells were detected in every gram of foregut, midgut and hindgut of flounder, which were mainly localized at the bottom of gut mucus layer; and on day 21, 10²–10³L. lactis cells could still be recovered.

Conclusions

HIRRV-G protein was successfully expressed on the surface of L. lactis cells, which could trigger mucosal and humoral immune response of flounder and provide considerable immune protection against HIRRV. It suggests that genetically engineered L. lactis expressing G protein can be employed as a promising oral vaccine against HIRRV infection.

OmpW expressed by recombinant Lactobacillus casei elicits protective immunity against Aeromonas veronii in common carp

Aeromonas veronii is an opportunistic pathogen that is capable of infecting both aquatic livestock and mammals. Natural infection in fishes results in irreparable damage to the aquaculture industry. In this study, we sought to investigate whether recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing the outer membrane protein W (OmpW) of A.veronii could elicit protective immunity against A.veronii infections. We generated two recombinant Lactobacillus casei (L.casei) strains expressing the OmpW of A.veronii (surface-displayed or secreted) and evaluated the effect on immune responses in a fish model. A 600-bp gene fragment was subcloned into the L.casei expression plasmids pPG-1 (surface-displayed) and pPG-2 (secreted). Expression of the recombinant OmpW protein was also confirmed by Western blot and immunofluorescence assays. Common carp immunized with Lc-pPG-1- OmpW and Lc-pPG-2- OmpW via oral administration elicited high serum specific antibody titers and high LZM, ACP, and SOD activities. High levels of the IL-10, IL-β, IFN-γ, and TNF-α genes in different organs indicated that the inflammatory response and cell immune response were triggered. Additionally, when immunized fish were challenged with A.veronii, Lc-pPG1-OmpW and Lc-pPG2-OmpW demonstrated 40% and 50% protective efficacy. These data indicate that the combination of OmpW delivery and the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) approach may be a promising mucosal therapeutic strategy for treatment of A.veronii.

Transcriptome analysis of the spleen provides insight into the immunoregulation of Mastacembelus armatus under Aeromonas veronii infection

Mastacembelus armatus, also known as the zigzag eel, is an economically important species of freshwater fish that is very popular with consumers as a high-grade table fish in China. Recently, the wild population of this fish has declined gradually due to overfishing and various types of ecological imbalance. Meanwhile, the aquaculture of this spiny eel has flourished in southern China. To understand the immune response of zigzag eel to Aeromonas veronii, we carried out transcriptome sequencing of zigzag eel spleens after artificial bacterial infection. After assembly, 110,328 unigenes were obtained with 44.42% GC content. A total of 27,098 unigenes were successfully annotated by four public protein databases, namely, Nr, UniProt, KEGG and KOG. Differential expression analysis revealed the existence of 1278 significantly differentially expressed unigenes at 24 h post infection, with 767 unigenes upregulated and 511 unigenes downregulated. After GO and KEGG enrichment analyses, many immune-related GO categories and pathways were significantly enriched. The typical significantly enriched pathways included toll-like receptor signaling pathway, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and TNF signaling pathway. In addition, 40,027 microsatellites (SSRs) and 52,716 candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified from the infection and control transcriptome libraries. Overall, this transcriptomic analysis provided valuable information for studying the immune response of zigzag eels against bacterial infection.

Oral immunization with recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing flaB confers protection against Aeromonas veronii challenge in common carp, Cyprinus carpio

Aeromonas veronii is an important type of gram-negative pathogen of human-livestock-aquatic animal and causes great economic losses in the aquaculture industry. Vaccination is an effective method of defence against A. veronii. There are many factors that restrict the use of vaccination, and the development of new oral vaccines is urgently needed. The selection of suitable antigens is of great significance for the development of aquaculture vaccines. Bacterial flagellin can specifically bind to TLR5 and induce the release of cytokines from the organism, which could be used in the development of vaccines. In this study, we constructed two recombinant Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) (surface-displayed or secretory) expressing the flaB of A. veronii and evaluated the effect of immune responses in common carp. The flaB gene (900 bp) of A. veronii was subcloned into the L. casei expression plasmids pPG-1 (surface-displayed) and pPG-2 (secretory). Western blot and immunofluorescence assays confirmed the expression of the recombinant flaB protein. Common carp immunized with Lc-pPG-1-flaB and Lc-pPG-2-flaB via oral administration route exhibited induction of antibody expression and innate immune responses. The results indicated that Lc-pPG-1-flaB and Lc-pPG-2-flaB can induce high levels of IgM, ACP, AKP, LZM and SOD activity in organisms, and Lc-pPG-1-flaB can induce even higher levels. The recombinant L. casei may effectively induce humoral immunity and increase the serum immunological index. Furthermore, leukocytes phagocytosis percentage and index of the recombinant L. casei were enhanced. The results of qRT-PCR showed that recombinant L. casei can significantly increase the expression of IL-10, IL-β, IFN-γ and TNF-α in the tissues of immunized common carp, compared with control groups. Viable recombinant L. casei strains, which were delivered directly survived throughout the intestinal tract. Common carp that received Lc-pPG-1-flaB (66.7%) and Lc-pPG-2-flaB (53.3%) exhibited higher survival rates than the controls after challenge with the pathogen A. veronii. Our work indicated that Lc-pPG-1-flaB and Lc-pPG-2-flaB had beneficial effects on immune response and enhanced the disease resistance of common carp against A. veronii infection. The combination of flaB delivery and the Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) approach may be a promising method for the development of oral vaccines for treating A. veronii. In future research, we will focus on the colonization ability of LAB in the intestines and on the impact of these bacteria on intestinal flora.

Immunogenicity of extracellular products from an inactivated vaccine against Aeromonas veronii TH0426 in koi, Cyprinus carpio

Aeromonas veronii is a type of human-livestock-aquatic animal pathogen; it is widely found in nature and causes many deaths among aquatic animals. Extracellular products (ECPs) are secreted by the pathogen during growth and reproduction. These products are considered effective protective antigens that can induce the host to produce an immune response. In this study, the ECPs of A.veronii TH0426 were prepared by ultrafiltration, and then the pathogenicity and enzymatic activity of the ECPs were determined. All the groups were injected intraperitoneally, as follows: group one: ECP protein with an equal volume of Freund's adjuvant; group two: ECPs and formalin-killed cells (FKC) of A.veronii combined with an equal volume of Freund's adjuvant (FKC + ECPs); group three: formalin-killed cells (FKC) of A.veronii combined with an equal volume of Freund's adjuvant (FKC); and, group four: sterile PBS as the control group. The expression levels of IgM, IL-1β, and TNF-α and the lysozyme activity in blood were examined at 7, 14, and 21 days after the immunizations. The results show that the ECPs can produce protease, lipase, amylase and hemolyase, and there was no lecithinase, urease, or gelatinase activity. The results indicate that the ECPs were clearly pathogenic to koi fish, and the LD₅₀ dose was 391.6 μg/fish. Throughout this study, the RPS of the three experimental groups were 75%, 50%, and 70%. This study indicates that the ECPs of A.veronii can effectively enhance the ability of kio fish to resist bacterial invasion.