Growth control and ribosomopathies

A novel approach to explore metabolic diseases: Neddylation

Protein post translational modification (PTM) is the main regulatory mechanism for eukaryotic cell function, among which ubiquitination is based on the reversible degradation of proteins by the ubiquitin proteasome system to regulate cell homeostasis. The neural precursor cell expressed developmental downregulated gene 8 (NEDD8) is a kind of ubiquitin like protein that shares 80 % homology and 60 % identity with ubiquitin. The PTM process by covalently binding NEDD8 to lysine residues in proteins is called neddylation. The neddylation reaction could be regulated by NEDD8, its precursors, substrates, E1 activating enzymes, E2 binding enzymes, E3 ligases, de-neddylases, and its inhibitors, such as MLN4924. NEDD8 is widely expressed in the whole cell structure of multiple tissues and species, and neddylation related factors are highly expressed in metabolism related adrenal glands, thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, skeletal muscles, myocardium, and adipose tissues, related to metabolic cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and liver diseases, adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation, as well as tumor glycolysis and glucose metabolism resulting from angiogenesis and endothelial disfunction, hepatotoxicity, adipogenesis, osteogenesis, Warburg effect, and insulin function. This review provides researchers with a new approach to explore metabolic diseases via searching and analyzing the histological, cytological, and subcellular localization of neddylation specific molecules in databases, and exploring specific mechanism neddylation mediating metabolic diseases by searching for neddylation related terms with the development of pre-clinical neddylation pharmacological inhibitors.

Suppression by RNA Polymerase I Inhibitors Varies Greatly Between Distinct RNA Polymerase I Transcribed Genes in Malaria Parasites

The transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) by RNA Polymerase I (Pol I) is the rate-limiting step in ribosome biogenesis and a major determinant of cellular growth rates. Unlike other eukaryotes, which express identical rRNA from large tandem arrays of dozens to hundreds of identical rRNA genes in every cell, the genome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum contains only a handful single-copy 47S rRNA loci that differ substantially from one another in length, sequence, and expression in different cell types. We found that the growth of the malaria parasite was acutely sensitive to the Pol I inhibitors 9-hydroxyellipticine and BMH-21 and demonstrated that they greatly reduce the transcription of 47S rRNAs as well as the transcription of other non-coding RNA genes. This makes P. falciparum only the second known organism where RNA Polymerase I transcribes genes other than the 47S rRNAs. We found that the various types of Pol I-transcribed genes differed by more than two orders of magnitude in their susceptibility to these inhibitors and explored the implications of these findings for the regulation of rRNA in P. falciparum.

Suppression by RNA Polymerase I Inhibitors Varies Greatly Between Distinct RNA Polymerase I Transcribed Genes in Malaria Parasites

Transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) by RNA Polymerase I (Pol I) is the rate-limiting step in ribosome biogenesis and a major determinant of cellular growth rates. Unlike virtually every other eukaryote, which express identical rRNA from large tandem arrays of dozens to hundreds of identical rRNA genes in every cell, the genome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum contains only a handful single-copy 47S rRNA loci that differ substantially from one another in length, sequence and expression in different cell-types. We found that growth of malaria parasite was acutely sensitive to the Pol I inhibitors 9-hydroxyellipticine and BMH-21 and demonstrate that they greatly reduce the transcription of 47S rRNAs as well as transcription of other non-coding RNA genes. Surprisingly, we found that the various types of Pol I-transcribed genes differed by more than two orders of magnitude in their susceptibility to these inhibitors and explore the implications of these findings for regulation of rRNA in P. falciparum.

Decoding ribosome complexity: role of ribosomal proteins in cancer and disease

The ribosome is a remarkably complex machinery, at the interface with diverse cellular functions and processes. Evolutionarily conserved, yet intricately regulated, ribosomes play pivotal roles in decoding genetic information into the synthesis of proteins and in the generation of biomass critical for cellular physiological functions. Recent insights have revealed the existence of ribosome heterogeneity at multiple levels. Such heterogeneity extends to cancer, where aberrant ribosome biogenesis and function contribute to oncogenesis. This led to the emergence of the concept of 'onco-ribosomes', specific ribosomal variants with altered structural dynamics, contributing to cancer initiation and progression. Ribosomal proteins (RPs) are involved in many of these alterations, acting as critical factors for the translational reprogramming of cancer cells. In this review article, we highlight the roles of RPs in ribosome biogenesis, how mutations in RPs and their paralogues reshape the translational landscape, driving clonal evolution and therapeutic resistance. Furthermore, we present recent evidence providing new insights into post-translational modifications of RPs, such as ubiquitylation, UFMylation and phosphorylation, and how they regulate ribosome recycling, translational fidelity and cellular stress responses. Understanding the intricate interplay between ribosome complexity, heterogeneity and RP-mediated regulatory mechanisms in pathology offers profound insights into cancer biology and unveils novel therapeutic avenues targeting the translational machinery in cancer.

Alcohol exposure suppresses ribosome biogenesis and causes nucleolar stress in cranial neural crest cells

Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) causes cognitive impairment and a distinctive craniofacial dysmorphology, due in part to apoptotic losses of the pluripotent cranial neural crest cells (CNCs) that form facial bones and cartilage. We previously reported that PAE rapidly represses expression of >70 ribosomal proteins (padj = 10-E47). Ribosome dysbiogenesis causes nucleolar stress and activates p53-MDM2-mediated apoptosis. Using primary avian CNCs and the murine CNC line O9-1, we tested whether nucleolar stress and p53-MDM2 signaling mediates this apoptosis. We further tested whether haploinsufficiency in genes that govern ribosome biogenesis, using a blocking morpholino approach, synergizes with alcohol to worsen craniofacial outcomes in a zebrafish model. In both avian and murine CNCs, pharmacologically relevant alcohol exposure (20mM, 2hr) causes the dissolution of nucleolar structures and the loss of rRNA synthesis; this nucleolar stress persisted for 18-24hr. This was followed by reduced proliferation, stabilization of nuclear p53, and apoptosis that was prevented by overexpression of MDM2 or dominant-negative p53. In zebrafish embryos, low-dose alcohol or morpholinos directed against ribosomal proteins Rpl5a, Rpl11, and Rps3a, the Tcof homolog Nolc1, or mdm2 separately caused modest craniofacial malformations, whereas these blocking morpholinos synergized with low-dose alcohol to reduce and even eliminate facial elements. Similar results were obtained using a small molecule inhibitor of RNA Polymerase 1, CX5461, whereas p53-blocking morpholinos normalized craniofacial outcomes under high-dose alcohol. Transcriptome analysis affirmed that alcohol suppressed the expression of >150 genes essential for ribosome biogenesis. We conclude that alcohol causes the apoptosis of CNCs, at least in part, by suppressing ribosome biogenesis and invoking a nucleolar stress that initiates their p53-MDM2 mediated apoptosis. We further note that the facial deficits that typify PAE and some ribosomopathies share features including reduced philtrum, upper lip, and epicanthal distance, suggesting the facial deficits of PAE represent, in part, a ribosomopathy.

Peripheral Blood Gene Expression Profiling Reveals Molecular Pathways Associated with Cervical Artery Dissection

Cervical artery dissection (CeAD) is the primary cause of ischemic stroke in young adults. Monogenic heritable connective tissue diseases account for fewer than 5% of cases of CeAD. The remaining sporadic cases have known risk factors. The clinical, radiological, and histological characteristics of systemic vasculopathy and undifferentiated connective tissue dysplasia are present in up to 70% of individuals with sporadic CeAD. Genome-wide association studies identified CeAD-associated genetic variants in the non-coding genomic regions that may impact the gene transcription and RNA processing. However, global gene expression profile analysis has not yet been carried out for CeAD patients. We conducted bulk RNA sequencing and differential gene expression analysis to investigate the expression profile of protein-coding genes in the peripheral blood of 19 CeAD patients and 18 healthy volunteers. This was followed by functional annotation, heatmap clustering, reports on gene-disease associations and protein-protein interactions, as well as gene set enrichment analysis. We found potential correlations between CeAD and the dysregulation of genes linked to nucleolar stress, senescence-associated secretory phenotype, mitochondrial malfunction, and epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity.

SUMOylation regulation of ribosome biogenesis: Emerging roles for USP36

Ribosome biogenesis is essential for cell growth, proliferation, and animal development. Its deregulation leads to various human disorders such as ribosomopathies and cancer. Thus, tight regulation of ribosome biogenesis is crucial for normal cell homeostasis. Emerging evidence suggests that posttranslational modifications such as ubiquitination and SUMOylation play a crucial role in regulating ribosome biogenesis. Our recent studies reveal that USP36, a nucleolar deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB), acts also as a SUMO ligase to regulate nucleolar protein group SUMOylation, thereby being essential for ribosome biogenesis. Here, we provide an overview of the current understanding of the SUMOylation regulation of ribosome biogenesis and discuss the role of USP36 in nucleolar SUMOylation.

The induction of p53 correlates with defects in the production, but not the levels, of the small ribosomal subunit and stalled large ribosomal subunit biogenesis

Ribosome biogenesis is one of the biggest consumers of cellular energy. More than 20 genetic diseases (ribosomopathies) and multiple cancers arise from defects in the production of the 40S (SSU) and 60S (LSU) ribosomal subunits. Defects in the production of either the SSU or LSU result in p53 induction through the accumulation of the 5S RNP, an LSU assembly intermediate. While the mechanism is understood for the LSU, it is still unclear how SSU production defects induce p53 through the 5S RNP since the production of the two subunits is believed to be uncoupled. Here, we examined the response to SSU production defects to understand how this leads to the activation of p53 via the 5S RNP. We found that p53 activation occurs rapidly after SSU production is blocked, prior to changes in mature ribosomal RNA (rRNA) levels but correlated with early, middle and late SSU pre-rRNA processing defects. Furthermore, both nucleolar/nuclear LSU maturation, in particular late stages in 5.8S rRNA processing, and pre-LSU export were affected by SSU production defects. We have therefore uncovered a novel connection between the SSU and LSU production pathways in human cells, which explains how p53 is induced in response to SSU production defects.

RPS27a and RPL40, Which Are Produced as Ubiquitin Fusion Proteins, Are Not Essential for p53 Signalling

Two of the four human ubiquitin-encoding genes express ubiquitin as an N-terminal fusion precursor polypeptide, with either ribosomal protein (RP) RPS27a or RPL40 at the C-terminus. RPS27a and RPL40 have been proposed to be important for the induction of the tumour suppressor p53 in response to defects in ribosome biogenesis, suggesting that they may play a role in the coordination of ribosome production, ubiquitin levels and p53 signalling. Here, we report that RPS27a is cleaved from the ubiquitin-RP precursor in a process that appears independent of ribosome biogenesis. In contrast to other RPs, the knockdown of either RPS27a or RPL40 did not stabilise the tumour suppressor p53 in U2OS cells. Knockdown of neither protein blocked p53 stabilisation following inhibition of ribosome biogenesis by actinomycin D, indicating that they are not needed for p53 signalling in these cells. However, the knockdown of both RPS27a and RPL40 in MCF7 and LNCaP cells robustly induced p53, consistent with observations made with the majority of other RPs. Importantly, RPS27a and RPL40 are needed for rRNA production in all cell lines tested. Our data suggest that the role of RPS27a and RPL40 in p53 signalling, but not their importance in ribosome biogenesis, differs between cell types.

Dynamic regulation of ribosome levels and translation during development

The ability of ribosomes to translate mRNAs into proteins is the basis of all life. While ribosomes are essential for cell viability, reduction in levels of ribosomes can affect cell fate and developmental transitions in a tissue specific manner and can cause a plethora of related diseases called ribosomopathies. How dysregulated ribosomes homeostasis influences cell fate and developmental transitions is not fully understood. Model systems such as Drosophila and C. elegans oogenesis have been used to address these questions since defects in conserved steps in ribosome biogenesis result in stem cell differentiation and developmental defects. In this review, we first explore how ribosome levels affect stem cell differentiation. Second, we describe how ribosomal modifications and incorporation of ribosomal protein paralogs contribute to development. Third, we summarize how cells with perturbed ribosome biogenesis are sensed and eliminated during organismal growth.

Ribosome biogenesis and ribosome therapy in cancer cells

Introduction: The process of protein synthesis is a vital process for all kingdoms of life. The ribosome is a ribonucleoprotein complex that reads the genetic code, from messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce proteins and to tightly regulate and ensure cells growth. The fact that numerous diseases are caused by defect during the ribosome biogenesis is important to understand this pathway.

Materials and methods: We have analyzed the literature for ribosome biogenesis and its links with different diseases which have been found.

Results and discussion: We have discussed the key aspect of human ribosome biogenesis and its links to diseases. We have also proposed the potential of applying this knowledge to the development of a ribosomal stress-based cancer therapy.

Conclusion: Major challenges in the future will be to determine factors which play a pivotal role during ribosome biogenesis. Therefore, more anti-cancer drugs and gene therapy for genetic diseases will be developed against ribosomal biogenesis in the coming years.

Graphical abstract:

Bioinformatics analysis identifies potential biomarkers involved in the metastasis of locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one of the malignant epithelial tumors with a high metastasis rate. This study aimed to screen potential novel biomarkers involved in NPC metastasis. Microarray data of locoregionally advanced NPC (LA-NPC; GSE103611) were obtained from the database of Gene Expression Omnibus. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between LA-NPC tissues with and without distant metastasis after radical treatment were screened. Functional analysis was performed and the protein-protein interaction and submodule were analyzed. The univariate Cox regression analysis was performed to identify prognostic genes in NPC in the validation microarray dataset GSE102349. The drug-gene interactions and key genes were identified. Totally, 107 DEGs were identified. The upregulated DEGs and the key nodes in the protein-protein interaction network were associated with pathways or biological processes related to the cell cycle. Four genes including CD44, B2M, PTPN11, and TRIM74 were associated with disease-free survival in NPC. The drug-gene interaction analysis revealed that upregulated genes CXCL10, CD44, B2M, XRCC5, and RPL11 might be potential druggable genes for patients with LA-NPC metastasis by regulating cell cycle, autophagy, and drug resistance. Upregulated CXCL10, CD44, B2M, XRCC5, and RPL11 might play important roles in LA-NPC metastasis by regulating cell cycle-related pathways.

Looking through the Lens of the Ribosome Biogenesis Evolutionary History: Possible Implications for Archaeal Phylogeny and Eukaryogenesis

Our understanding of microbial diversity and its evolutionary relationships has increased substantially over the last decade. Such an understanding has been greatly fueled by culture-independent metagenomics analyses. However, the outcome of some of these studies and their biological and evolutionary implications, such as the origin of the eukaryotic lineage from the recently discovered archaeal Asgard superphylum, is debated. The sequences of the ribosomal constituents are amongst the most used phylogenetic markers. However, the functional consequences underlying the analysed sequence diversity and their putative evolutionary implications are essentially not taken into consideration. Here, we propose to exploit additional functional hallmarks of ribosome biogenesis to help disentangle competing evolutionary hypotheses. Using selected examples, such as the multiple origins of halophily in archaea or the evolutionary relationship between the Asgard archaea and Eukaryotes, we illustrate and discuss how function-aware phylogenetic framework can contribute to refining our understanding of archaeal phylogeny and the origin of eukaryotic cells.

Proteomic Studies on the Mechanism of Myostatin Regulating Cattle Skeletal Muscle Development

Myostatin (MSTN) is an important negative regulator of muscle growth and development. In this study, we performed comparatively the proteomics analyses of gluteus tissues from MSTN^+/− Mongolian cattle (MG.MSTN^+/−) and wild type Mongolian cattle (MG.WT) using a shotgun-based tandem mass tag (TMT) 6-plex labeling method to investigate the regulation mechanism of MSTN on the growth and development of bovine skeletal muscle. A total of 1,950 proteins were identified in MG.MSTN^+/− and MG.WT. Compared with MG.WT cattle, a total of 320 differentially expressed proteins were identified in MG.MSTN cattle, including 245 up-regulated differentially expressed proteins and 75 down-regulated differentially expressed proteins. Bioinformatics analysis showed that knockdown of the MSTN gene increased the expression of extracellular matrix and ribosome-related proteins, induced activation of focal adhesion, PI3K-AKT, and Ribosomal pathways. The results of proteomic analysis were verified by muscle tissue Western blot test and in vitro MSTN gene knockdown test, and it was found that knockdown MSTN gene expression could promote the proliferation and myogenic differentiation of bovine skeletal muscle satellite cells (BSMSCs). At the same time, Co-Immunoprecipitation (CO-IP) assay showed that MSTN gene interacted with extracellular matrix related protein type I collagen α 1 (COL1A1), and knocking down the expression of COL1A1 could inhibit the activity of adhesion, PI3K-AKT and ribosome pathway, thus inhibit BSMSCs proliferation. These results suggest that the MSTN gene regulates focal adhesion, PI3K-AKT, and Ribosomal pathway through the COL1A1 gene. In general, this study provides new insights into the regulatory mechanism of MSTN involved in muscle growth and development.

A system-wide mislocalization of RNA-binding proteins in motor neurons is a new feature of ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a motor neuron disease characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons. Mislocalization of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is an early event in the formation of cytoplasmic TDP-43-positive inclusions in motor neurons and a hallmark of ALS. However, the underlying mechanism and the pathogenic impact of this mislocalization are relatively unexplored. We previously reported that abnormal AMPK activation mediates TDP-43 mislocalization in motor neurons of humans and mice with ALS. In the present study, we hypothesized that other nuclear proteins are mislocalized in the cytoplasm of motor neurons due to the AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of importin-α1 and subsequently contribute to neuronal degeneration in ALS. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed motor neurons of sporadic ALS patients and found that when AMPK is activated, importin-α1 is abnormally located in the nucleus. Multiple integrative molecular and cellular approaches (including proteomics, immunoprecipitation/western blot analysis, immunohistological evaluations and gradient analysis of preribosomal complexes) were employed to demonstrate that numerous RNA binding proteins are mislocalized in a rodent motor neuron cell line (NSC34) and human motor neurons derived from iPSCs during AMPK activation. We used comparative proteomic analysis of importin-α1 complexes that were immunoprecipitated with a phosphorylation-deficient mutant of importin-α1 (importin-α1-S105A) and a phosphomimetic mutant of importin-α1 (importin-α1-S105D) to identify 194 proteins that have stronger affinity for the unphosphorylated form than the phosphorylated form of importin-α1. Furthermore, GO and STRING analyses suggested that RNA processing and protein translation is the major machinery affected by abnormalities in the AMPK-importin-α1 axis. Consistently, the expression of importin-α1-S105D alters the assembly of preribosomal complexes and increases cell apoptosis. Collectively, we propose that by impairing importin-α1-mediated nuclear import, abnormal AMPK activation in motor neurons alters the cellular distribution of many RNA-binding proteins, which pathogenically affect multiple cellular machineries in motor neurons and contribute to ALS pathogenesis.

CD226 Is Required to Maintain Megakaryocytes/Platelets Homeostasis in the Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis With Platelet-Rich Plasma in Mice

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is a platelet-based application used to treat osteoarthritis (OA) clinically. The co-stimulatory molecule CD226 is expressed in T cells, NK cells, and also platelets. However, exact effects of CD226 on platelets and whether its expression level influences PRP efficacy are largely unknown. Here, CD226^fl/flPF4-Cre mice were obtained from mating CD226 ^fl/fl mice with PF4-Cre mice. Blood samples and washed platelets were collected from the mice eyeballs to undergo routine blood tests and transmission electron microscopy. Differentially expressed proteins were detected by iTRAQ-based proteomics analysis. Animal OA models were established through surgical destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) for C57BL/6 wildtype mice, followed by PRP injection to evaluate the effects of platelet CD226 on PRP efficacy. The results showed that deletion of platelet CD226 increased the number of megakaryocytes (MKs) in bone marrow (BM) but reduced MKs in spleen, combined with significantly decreased platelet amounts, α-granule secretion, and reduced immature platelets; indicating that absence of platelet CD226 may disrupt MK/platelet homeostasis and arrested platelet release from MKs. Sequencing analysis showed abnormal ribosomal functions and much downregulated proteins in the absence of platelet CD226. Autophagy-related proteins were also reduced in the CD226-absent MKs/platelets. Moreover, deletion of platelet CD226 diminished the protective effects of PRP on DMM-induced cartilage lesions in mice, and PDGF restored it. Therefore, deficiency of platelet CD226 inhibited platelet maturation, secretion, and normal ribosomal functions, which may lead to depressed PRP efficacy on OA, suggesting that CD226 is required to regulate platelet growth, functions, and its application.

The genomic structure of a human chromosome 22 nucleolar organizer region determined by TAR cloning

The rDNA clusters and flanking sequences on human chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22 represent large gaps in the current genomic assembly. The organization and the degree of divergence of the human rDNA units within an individual nucleolar organizer region (NOR) are only partially known. To address this lacuna, we previously applied transformation-associated recombination (TAR) cloning to isolate individual rDNA units from chromosome 21. That approach revealed an unexpectedly high level of heterogeneity in human rDNA, raising the possibility of corresponding variations in ribosome dynamics. We have now applied the same strategy to analyze an entire rDNA array end-to-end from a copy of chromosome 22. Sequencing of TAR isolates provided the entire NOR sequence, including proximal and distal junctions that may be involved in nucleolar function. Comparison of the newly sequenced rDNAs to reference sequence for chromosomes 22 and 21 revealed variants that are shared in human rDNA in individuals from different ethnic groups, many of them at high frequency. Analysis infers comparable intra- and inter-individual divergence of rDNA units on the same and different chromosomes, supporting the concerted evolution of rDNA units. The results provide a route to investigate further the role of rDNA variation in nucleolar formation and in the empirical associations of nucleoli with pathology.

Translational Control during Cellular Senescence

Senescence is a state of long-term cell cycle arrest that arises in cells that have incurred sublethal damage. While senescent cells no longer replicate, they remain metabolically active and further develop unique and stable phenotypes that are not present in proliferating cells. On one hand, senescent cells increase in size, maintain an active mTORC1 complex, and produce and secrete a substantial amount of inflammatory proteins as part of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). On the other hand, these progrowth phenotypes contrast with the p53-mediated growth arrest typical of senescent cells that is associated with nucleolar stress and an inhibition of rRNA processing and ribosome biogenesis. In sum, translation in senescent cells paradoxically comprises both a global repression of translation triggered by DNA damage and a select increase in the translation of specific proteins, including SASP factors.

CRL4DCAF1/VprBP E3 ubiquitin ligase controls ribosome biogenesis, cell proliferation, and development

Evolutionarily conserved DCAF1 is a major substrate receptor for the DDB1-CUL4-ROC1 E3 ubiquitin ligase (CRL4) and controls cell proliferation and development. The molecular basis for these functions is unclear. We show here that DCAF1 loss in multiple tissues and organs selectively eliminates proliferating cells and causes perinatal lethality, thymic atrophy, and bone marrow defect. Inducible DCAF1 loss eliminates proliferating, but not quiescent, T cells and MEFs. We identify the ribosome assembly factor PWP1 as a substrate of the CRL4DCAF1 ligase. DCAF1 loss results in PWP1 accumulation, impairing rRNA processing and ribosome biogenesis. Knockdown or overexpression of PWP1 can rescue defects or cause similar defects as DCAF1 loss, respectively, in ribosome biogenesis. DCAF1 loss increases free RPL11, resulting in L11-MDM2 association and p53 activation. Cumulatively, these results reveal a critical function for DCAF1 in ribosome biogenesis and define a molecular basis of DCAF1 function in cell proliferation and development.

RRP7A links primary microcephaly to dysfunction of ribosome biogenesis, resorption of primary cilia, and neurogenesis

Primary microcephaly (MCPH) is characterized by reduced brain size and intellectual disability. The exact pathophysiological mechanism underlying MCPH remains to be elucidated, but dysfunction of neuronal progenitors in the developing neocortex plays a major role. We identified a homozygous missense mutation (p.W155C) in Ribosomal RNA Processing 7 Homolog A, RRP7A, segregating with MCPH in a consanguineous family with 10 affected individuals. RRP7A is highly expressed in neural stem cells in developing human forebrain, and targeted mutation of Rrp7a leads to defects in neurogenesis and proliferation in a mouse stem cell model. RRP7A localizes to centrosomes, cilia and nucleoli, and patient-derived fibroblasts display defects in ribosomal RNA processing, primary cilia resorption, and cell cycle progression. Analysis of zebrafish embryos supported that the patient mutation in RRP7A causes reduced brain size, impaired neurogenesis and cell proliferation, and defective ribosomal RNA processing. These findings provide novel insight into human brain development and MCPH.

The RRP7A a gene is involved in ribosome biogenesis. Here the authors report a homozygous missense mutation segregating with primary microcephaly, and show that this occurs via functional defects in both nucleoli and primary cilia disrupting cell proliferation and neurogenesis.

Prefoldin-like Bud27 influences the transcription of ribosomal components and ribosome biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Understanding the functional connection that occurs for the three nuclear RNA polymerases to synthesize ribosome components during the ribosome biogenesis process has been the focal point of extensive research. To preserve correct homeostasis on the production of ribosomal components, cells might require the existence of proteins that target a common subunit of these RNA polymerases to impact their respective activities. This work describes how the yeast prefoldin-like Bud27 protein, which physically interacts with the Rpb5 common subunit of the three RNA polymerases, is able to modulate the transcription mediated by the RNA polymerase I, likely by influencing transcription elongation, the transcription of the RNA polymerase III, and the processing of ribosomal RNA. Bud27 also regulates both RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription of ribosomal proteins and ribosome biogenesis regulon genes, likely by occupying their DNA ORFs, and the processing of the corresponding mRNAs. With RNA polymerase II, this association occurs in a transcription rate-dependent manner. Our data also indicate that Bud27 inactivation alters the phosphorylation kinetics of ribosomal protein S6, a readout of TORC1 activity. We conclude that Bud27 impacts the homeostasis of the ribosome biogenesis process by regulating the activity of the three RNA polymerases and, in this way, the synthesis of ribosomal components. This quite likely occurs through a functional connection of Bud27 with the TOR signaling pathway.

Role of the 40S beak ribosomal protein eS12 in ribosome biogenesis and function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In eukaryotes, the beak structure of 40S subunits is formed by the protrusion of the 18S rRNA helix 33 and three ribosomal proteins: eS10, eS12 and eS31. The exact role of these proteins in ribosome biogenesis is not well understood. While eS10 is an essential protein encoded by two paralogous genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, eS12 and eS31 are not essential proteins encoded by the single-copy genes RPS12 and UBI3, respectively. Here, we have analysed the contribution of yeast eS12 to ribosome biogenesis and compared it with that of eS31. Polysome analysis reveals that deletion of either RPS12 or UBI3 results in equivalent 40S deficits. Analysis of pre-rRNA processing indicates that eS12, akin to eS31, is required for efficient processing of 20S pre-rRNA to mature 18S rRNA. Moreover, we show that the 20S pre-rRNA accumulates within cytoplasmic pre-40S particles, as deduced from FISH experiments and the lack of nuclear retention of 40S subunit reporter proteins, in rps12∆ and ubi3∆ cells. However, these particles containing 20S pre-rRNA are not efficiently incorporated into polyribosomes. We also provide evidence for a genetic interaction between eS12 or eS31 and the late-acting 40S assembly factors Enp1 and Ltv1, which appears not to be linked to the dynamics of their association with or release from pre-40S particles in the absence of either eS12 or eS31. Finally, we show that eS12- and eS31-deficient ribosomes exhibit increased levels of translational misreading. Altogether, our data highlight distinct important roles of the beak region during ribosome assembly and function.

Post-transcriptional gene regulation regulates germline stem cell to oocyte transition during Drosophila oogenesis

During oogenesis, several developmental processes must be traversed to ensure effective completion of gametogenesis including, stem cell maintenance and asymmetric division, differentiation, mitosis and meiosis, and production of maternally contributed mRNAs, making the germline a salient model for understanding how cell fate transitions are mediated. Due to silencing of the genome during meiotic divisions, there is little instructive transcription, barring a few examples, to mediate these critical transitions. In Drosophila, several layers of post-transcriptional regulation ensure that the mRNAs required for these processes are expressed in a timely manner and as needed during germline differentiation. These layers of regulation include alternative splicing, RNA modification, ribosome production, and translational repression. Many of the molecules and pathways involved in these regulatory activities are conserved from Drosophila to humans making the Drosophila germline an elegant model for studying the role of post-transcriptional regulation during stem cell differentiation and meiosis.

Coordinated Control of mRNA and rRNA Processing Controls Embryonic Stem Cell Pluripotency and Differentiation

Stem cell-specific transcriptional networks are well known to control pluripotency, but constitutive cellular processes such as mRNA splicing and protein synthesis can add complex layers of regulation with poorly understood effects on cell-fate decisions. Here, we show that the RNA binding protein HTATSF1 controls embryonic stem cell differentiation by regulating multiple aspects of RNA processing during ribosome biogenesis. HTATSF1, in a complex with splicing factor SF3B1, controls intron removal from ribosomal protein transcripts and regulates ribosomal RNA transcription and processing, thereby controlling 60S ribosomal abundance and protein synthesis. HTATSF1-dependent protein synthesis is essential for naive pre-implantation epiblast to transition into post-implantation epiblast, a stage with transiently low protein synthesis, and further differentiation toward neuroectoderm. Together, these results identify coordinated regulation of ribosomal RNA and protein synthesis by HTATSF1 and show that this essential mechanism controls protein synthesis during early mammalian embryogenesis.

Discovery of novel inhibitors of ribosome biogenesis by innovative high throughput screening strategies

Over the past two decades, ribosome biogenesis has emerged as an attractive target for cancer treatment. In this study, two high-throughput screens were used to identify ribosome biogenesis inhibitors. Our primary screen made use of the HaloTag selective labeling strategy to identify compounds that decreased the abundance of newly synthesized ribosomes in A375 malignant melanoma cells. This screen identified 5786 hit compounds. A subset of those initial hit compounds were tested using a secondary screen that directly measured pre-ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) abundance as a reporter of rRNA synthesis rate, using quantitative RT-PCR. From the secondary screen, we identified two structurally related compounds that are potent inhibitors of rRNA synthesis. These two compounds, Ribosome Biogenesis Inhibitors 1 and 2 (RBI1 and RBI2), induce a substantial decrease in the viability of A375 cells, comparable to the previously published ribosome biogenesis inhibitor CX-5461. Anchorage-independent cell growth assays further confirmed that RBI2 inhibits cell growth and proliferation. Thus, the RBI compounds have promising properties for further development as potential cancer chemotherapeutics.

Translational Control in Cancer

The translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) into proteins is a key event in the regulation of gene expression. This is especially true in the cancer setting, as many oncogenes and transforming events are regulated at this level. Cancer-promoting factors that are translationally regulated include cyclins, antiapoptotic factors, proangiogenic factors, regulators of cell metabolism, prometastatic factors, immune modulators, and proteins involved in DNA repair. This review discusses the diverse means by which cancer cells deregulate and reprogram translation, and the resulting oncogenic impacts, providing insights into the complexity of translational control in cancer and its targeting for cancer therapy.

Translation Stress Regulates Ribosome Synthesis and Cell Proliferation

Ribosome and protein synthesis are major metabolic events that control cellular growth and proliferation. Impairment in ribosome biogenesis pathways and mRNA translation is associated with pathologies such as cancer and developmental disorders. Processes that control global protein synthesis are tightly regulated at different levels by numerous factors and linked with multiple cellular signaling pathways. Several of these merge on the growth promoting factor c-Myc, which induces ribosome biogenesis by stimulating Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III transcription. However, how cells sense and respond to mRNA translation stress is not well understood. It was more recently shown that mRNA translation stress activates c-Myc, through a specific induction of E2F1 synthesis via a PI3Kδ-dependent pathway. This review focuses on how this novel feedback pathway stimulates cellular growth and proliferation pathways to synchronize protein synthesis with ribosome biogenesis. It also describes for the first time the oncogenic activity of the mRNA, and not the encoded protein.

SAMMSON fosters cancer cell fitness by concertedly enhancing mitochondrial and cytosolic translation

Synchronization of mitochondrial and cytoplasmic translation rates is critical for the maintenance of cellular fitness, with cancer cells being especially vulnerable to translational uncoupling. Although alterations of cytosolic protein synthesis are common in human cancer, compensating mechanisms in mitochondrial translation remain elusive. Here we show that the malignant long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) SAMMSON promotes a balanced increase in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) maturation and protein synthesis in the cytosol and mitochondria by modulating the localization of CARF, an RNA-binding protein that sequesters the exo-ribonuclease XRN2 in the nucleoplasm, which under normal circumstances limits nucleolar rRNA maturation. SAMMSON interferes with XRN2 binding to CARF in the nucleus by favoring the formation of an aberrant cytoplasmic RNA-protein complex containing CARF and p32, a mitochondrial protein required for the processing of the mitochondrial rRNAs. These data highlight how a single oncogenic lncRNA can simultaneously modulate RNA-protein complex formation in two distinct cellular compartments to promote cell growth.

Ribosomopathies: There's strength in numbers

Ribosomopathies are a group of human disorders most commonly caused by ribosomal protein haploinsufficiency or defects in ribosome biogenesis. These conditions manifest themselves as physiological defects in specific cell and tissue types. We review current molecular models to explain ribosomopathies and attempt to reconcile the tissue specificity of these disorders with the ubiquitous requirement for ribosomes in all cells. Ribosomopathies as a group are diverse in their origins and clinical manifestations; we use the well-described Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) as a specific example to highlight some common features. We discuss ribosome homeostasis as an overarching principle that governs the sensitivity of specific cells and tissue types to ribosomal protein mutations. Mathematical models and experimental insights rationalize how even subtle shifts in the availability of ribosomes, such as those created by ribosome haploinsufficiency, can drive messenger RNA-specific effects on protein expression. We discuss recently identified roles played by ribosome rescue and recycling factors in regulating ribosome homeostasis.

Transcriptional responses to hyperplastic MRL signalling in Drosophila

Recent work has implicated the actin cytoskeleton in tissue size control and tumourigenesis, but how changes in actin dynamics contribute to hyperplastic growth is still unclear. Overexpression of Pico, the only Drosophila Mig-10/RIAM/Lamellipodin adapter protein family member, has been linked to tissue overgrowth via its effect on the myocardin-related transcription factor (Mrtf), an F-actin sensor capable of activating serum response factor (SRF). Transcriptional changes induced by acute Mrtf/SRF signalling have been largely linked to actin biosynthesis and cytoskeletal regulation. However, by RNA profiling, we find that the common response to chronic mrtf and pico overexpression in wing discs was upregulation of ribosome protein and mitochondrial genes, which are conserved targets for Mrtf/SRF and are known growth drivers. Consistent with their ability to induce a common transcriptional response and activate SRF signalling in vitro, we found that both pico and mrtf stimulate expression of an SRF-responsive reporter gene in wing discs. In a functional genetic screen, we also identified deterin, which encodes Drosophila Survivin, as a putative Mrtf/SRF target that is necessary for pico-mediated tissue overgrowth by suppressing proliferation-associated cell death. Taken together, our findings raise the possibility that distinct targets of Mrtf/SRF may be transcriptionally induced depending on the duration of upstream signalling.

Gene expression profiling reveals candidate genes related to residual feed intake in duodenum of laying ducks

Feed represents two-thirds of the total costs of poultry production, especially in developing countries. Improvement in feed efficiency would reduce the amount of feed required for production (growth or laying), the production cost, and the amount of nitrogenous waste. The most commonly used measures for feed efficiency are feed conversion ratio (FCR) and residual feed intake (RFI). As a more suitable indicator assessing feed efficiency, RFI is defined as the difference between observed and expected feed intake based on maintenance and growth or laying. However, the genetic and biological mechanisms regulating RFI are largely unknown. Identifying molecular mechanisms explaining divergence in RFI in laying ducks would lead to the development of early detection methods for the selection of more efficient breeding poultry. The objective of this study was to identify duodenum genes and pathways through transcriptional profiling in 2 extreme RFI phenotypes (HRFI and LRFI) of the duck population. Phenotypic aspects of feed efficiency showed that RFI was strongly positive with FCR and feed intake (FI). Transcriptomic analysis identified 35 differentially expressed genes between LRFI and HRFI ducks. These genes play an important role in metabolism, digestibility, secretion, and innate immunity including (), (), (), β (), and (). These results improve our knowledge of the biological basis underlying RFI, which would be useful for further investigations of key candidate genes for RFI and for the development of biomarkers.

Feedback regulation of ribosome assembly

Ribosome biogenesis is a crucial process for growth and constitutes the major consumer of cellular resources. This pathway is subjected to very stringent regulation to ensure correct ribosome manufacture with a wide variety of environmental and metabolic changes, and intracellular insults. Here we summarise our current knowledge on the regulation of ribosome biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by particularly focusing on the feedback mechanisms that maintain ribosome homeostasis. Ribosome biogenesis in yeast is controlled mainly at the level of the production of both pre-rRNAs and ribosomal proteins through the transcriptional and post-transcriptional control of the TORC1 and protein kinase A signalling pathways. Pre-rRNA processing can occur before or after the 35S pre-rRNA transcript is completed; the switch between these two alternatives is regulated by growth conditions. The expression of both ribosomal proteins and the large family of transacting factors involved in ribosome biogenesis is co-regulated. Recently, it has been shown that the synthesis of rRNA and ribosomal proteins, but not of trans-factors, is coupled. Thus the so-called CURI complex sequesters specific transcription factor Ifh1 to repress ribosomal protein genes when rRNA transcription is impaired. We recently found that an analogue system should operate to control the expression of transacting factor genes in response to actual ribosome assembly performance. Regulation of ribosome biogenesis manages situations of imbalanced ribosome production or misassembled ribosomal precursors and subunits, which have been closely linked to distinct human diseases.

Ribosomal proteins: insight into molecular roles and functions in hepatocellular carcinoma

Ribosomes, which are important sites for the synthesis of proteins related to expression and transmission of genetic information in humans, have a complex structure and diverse functions. They consist of a variety of ribosomal proteins (RPs), ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and small nucleolar RNAs. Owing to the involvement of ribosomes in many important biological processes of cells, their major components, rRNAs and RPs, have an important role in human diseases, including the initiation and evolvement of malignancies. However, the main mechanisms underlying the involvement of ribosomes in cancer remain unclear. This review describes the crucial role of ribosomes in various common malignant tumors; in particular, it examines the effects of RPs, including S6, the receptor for activated C-kinase and RPS15A, on the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Autogenous Control of 5′TOP mRNA Stability by 40S Ribosomes

Ribosomal protein (RP) expression in higher eukaryotes is regulated translationally through the 5′TOP sequence. This mechanism evolved to more rapidly produce RPs on demand in different tissues. Here we show that 40S ribosomes, in a complex with the mRNA binding protein LARP1, selectively stabilize 5′TOP mRNAs, with disruption of this complex leading to induction of the impaired ribosome biogenesis checkpoint (IRBC) and p53 stabilization. The importance of this mechanism is underscored in 5q− syndrome, a macrocytic anemia caused by a large monoallelic deletion, which we found to also encompass the LARP1 gene. Critically, depletion of LARP1 alone in human adult CD34+ bone marrow precursor cells leads to a reduction in 5′TOP mRNAs and the induction of p53. These studies identify a 40S ribosome function independent of those in translation that, with LARP1, mediates the autogenous control of 5′TOP mRNA stability, whose disruption is implicated in the pathophysiology of 5q− syndrome.

SBDS-Deficient Cells Have an Altered Homeostatic Equilibrium due to Translational Inefficiency Which Explains their Reduced Fitness and Provides a Logical Framework for Intervention

Ribosomopathies are a family of inherited disorders caused by mutations in genes necessary for ribosomal function. Shwachman-Diamond Bodian Syndrome (SDS) is an autosomal recessive disease caused, in most patients, by mutations of the SBDS gene. SBDS is a protein required for the maturation of 60S ribosomes. SDS patients present exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, neutropenia, chronic infections, and skeletal abnormalities. Later in life, patients are prone to myelodisplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). It is unknown why patients develop AML and which cellular alterations are directly due to the loss of the SBDS protein. Here we derived mouse embryonic fibroblast lines from an Sbds^R126T/R126T mouse model. After their immortalization, we reconstituted them by adding wild type Sbds. We then performed a comprehensive analysis of cellular functions including colony formation, translational and transcriptional RNA-seq, stress and drug sensitivity. We show that: 1. Mutant Sbds causes a reduction in cellular clonogenic capability and oncogene-induced transformation. 2. Mutant Sbds causes a marked increase in immature 60S subunits, limited impact on mRNA specific initiation of translation, but reduced global protein synthesis capability. 3. Chronic loss of SBDS activity leads to a rewiring of gene expression with reduced ribosomal capability, but increased lysosomal and catabolic activity. 4. Consistently with the gene signature, we found that SBDS loss causes a reduction in ATP and lactate levels, and increased susceptibility to DNA damage. Combining our data, we conclude that a cell-specific fragile phenotype occurs when SBDS protein drops below a threshold level, and propose a new interpretation of the disease.

Shwachman Diamond syndrome (SDS) is an inherited disease. SDS presents, as hallmarks, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, increased rate of infections, and higher incidence of leukemia. Most cases are due to mutations in the SBDS gene. SBDS encodes for a ribosome maturation factor. In this study, we immortalized mouse fibroblasts carrying one of the most common mutation of SDS patients and performed a thorough analysis of their properties. We show that the loss of SBDS activity causes a rewiring of gene expression and cellular metabolism. Overall we find a reduction of protein synthesis capability, a lower energy status, and increased lysosomal capability. SBDS mutant cells have an increased susceptibility to various forms of stress, but are strikingly resistant to oncogene-induced transformation. We propose a model that explains the complex phenotype of SDS patients and suggests roads for a rationale treatment.

The frontier of RNA metamorphosis and ribosome signature in neocortical development

More than a passive effector of gene expression, mRNA translation (protein synthesis) by the ribosome is a rapidly tunable and dynamic molecular mechanism. Neurodevelopmental disorders are associated with abnormalities in mRNA translation, protein synthesis, and neocortical development; yet, we know little about the molecular mechanisms underlying these abnormalities. Furthermore, our understanding of regulation of the ribosome and mRNA translation during normal brain development is only in its early stages. mRNA translation is emerging as a key driver of the rapid and timed regulation of spatiotemporal gene expression in the developing nervous system, including the neocortex. In this review, we focus on the regulatory role of the ribosome in neocortical development, and construct a current understanding of how ribosomal complex specificity may contribute to the development of the neocortex. We also present a microarray analysis of ribosomal protein-coding mRNAs across the neurogenic phase of neocortical development, in addition to the dynamic enrichment of these mRNAs in actively translating neocortical polysomal ribosomes. Understanding the multivariate control of mRNA translation by ribosomal complex specificity will be critical to reveal the intricate mechanisms of normal brain development and pathologies of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Regulatory Roles of Rpl22 in Hematopoiesis: An Old Dog with New Tricks

Ribosomal proteins have long been known to serve critical roles in facilitating the biogenesis of the ribosome and its ability to synthesize proteins. However, evidence is emerging that suggests ribosomal proteins are also capable of performing tissue-restricted, regulatory functions that impact normal development and pathological conditions, including cancer. The challenge in studying such regulatory functions is that elimination of many ribosomal proteins also disrupts ribosome biogenesis and/or function. Thus, it is difficult to determine whether developmental abnormalities resulting from ablation of a ribosomal protein result from loss of core ribosome functions or from loss of the regulatory function of the ribosomal protein. Rpl22, a ribosomal protein component of the large 60S subunit, provides insight into this conundrum; Rpl22 is dispensable for both ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis yet its ablation causes tissue-restricted disruptions in development. Here we review evidence supporting the regulatory functions of Rpl22 and other ribosomal proteins.

A Molecular Titration System Coordinates Ribosomal Protein Gene Transcription with Ribosomal RNA Synthesis

Cell growth potential is determined by the rate of ribosome biogenesis, a complex process that requires massive and coordinated transcriptional output. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ribosome biogenesis is highly regulated at the transcriptional level. Although evidence for a system that coordinates ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal protein gene (RPG) transcription has been described, the molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we show that an interaction between the RPG transcriptional activator Ifh1 and the rRNA processing factor Utp22 serves to coordinate RPG transcription with that of rRNA. We demonstrate that Ifh1 is rapidly released from RPG promoters by a Utp22-independent mechanism following growth inhibition, but that its long-term dissociation requires Utp22. We present evidence that RNA polymerase I activity inhibits the ability of Utp22 to titrate Ifh1 from RPG promoters and propose that a dynamic Ifh1-Utp22 interaction fine-tunes RPG expression to coordinate RPG and rRNA transcription.

The Modular Adaptive Ribosome

The ribosome is an ancient machine, performing the same function across organisms. Although functionally unitary, recent experiments suggest specialized roles for some ribosomal proteins. Our central thesis is that ribosomal proteins function in a modular fashion to decode genetic information in a context dependent manner. We show through large data analyses that although many ribosomal proteins are essential with consistent effect on growth in different conditions in yeast and similar expression across cell and tissue types in mice and humans, some ribosomal proteins are used in an environment specific manner. The latter set of variable ribosomal proteins further function in a coordinated manner forming modules, which are adapted to different environmental cues in different organisms. We show that these environment specific modules of ribosomal proteins in yeast have differential genetic interactions with other pathways and their 5’UTRs show differential signatures of selection in yeast strains, presumably to facilitate adaptation. Similarly, we show that in higher metazoans such as mice and humans, different modules of ribosomal proteins are expressed in different cell types and tissues. A clear example is nervous tissue that uses a ribosomal protein module distinct from the rest of the tissues in both mice and humans. Our results suggest a novel stratification of ribosomal proteins that could have played a role in adaptation, presumably to optimize translation for adaptation to diverse ecological niches and tissue microenvironments.

Mechanistic insight into eukaryotic 60S ribosomal subunit biogenesis by cryo-electron microscopy

Eukaryotic ribosomes, the protein-producing factories of the cell, are composed of four ribosomal RNA molecules and roughly 80 proteins. Their biogenesis is a complex process that involves more than 200 biogenesis factors that facilitate the production, modification, and assembly of ribosomal components and the structural transitions along the maturation pathways of the pre-ribosomal particles. Here, I review recent structural and mechanistic insights into the biogenesis of the large ribosomal subunit that were furthered by cryo-electron microscopy of natively purified pre-60S particles and in vitro reconstituted ribosome assembly factor complexes. Combined with biochemical, genetic, and previous structural data, these structures have provided detailed insights into the assembly and maturation of the central protuberance of the 60S subunit, the network of biogenesis factors near the ribosomal tunnel exit, and the functional activation of the large ribosomal subunit during cytoplasmic maturation.

Arabidopsis small nucleolar RNA monitors the efficient pre-rRNA processing during ribosome biogenesis

Ribosome production in eukaryotes requires the complex and precise coordination of several hundred assembly factors, including many small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). However, at present, the distinct role of key snoRNAs in ribosome biogenesis remains poorly understood in higher plants. Here we report that a previously uncharacterized C (RUGAUGA)/D (CUGA) type snoRNA, HIDDEN TREASURE 2 (HID2), acts as an important regulator of ribosome biogenesis through a snoRNA-rRNA interaction. Nucleolus-localized HID2 is actively expressed in Arabidopsis proliferative tissues, whereas defects in HID2 cause a series of developmental defects reminiscent of ribosomal protein mutants. HID2 associates with the precursor 45S rRNA and promotes the efficiency and accuracy of pre-rRNA processing. Intriguingly, disrupting HID2 in Arabidopsis appears to impair the integrity of 27SB, a key pre-rRNA intermediate that generates 25S and 5.8S rRNA and is known to be vital for the synthesis of the 60S large ribosomal subunit and also produces an imbalanced ribosome profile. Finally, we demonstrate that the antisense-box of HID2 is both functionally essential and highly conserved in eukaryotes. Overall, our study reveals the vital and possibly conserved role of a snoRNA in monitoring the efficiency of pre-rRNA processing during ribosome biogenesis.

Deficiency of the adaptor protein SLy1 results in a natural killer cell ribosomopathy affecting tumor clearance

Individuals with robust natural killer (NK) cell function incur lower rates of malignancies. To expand our understanding of genetic factors contributing to this phenomenon, we analyzed NK cells from cancer resistant and susceptible strains of mice. We identified a correlation between NK levels of the X-chromosome-located adaptor protein SLy1 and immunologic susceptibility to cancer. Unlike the case for T or B lymphocytes, where SLy1 shuttles between the cytoplasm and nucleus to facilitate signal transduction, in NK cells SLy1 functions as a ribosomal protein and is located solely in the cytoplasm. In its absence, ribosomal instability results in p53-mediated NK cell senescence and decreased clearance of malignancies. NK defects are reversible under inflammatory conditions and viral clearance is not impacted by SLy1 deficiency. Our work defines a previously unappreciated X-linked ribosomopathy that results in a specific and subtle NK cell dysfunction leading to immunologic susceptibility to cancer.

RP-MDM2-p53 Pathway: Linking Ribosomal Biogenesis and Tumor Surveillance

Ribosomal biogenesis is tightly associated with cellular activities, such as growth, proliferation, and cell cycle progression. Perturbations in ribosomal biogenesis can initiate so-called nucleolar stress. The process through which ribosomal proteins (RPs) transduce nucleolar stress signals via MDM2 to p53 has been described as a crucial tumor-suppression mechanism. In this review we focus on recent progress pertaining to the function and mechanism of RPs in association with the MDM2-p53 tumor-suppression network, and the potential implications this surveillance network has for cancer development.

The Roles of MDM2 and MDMX in Cancer

For more than 25 years, MDM2 and its homolog MDMX (also known as MDM4) have been shown to exert oncogenic activity. These two proteins are best understood as negative regulators of the p53 tumor suppressor, although they may have additional p53-independent roles. Understanding the dysregulation of MDM2 and MDMX in human cancers and how they function either together or separately in tumorigenesis may improve methods of diagnosis and for assessing prognosis. Targeting the proteins themselves, or their regulators, may be a promising therapeutic approach to treating some forms of cancer.

Ribosome Protein L4 is essential for Epstein-Barr Virus Nuclear Antigen 1 function

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Nuclear Antigen 1 (EBNA1)-mediated origin of plasmid replication (oriP) DNA episome maintenance is essential for EBV-mediated tumorigenesis. We have now found that EBNA1 binds to Ribosome Protein L4 (RPL4). RPL4 shRNA knockdown decreased EBNA1 activation of an oriP luciferase reporter, EBNA1 DNA binding in lymphoblastoid cell lines, and EBV genome number per lymphoblastoid cell line. EBV infection increased RPL4 expression and redistributed RPL4 to cell nuclei. RPL4 and Nucleolin (NCL) were a scaffold for an EBNA1-induced oriP complex. The RPL4 N terminus cooperated with NCL-K429 to support EBNA1 and oriP-mediated episome binding and maintenance, whereas the NCL C-terminal K380 and K393 induced oriP DNA H3K4me2 modification and promoted EBNA1 activation of oriP-dependent transcription. These observations provide new insights into the mechanisms by which EBV uses NCL and RPL4 to establish persistent B-lymphoblastoid cell infection.

Structural dynamics of the yeast Shwachman-Diamond syndrome protein (Sdo1) on the ribosome and its implication in the 60S subunit maturation

The human Shwachman-Diamond syndrome (SDS) is an autosomal recessive disease caused by mutations in a highly conserved ribosome assembly factor SBDS. The functional role of SBDS is to cooperate with another assembly factor, elongation factor 1-like (Efl1), to promote the release of eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6) from the late-stage cytoplasmic 60S precursors. In the present work, we characterized, both biochemically and structurally, the interaction between the 60S subunit and SBDS protein (Sdo1p) from yeast. Our data show that Sdo1p interacts tightly with the mature 60S subunit in vitro through its domain I and II, and is capable of bridging two 60S subunits to form a stable 2:2 dimer. Structural analysis indicates that Sdo1p bind to the ribosomal P-site, in the proximity of uL16 and uL5, and with direct contact to H69 and H38. The dynamic nature of Sdo1p on the 60S subunit, together with its strategic binding position, suggests a surveillance role of Sdo1p in monitoring the conformational maturation of the ribosomal P-site. Altogether, our data support a conformational signal-relay cascade during late-stage 60S maturation, involving uL16, Sdo1p, and Efl1p, which interrogates the functional P-site to control the departure of the anti-association factor eIF6.

Approaches to Inactivate Genes in Zebrafish

Animal models of tumor initiation and tumor progression are essential components toward understanding cancer and designing/validating future therapies. Zebrafish is a powerful model for studying tumorigenesis and has been successfully exploited in drug discovery. According to the zebrafish reference genome, 82 % of disease-associated genes in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database have clear zebrafish orthologues. Using a variety of large-scale random mutagenesis methods developed to date, zebrafish can provide a unique opportunity to identify gene mutations that may be associated with cancer predisposition. On the other hand, newer technologies enabling targeted mutagenesis can facilitate reverse cancer genetic studies and open the door for complex genetic analysis of tumorigenesis. In this chapter, we will describe the various technologies for conducting genome editing in zebrafish with special emphasis on the approaches to inactivate genes.