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Habtewold T, Tapanelli S, Masters EKG, Windbichler N, Christophides GK. The circadian clock modulates Anopheles gambiae infection with Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278484. [PMID: 36454885 PMCID: PMC9714873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Key behaviours, physiologies and gene expressions in Anopheles mosquitoes impact the transmission of Plasmodium. Such mosquito factors are rhythmic to closely follow diel rhythms. Here, we set to explore the impact of the mosquito circadian rhythm on the tripartite interaction between the vector, the parasite and the midgut microbiota, and investigate how this may affect the parasite infection outcomes. We assess Plasmodium falciparum infection prevalence and intensity, as a proxy for gametocyte infectivity, in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes that received a gametocyte-containing bloodfeed and measure the abundance of the midgut microbiota at different times of the mosquito rearing light-dark cycle. Gametocyte infectivity is also compared in mosquitoes reared and maintained under a reversed light-dark regime. The effect of the circadian clock on the infection outcome is also investigated through silencing of the CLOCK gene that is central in the regulation of animal circadian rhythms. The results reveal that the A. gambiae circadian cycle plays a key role in the intensity of infection of P. falciparum gametocytes. We show that parasite gametocytes are more infectious during the night-time, where standard membrane feeding assays (SMFAs) at different time points in the mosquito natural circadian rhythm demonstrate that gametocytes are more infectious when ingested at midnight than midday. When mosquitoes were cultured under a reversed light/dark regime, disrupting their natural physiological homeostasis, and infected with P. falciparum at evening hours, the infection intensity and prevalence were significantly decreased. Similar results were obtained in mosquitoes reared under the standard light/dark regime upon silencing of CLOCK, a key regulator of the circadian rhythm, highlighting the importance of the circadian rhythm for the mosquito vectorial capacity. At that time, the mosquito midgut microbiota load is significantly reduced, while the expression of lysozyme C-1 (LYSC-1) is elevated, which is involved in both the immune response and microbiota digestion. We conclude that the tripartite interactions between the mosquito vector, the malaria parasite and the mosquito gut microbiota are finely tuned to support and maintain malaria transmission. Our data add to the knowledge framework required for designing appropriate and biologically relevant SMFA protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibebu Habtewold
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sofia Tapanelli
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen K. G. Masters
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nikolai Windbichler
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Kearney EA, Agius PA, Chaumeau V, Cutts JC, Simpson JA, Fowkes FJI. Anopheles salivary antigens as serological biomarkers of vector exposure and malaria transmission: A systematic review with multilevel modelling. eLife 2021; 10:e73080. [PMID: 34939933 PMCID: PMC8860437 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Entomological surveillance for malaria is inherently resource-intensive and produces crude population-level measures of vector exposure which are insensitive in low-transmission settings. Antibodies against Anopheles salivary proteins measured at the individual level may serve as proxy biomarkers for vector exposure and malaria transmission, but their relationship is yet to be quantified. Methods A systematic review of studies measuring antibodies against Anopheles salivary antigens (PROSPERO: CRD42020185449). Multilevel modelling (to account for multiple study-specific observations [level 1], nested within study [level 2], and study nested within country [level 3]) estimated associations between seroprevalence with Anopheles human biting rate (HBR) and malaria transmission measures. Results From 3981 studies identified in literature searches, 42 studies across 16 countries were included contributing 393 study-specific observations of anti-Anopheles salivary antibodies determined in 42,764 samples. A positive association between HBR (log transformed) and seroprevalence was found; overall a twofold (100% relative) increase in HBR was associated with a 23% increase in odds of seropositivity (OR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.37; p<0.001). The association between HBR and Anopheles salivary antibodies was strongest with concordant, rather than discordant, Anopheles species. Seroprevalence was also significantly positively associated with established epidemiological measures of malaria transmission: entomological inoculation rate, Plasmodium spp. prevalence, and malarial endemicity class. Conclusions Anopheles salivary antibody biomarkers can serve as a proxy measure for HBR and malaria transmission, and could monitor malaria receptivity of a population to sustain malaria transmission. Validation of Anopheles species-specific biomarkers is important given the global heterogeneity in the distribution of Anopheles species. Salivary biomarkers have the potential to transform surveillance by replacing impractical, inaccurate entomological investigations, especially in areas progressing towards malaria elimination. Funding Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen A Kearney
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Paul A Agius
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Victor Chaumeau
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol UniversityMae SotThailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Julia C Cutts
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Medicine at the Doherty Institute, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Julie A Simpson
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Freya JI Fowkes
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
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Identification and Functional Analysis of a Lysozyme Gene from Coridius chinensis (Hemiptera: Dinidoridae). BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10040330. [PMID: 33920041 PMCID: PMC8071013 DOI: 10.3390/biology10040330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary As a medicinal insect, Coridius chinensis contains many active polypeptides. Extracts from C. chinensis are usually complex and it is not clear which polypeptides are effective medicinal ingredients. In addition, we also need to figure out the functions of various immune effectors in the innate immunity of C. chinensis. To explore the function of lysozyme in C. chinensis, a lysozyme gene CcLys2 was screened and identified from the transcriptome data of C. chinensis. The results showed that CcLys2 had a typical domain of the c-type lysozyme, belonging to the H-branch of the c-type lysozyme. The lysozyme Cclys2 is an effective immune effector in the immune response of C. chinensis and can be stimulated by bacterial infection. Like typical c-type lysozyme, Cclys2 has lytic activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The research holds promise for functional annotation of similar proteins from other dinidoridae insects and provides the theoretical feasibility for the development of medicinal components in C. chinensis. Our results also provide data for further investigating the origin and evolution of insect lysozymes. Abstract Coridius chinensis is a valuable medicinal insect resource in China. Previous studies have indicated that the antibacterial and anticancer effects of the C. chinensis extract mainly come from the active polypeptides. Lysozyme is an effective immune effector in insect innate immunity and usually has excellent bactericidal effects. There are two kinds of lysozymes in insects, c-type and i-type, which play an important role in innate immunity and intestinal digestion. Studying lysozyme in C. chinensis will be helpful to further explore the evolutionary relationship and functional differences among lysozymes of various species and to determine whether they have biological activity and medicinal value. In this study, a lysozyme CcLys2 was identified from C. chinensis. CcLys2 contains 223 amino acid residues, and possesses a typical domain of the c-type lysozyme and a putative catalytic site formed by two conserved residues Glu32 and Asp50. Phylogenetic analysis showed that CcLys2 belongs to the H-branch of the c-type lysozyme. The analysis of spatiotemporal expression patterns indicated that CcLys2 was mainly expressed in the fat body of C. chinensis adults and was highly expressed in the second- and fifth-instar nymphs. In addition, CcLys2 was significantly up-regulated after injecting and feeding bacteria. In the bacterial inhibition assay, it was found that CcLys2 had antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria at a low pH. These results indicate that CcLys2 has muramidase activity, involves in the innate immunity of C. chinensis, and is also closely related to the bacterial immune defense or digestive function of the intestine.
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Mang'era CM, Khamis FM, Awuoche EO, Hassanali A, Ombura FLO, Mireji PO. Transcriptomic response of Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquito larvae to Curry tree (Murraya koenigii) phytochemicals. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:1. [PMID: 33388087 PMCID: PMC7777392 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04505-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insect growth regulators (IGRs) can control insect vector populations by disrupting growth and development in juvenile stages of the vectors. We previously identified and described the curry tree (Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng) phytochemical leaf extract composition (neplanocin A, 3-(1-naphthyl)-L-alanine, lumiflavine, terezine C, agelaspongin and murrayazolinol), which disrupted growth and development in Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquito larvae by inducing morphogenetic abnormalities, reducing locomotion and delaying pupation in the mosquito. Here, we attempted to establish the transcriptional process in the larvae that underpins these phenotypes in the mosquito. METHODS We first exposed third-fourth instar larvae of the mosquito to the leaf extract and consequently the inherent phytochemicals (and corresponding non-exposed controls) in two independent biological replicates. We collected the larvae for our experiments sampled 24 h before peak pupation, which was 7 and 18 days post-exposure for controls and exposed larvae, respectively. The differences in duration to peak pupation were due to extract-induced growth delay in the larvae. The two study groups (exposed vs control) were consequently not age-matched. We then sequentially (i) isolated RNA (whole larvae) from each replicate treatment, (ii) sequenced the RNA on Illumina HiSeq platform, (iii) performed differential bioinformatics analyses between libraries (exposed vs control) and (iv) independently validated the transcriptome expression profiles through RT-qPCR. RESULTS Our analyses revealed significant induction of transcripts predominantly associated with hard cuticular proteins, juvenile hormone esterases, immunity and detoxification in the larvae samples exposed to the extract relative to the non-exposed control samples. Our analysis also revealed alteration of pathways functionally associated with putrescine metabolism and structural constituents of the cuticle in the extract-exposed larvae relative to the non-exposed control, putatively linked to the exoskeleton and immune response in the larvae. The extract-exposed larvae also appeared to have suppressed pathways functionally associated with molting, cell division and growth in the larvae. However, given the age mismatch between the extract-exposed and non-exposed larvae, we can attribute the modulation of innate immune, detoxification, cuticular and associated transcripts and pathways we observed to effects of age differences among the larvae samples (exposed vs control) and to exposures of the larvae to the extract. CONCLUSIONS The exposure treatment appears to disrupt cuticular development, immune response and oxidative stress pathways in Anopheles gambiae s.s larvae. These pathways can potentially be targeted in development of more efficacious curry tree phytochemical-based IGRs against An. gambiae s.s mosquito larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarence M Mang'era
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Njoro Campus, PO Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya. .,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Fathiya M Khamis
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erick O Awuoche
- Department of Biological Sciences, Meru University of Science and Technology, PO Box 972-60200, Meru, Kenya
| | - Ahmed Hassanali
- Department of Chemistry, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Fidelis Levi Odhiambo Ombura
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Paul O Mireji
- Biotechnology Research Institute-Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, PO Box 362-00902, Kikuyu, Kenya.
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Cardoso-Jaime V, Maya-Maldonado K, Celestino-Montes A, Tsutsumi V, Hernández-Martínez S. Lysozyme c-1 gene is overexpressed in Anopheles albimanus pericardial cells after an immune challenge. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 114:103830. [PMID: 32805306 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Different evidences suggest that pericardial cells play an important role during the immune response against pathogens that invade the mosquito hemocoel. Previously, we identified two lysozyme genes in Anopheles albimanus heart transcriptome. The present study showed that one of these genes (IDVB: AALB004517) has high percentage of identity to mosquito lysozyme genes related to immunity, suggesting its possible participation during the mosquito immune response. This An. albimanus gen, constitutively expressed lysozyme c-1 mRNA (albLys c-1) in mosquito heart; however, it was overexpressed in bacteria-injected mosquitoes. In heart extract samples, we identified a protein of approximately 14 kDa (likely lysozyme c-1), which lysed M. luteus. In addition, mRNA-FISH assay in heart samples, showed specific fluorescent hybridization signal in pericardial cells from M. luteus-injected mosquitos. We conclude that for the first time an inducible immune factor (lysozyme c-1) is identified in Anopheles albimanus mosquito pericardial cells, which could be a key component in the response against pathogens that interact with the mosquito heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Cardoso-Jaime
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Krystal Maya-Maldonado
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Antonio Celestino-Montes
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Víctor Tsutsumi
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
| | - Salvador Hernández-Martínez
- Centro de Investigación Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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6
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Estévez-Lao TY, Sigle LT, Gomez SN, Hillyer JF. Nitric oxide produced by periostial hemocytes modulates the bacterial infection-induced reduction of the mosquito heart rate. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb225821. [PMID: 32561636 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.225821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The circulatory and immune systems of mosquitoes are functionally integrated. An infection induces the migration of hemocytes to the dorsal vessel, and specifically, to the regions surrounding the ostia of the heart. These periostial hemocytes phagocytose pathogens in the areas of the hemocoel that experience the highest hemolymph flow. Here, we investigated whether a bacterial infection affects cardiac rhythmicity in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae We discovered that infection with Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, but not Micrococcus luteus, reduces the mosquito heart rate and alters the proportional directionality of heart contractions. Infection does not alter the expression of genes encoding crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP), FMRFamide, corazonin, neuropeptide F or short neuropeptide F, indicating that they do not drive the cardiac phenotype. Infection upregulates the transcription of two superoxide dismutase (SOD) genes, catalase and a glutathione peroxidase, but dramatically induces upregulation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in both the heart and hemocytes. Within the heart, nitric oxide synthase is produced by periostial hemocytes, and chemically inhibiting the production of nitric oxide using l-NAME reverses the infection-induced cardiac phenotype. Finally, infection induces the upregulation of two lysozyme genes in the heart and other tissues, and treating mosquitoes with lysozyme reduces the heart rate in a manner reminiscent of the infection phenotype. These data demonstrate an exciting new facet of the integration between the immune and circulatory systems of insects, whereby a hemocyte-produced factor with immune activity, namely nitric oxide, modulates heart physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Y Estévez-Lao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Leah T Sigle
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Scherly N Gomez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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Abstract
The composition of insect hemolymph can change depending on many factors, e.g. access to nutrients, stress conditions, and current needs of the insect. In this chapter, insect immune-related polypeptides, which can be permanently or occasionally present in the hemolymph, are described. Their division into peptides or low-molecular weight proteins is not always determined by the length or secondary structure of a given molecule but also depends on the mode of action in insect immunity and, therefore, it is rather arbitrary. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with their role in immunity, modes of action, and classification are presented in the chapter, followed by a short description of some examples: cecropins, moricins, defensins, proline- and glycine-rich peptides. Further, we will describe selected immune-related proteins that may participate in immune recognition, may possess direct antimicrobial properties, or can be involved in the modulation of insect immunity by both abiotic and biotic factors. We briefly cover Fibrinogen-Related Proteins (FREPs), Down Syndrome Cell Adhesion Molecules (Dscam), Hemolin, Lipophorins, Lysozyme, Insect Metalloproteinase Inhibitor (IMPI), and Heat Shock Proteins. The reader will obtain a partial picture presenting molecules participating in one of the most efficient immune strategies found in the animal world, which allow insects to inhabit all ecological land niches in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Wojda
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Cytryńska
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Zdybicka-Barabas
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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Ramírez-Carreto S, Vera-Estrella R, Portillo-Bobadilla T, Licea-Navarro A, Bernaldez-Sarabia J, Rudiño-Piñera E, Verleyen JJ, Rodríguez E, Rodríguez-Almazán C. Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analysis of the Tentacles and Mucus of Anthopleura dowii Verrill, 1869. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17080436. [PMID: 31349621 PMCID: PMC6722582 DOI: 10.3390/md17080436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sea anemone venom contains a complex and diverse arsenal of peptides and proteins of pharmacological and biotechnological interest, however, only venom from a few species has been explored from a global perspective to date. In the present study, we identified the polypeptides present in the venom of the sea anemone Anthopleura dowii Verrill, 1869 through a transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of the tentacles and the proteomic profile of the secreted mucus. In our transcriptomic results, we identified 261 polypeptides related to or predicted to be secreted in the venom, including proteases, neurotoxins that could act as either potassium (K+) or sodium (Na+) channels inhibitors, protease inhibitors, phospholipases A2, and other polypeptides. Our proteomic data allowed the identification of 156 polypeptides—48 exclusively identified in the mucus, 20 in the tentacles, and 88 in both protein samples. Only 23 polypeptides identified by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) were related to the venom and 21 exclusively identified in the mucus, most corresponding to neurotoxins and hydrolases. Our data contribute to the knowledge of evolutionary and venomic analyses of cnidarians, particularly of sea anemones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santos Ramírez-Carreto
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Rosario Vera-Estrella
- Departamento de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Tobías Portillo-Bobadilla
- Unidad de Bioinformática, Bioestadística y Biología Computacional. Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Coordinación de la Investigación Científica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Calle Vasco de Quiroga 15, Tlalpan, C.P. 14080, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alexei Licea-Navarro
- Departamento de Innovación Biomédica, CICESE, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana 3918, Ensenada, BC C.P. 22860, México
| | - Johanna Bernaldez-Sarabia
- Departamento de Innovación Biomédica, CICESE, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana 3918, Ensenada, BC C.P. 22860, México
| | - Enrique Rudiño-Piñera
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Jerome J Verleyen
- Unidad Universitaria de Secuenciación Masiva y Bioinformática, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Estefanía Rodríguez
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Claudia Rodríguez-Almazán
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México.
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Zhu L, Tang X, Xing J, Sheng X, Zhan W. Differential proteome of haemocyte subpopulations responded to white spot syndrome virus infection in Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 84:82-93. [PMID: 29427599 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In our previous study, the differentially expressed proteins have been identified by proteomic analysis in total haemocytes of shrimp (Fenneropenaeus chinensis) after white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection. To further investigate the differential response of haemocyte subpopulations to WSSV infection, granulocytes and hyalinocytes were separated from healthy and WSSV-infected shrimp by immunomagnetic bead (IMB) method, respectively. Then two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and mass spectrometry (MS) were used to analyze the differentially expressed proteins in haemocyte subpopulations between healthy and WSSV-infected shrimp. The results of flow cytometry (FCM) showed that about 98% of granulocytes and about 96% of hyalinocytes in purity were obtained. Quantitative intensity analysis revealed that 26 protein spots in granulocytes and 24 spots in hyalinocytes were significantly changed post WSSV infection. Among them, 24 proteins in granulocytes and 23 proteins in hyalinocytes were identified by MS analysis, which could be divided into eight categories according to Gene Ontology. The identification of prophenoloxidase (proPO), proPO 2 and peroxiredoxin in WSSV-infected granulocytes was consistent with the facts that the proPO-activating system and peroxiredoxin were mainly existed in granulocytes. The phagocytosis of hyalinocytes seemed to be enhanced during the infection, because several proteins that involved in phagocytosis, including clathrin heavy chain, ADP ribosylation factor 4 and Alpha2 macroglobulin were up-regulated in hyalinocytes upon WSSV infection. Our results also reflected the vital biological significance of calcium ion binding proteins in granulocytes and ATPase/GTPase in hyalinocytes during WSSV infection. The data in this study verified the roles of granulocytes and hyalinocytes involved in WSSV infection, and differentially expressed proteins identified in granulocytes and hyalinocytes had a close correlation with their function characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhu
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Xiaoqian Tang
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Jing Xing
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xiuzhen Sheng
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Wenbin Zhan
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China
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Wang ZZ, Zhan LQ, Chen XX. Two types of lysozymes from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci: Molecular characterization and functional diversification. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 81:252-261. [PMID: 29247722 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysozyme is well-known as an immune effector in the immune system. Here we identified three genes including one c-type lysozyme, Btlysc, and two i-type lysozymes, Btlysi1 and Btlysi2, from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. All three lysozymes were constitutively expressed in different tissues and developmental stages, but the two types of lysozymes showed different expression patterns. The expression levels of Btlysi1 and Btlysi2 were dramatically induced after the whitefly fed with different host plants while the expression level of Btlysc kept unchanged. After fungal infection and begomovirus acquisition, Btlysc expression was significantly upregulated while Btlysi1 and Btlysi2 expression were basically not induced. Furthermore, we found that Btlysc showed muramidase and antibacterial activities. Altogether, our results suggest that the two types of lysozymes act in two different ways in B. tabaci, that is, Btlysc is involved in the whitefly immune system while Btlysi1 and Btlysi2 may play a role in digestion or nutrition absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Zhi Wang
- State Key Lab of Rice Biology and Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Le-Qing Zhan
- State Key Lab of Rice Biology and Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xue-Xin Chen
- State Key Lab of Rice Biology and Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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11
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League GP, Estévez-Lao TY, Yan Y, Garcia-Lopez VA, Hillyer JF. Anopheles gambiae larvae mount stronger immune responses against bacterial infection than adults: evidence of adaptive decoupling in mosquitoes. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:367. [PMID: 28764812 PMCID: PMC5539753 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2302-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The immune system of adult mosquitoes has received significant attention because of the ability of females to vector disease-causing pathogens while ingesting blood meals. However, few studies have focused on the immune system of larvae, which, we hypothesize, is highly robust due to the high density and diversity of microorganisms that larvae encounter in their aquatic environments and the strong selection pressures at work in the larval stage to ensure survival to reproductive maturity. Here, we surveyed a broad range of cellular and humoral immune parameters in larvae of the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, and compared their potency to that of newly-emerged adults and older adults. RESULTS We found that larvae kill bacteria in their hemocoel with equal or greater efficiency compared to newly-emerged adults, and that antibacterial ability declines further with adult age, indicative of senescence. This phenotype correlates with more circulating hemocytes and a differing spatial arrangement of sessile hemocytes in larvae relative to adults, as well as with the individual hemocytes of adults carrying a greater phagocytic burden. The hemolymph of larvae also possesses markedly stronger antibacterial lytic and melanization activity than the hemolymph of adults. Finally, infection induces a stronger transcriptional upregulation of immunity genes in larvae than in adults, including differences in the immunity genes that are regulated. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that immunity is strongest in larvae and declines after metamorphosis and with adult age, and suggest that adaptive decoupling, or the independent evolution of larval and adult traits made possible by metamorphosis, has occurred in the mosquito lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett P. League
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN USA
| | | | - Yan Yan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN USA
| | | | - Julián F. Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN USA
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12
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Abdolmaleki A, Dastjerdi H, Tanha Maafi Z, Naseri B. Cellular and humoral responses of Pieris brassicae to infection by Steinernema feltiae, its symbiont bacteria, and their metabolites. NEMATOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685411-00003062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study describes the mortality effects of the culture broth ofXenorhabdus bovieniiand its aqueous and organic extracts onPieris brassicaelarvae. All the treatments had insecticidal activities when injected into the haemocoel. The culture broth of bacteria and its aqueous extracts exhibited more insecticidal activity. The results showed the immune response ofP. brassicaeexposed toSteinernema feltiae, its symbiont bacteria,X. bovienii, and aqueous and organic extracts of bacteria. Both cellular and humoral responses were investigated. After infection of the larvae ofP. brassicaewithS. feltiae, the total number of haemocytes quickly increased. A reduction in the number of haemocytes was observed over post-injection time. In addition, plasmatocytes and granulocytes showed increased frequency and significant changes when compared to other haemocytes in responding to entomopathogenic nematode injection.Steinernema feltiaeincreased phenoloxidase activity but 3 h post-injection the concentration gradually decreased. However, a reduction in phenoloxidase activity was observed when the larvae were infected with bacteria or their aqueous and organic extracts. This study showed that both living and heat-killed bacteria have suppression effects on phenoloxidase activity. The lysozyme concentration increased inP. brassicaelarvae when they were exposed to living and heat-killedX. bovienii. No suppression effect of the bacteria was detected on lysozyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Abdolmaleki
- Department of Entomology, Agricultural Sciences Faculty, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Hooshang Rafiee Dastjerdi
- Department of Entomology, Agricultural Sciences Faculty, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Zahra Tanha Maafi
- Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahram Naseri
- Department of Entomology, Agricultural Sciences Faculty, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
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13
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Molecular Characterization of a Lysozyme Gene and Its Altered Expression Profile in Crowded Beet Webworm (Loxostege sticticalis). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161384. [PMID: 27575006 PMCID: PMC5019359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that insects living in high-density populations exhibit an increase in immune function to counter a higher risk of disease. This phenomenon, known as density-dependent prophylaxis, has been experimentally tested in a number of insect species. Although density-dependent prophylaxis is especially prevalent in insects exhibiting density-dependent phase polyphenism, the molecular mechanism remains unclear. Our previous study demonstrated that the antibacterial activity of lysozyme is important for this process in the beet webworm Loxostege sticticalis. In this study, a lysozyme cDNA from L. sticticalis was cloned and characterized. The full-length cDNA is 1078 bp long and contains an open reading frame of 426 bp that encodes 142 amino acids. The deduced protein possesses structural characteristics of a typical c-type lysozyme and clusters with c-type lysozymes from other Lepidoptera. LsLysozyme was found to be expressed throughout all developmental stages, showing the highest level in pupae. LsLysozyme was also highly expressed in the midgut and fat body. Elevated LsLysozyme expression was observed in L. sticticalis larvae infected by Beauveria bassiana and in larvae reared under crowding conditions. In addition, the expression level of LsLysozyme in infected larvae reared at a density of 10 larvae per jar was significantly higher compared to those reared at a density of l or 30 larvae per jar. These results suggest that larval crowding affects the gene expression profile of this lysozyme. This study provides additional insight into the expression of an immune-associated lysozyme gene and helps us to better understand the immune response of L. sticticalis under crowding conditions.
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Mohamed AA, Zhang L, Dorrah MA, Elmogy M, Yousef HA, Bassal TTM, Duvic B. Molecular characterization of a c-type lysozyme from the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera: Acrididae). DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 61:60-69. [PMID: 26997372 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysozymes are bacteriolytic peptides that are implicated in the insect nonspecific innate immune responses. In this study, a full-length cDNA encoding a c-type lysozyme from Schistocerca gregaria (SgLys) has been cloned and characterized from the fat body of immune-challenged 5(th) instar. The deduced mature lysozyme is 119 amino acid residues in length, has a calculated molecular mass of 13.4 kDa and an isoelectric point (Ip) of 9.2. SgLys showed high identities with other insect lysozymes, ranging from 41.5% to 93.3% by BLASTp search in NCBI. Eukaryotic in vitro expression of the SgLys ORF (rSgLys) with an apparent molecular mass of ∼16 kDa under SDS-PAGE is close to the calculated molecular weight of the full-length protein. rSgLys displayed growth inhibitory activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. 3D structure modeling of SgLys, based on comparison with that of silkworm lysozyme, and sequence comparison with the helix-loop-helix (α-hairpin) structure of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) were employed to interpret the antibacterial potencies. Phylogenetic alignments indicate that SgLys aligns well with insect c-type lysozymes that expressed principally in fat body and hemocytes and whose role has been defined as immune-related. Western blot analysis showed that SgLys expression was highest at 6-12 h post-bacterial challenge and subsequently decreased with time. Transcriptional profiles of SgLys were determined by semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis. SgLys transcript was upregulated at the highest level in fat body, hemocytes, salivary gland, thoracic muscles, and epidermal tissue. It was expressed in all developmental stages from egg to adult. These data indicate that SgLys is a predominant acute-phase protein that is expressed and upregulated upon immune challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amr A Mohamed
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, P. O. Box 12613, Giza, Egypt.
| | - Long Zhang
- Key Lab for Biological Control of the Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Moataza A Dorrah
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, P. O. Box 12613, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Elmogy
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, P. O. Box 12613, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hesham A Yousef
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, P. O. Box 12613, Giza, Egypt
| | - Taha T M Bassal
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, P. O. Box 12613, Giza, Egypt
| | - Bernard Duvic
- Unité DGIMI UMR INRA-UM 1333, Université Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon, Montpellier, France
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Beckert A, Wiesner J, Baumann A, Pöppel AK, Vogel H, Vilcinskas A. Two c-type lysozymes boost the innate immune system of the invasive ladybird Harmonia axyridis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 49:303-312. [PMID: 25479015 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The invasive ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis has a two-layered immune system, featuring the constitutive production of the low-molecular-mass antimicrobial compound harmonine and the inducible production of a broad range of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Here we show that the immune system also features two c-type lysozymes, the acidic c-lys3 (pI = 5.46) and the basic c-lys4 (pI = 8.18). The injection of bacteria into H.axyridis boosted c-lys4 gene expression 8-fold in the gut, whereas the c-lys3 gene was expressed at comparable levels in both naïve and challenged beetles. Both c-lys3 and c-lys4 were expressed in Pichia pastoris and the bacteriolytic activity of the recombinant proteins was found to be calcium-dependent with pH maxima of 6.0 and 6.5, respectively. In a Bacillus subtilis growth inhibition assay, the antimicrobial activity of harmonine and two highly-inducible H.axyridis AMPs (coleoptericins) was potentiated in the presence of c-lys4 but not c-lys3, resulting in 4-fold (harmonine) and up to 16-fold (AMP) lower minimum inhibitory concentrations. Our results suggest that two structurally and functionally distinct lysozymes contribute to innate immune responses of H.axyridis and augment the harmonine and AMP components of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Beckert
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Winchester Strasse 2, 35394 Gießen, Germany; Institute for Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Jochen Wiesner
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Winchester Strasse 2, 35394 Gießen, Germany
| | - Andre Baumann
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Winchester Strasse 2, 35394 Gießen, Germany; Institute for Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Anne-Kathrin Pöppel
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Winchester Strasse 2, 35394 Gießen, Germany; Institute for Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Heiko Vogel
- Department of Entomology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knoell-Strasse 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Winchester Strasse 2, 35394 Gießen, Germany; Institute for Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.
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16
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Stathopoulos S, Neafsey DE, Lawniczak MKN, Muskavitch MAT, Christophides GK. Genetic dissection of Anopheles gambiae gut epithelial responses to Serratia marcescens. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003897. [PMID: 24603764 PMCID: PMC3946313 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic variation in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae profoundly influences its ability to transmit malaria. Mosquito gut bacteria are shown to influence the outcome of infections with Plasmodium parasites and are also thought to exert a strong drive on genetic variation through natural selection; however, a link between antibacterial effects and genetic variation is yet to emerge. Here, we combined SNP genotyping and expression profiling with phenotypic analyses of candidate genes by RNAi-mediated silencing and 454 pyrosequencing to investigate this intricate biological system. We identified 138 An. gambiae genes to be genetically associated with the outcome of Serratia marcescens infection, including the peptidoglycan recognition receptor PGRPLC that triggers activation of the antibacterial IMD/REL2 pathway and the epidermal growth factor receptor EGFR. Silencing of three genes encoding type III fibronectin domain proteins (FN3Ds) increased the Serratia load and altered the gut microbiota composition in favor of Enterobacteriaceae. These data suggest that natural genetic variation in immune-related genes can shape the bacterial population structure of the mosquito gut with high specificity. Importantly, FN3D2 encodes a homolog of the hypervariable pattern recognition receptor Dscam, suggesting that pathogen-specific recognition may involve a broader family of immune factors. Additionally, we showed that silencing the gene encoding the gustatory receptor Gr9 that is also associated with the Serratia infection phenotype drastically increased Serratia levels. The Gr9 antibacterial activity appears to be related to mosquito feeding behavior and to mostly rely on changes of neuropeptide F expression, together suggesting a behavioral immune response following Serratia infection. Our findings reveal that the mosquito response to oral Serratia infection comprises both an epithelial and a behavioral immune component. In malaria vector mosquitoes, the presence of bacteria and malaria parasites is tightly linked. Bacteria that are part of the mosquito gut ecosystem are critical modulators of the immune response elicited during infection with malaria parasites. Furthermore, responses against oral bacterial infections can affect malaria parasites. Here, we combined mosquito gut infections with the enterobacterium Serratia marcescens with genome-wide discovery and phenotypic analysis of genes involved in antibacterial responses to characterize molecular processes that control gut bacterial infections thus possibly affecting the mosquito susceptibility to infection by malaria parasites. Our data reveal complex genetic networks controlling the gut bacterial infection load and ecosystem homeostasis. These networks appear to exhibit much higher specificity toward specific classes of bacteria than previously thought and include behavioral response circuits involved in antibacterial immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - George K. Christophides
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
- * E-mail:
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17
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Zhang M, Zhou F, Chu Y, Zhao Z, An C. Identification and expression profile analysis of antimicrobial peptide/protein in Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée). Int J Biol Sci 2013; 9:1004-12. [PMID: 24155672 PMCID: PMC3805904 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.6813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides/proteins (AMPs) are a group of immune proteins that exhibit strong antibiotic properties against numerous infectious bacterial strains. They are evolutionarily conserved and present in every kingdom and phylum, ranging from prokaryotes to humans. We analyzed the transciptome from the larvae of Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée), and identified several putative AMP transcripts, OfgLys5, OfgLys6, OfgLys10, OfgAtt, and OfgIID. OfgLys5, OfgLys6, and OfgLys10 are all highly homologous with c-type lysozymes, and OfgAtt shows significant identities with Lepidoptera attacin. The amino acid sequence of OfgLys5 and OfgLys6 possessed all conserved features critical for fundamental structure and function of c-type lysozyme, including the two catalytic sites, Glu32 and Asp50. OfgAtt is a typical glycine-rich protein. The antimicrobial activity of O. furnacalis hemolymph increased significantly after injection with Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, or Beauveria bassiana. OfgAtt, IDD, and Lys6 are expressed at low level prior to the challenge, but strongly induced against Gram-positive and negative bacteria, and fungi. Under the same inducement conditions, the transcripts of these three genes elevated most when fifth instar larvae were injected. Therefore, O. furnacalis larvae are induced to produce antimicrobial materials in the hemolymph after the infection, and increase of lysozyme and attacin may contribute to the antimicrobial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Zhang
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
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18
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Umasuthan N, Bathige SDNK, Kasthuri SR, Wan Q, Whang I, Lee J. Two duplicated chicken-type lysozyme genes in disc abalone Haliotis discus discus: molecular aspects in relevance to structure, genomic organization, mRNA expression and bacteriolytic function. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:284-299. [PMID: 23664908 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2012] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Lysozymes are crucial antibacterial proteins that are associated with catalytic cleavage of peptidoglycan and subsequent bacteriolysis. The present study describes the identification of two lysozyme genes from disc abalone Haliotis discus discus and their characterization at sequence-, genomic-, transcriptional- and functional-levels. Two cDNAs and BAC clones bearing lysozyme genes were isolated from abalone transcriptome and BAC genomic libraries, respectively and sequences were determined. Corresponding deduced amino acid sequences harbored a chicken-type lysozyme (LysC) family profile and exhibited conserved characteristics of LysC family members including active residues (Glu and Asp) and GS(S/T)DYGIFQINS motif suggested that they are LysC counterparts in disc abalone and designated as abLysC1 and abLysC2. While abLysC1 represented the homolog recently reported in Ezo abalone [1], abLysC2 shared significant identity with LysC homologs. Unlike other vertebrate LysCs, coding sequence of abLysCs were distributed within five exons interrupted by four introns. Both abLysCs revealed a broader mRNA distribution with highest levels in mantle (abLysC1) and hepatopancreas (abLysC2) suggesting their likely main role in defense and digestion, respectively. Investigation of temporal transcriptional profiles post-LPS and -pathogen challenges revealed induced-responses of abLysCs in gills and hemocytes. The in vitro muramidase activity of purified recombinant (r) abLysCs proteins was evaluated, and findings indicated that they are active in acidic pH range (3.5-6.5) and over a broad temperature range (20-60 °C) and influenced by ionic strength. When the antibacterial spectra of (r)abLysCs were examined, they displayed differential activities against both Gram positive and Gram negative strains providing evidence for their involvement in bacteriolytic function in abalone physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navaneethaiyer Umasuthan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea
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Wang Q, Wang C, Mu C, Wu H, Zhang L, Zhao J. A novel C-type lysozyme from Mytilus galloprovincialis: insight into innate immunity and molecular evolution of invertebrate C-type lysozymes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67469. [PMID: 23818979 PMCID: PMC3688608 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A c-type lysozyme (named as MgCLYZ) gene was cloned from the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Blast analysis indicated that MgCLYZ was a salivary c-type lysozyme which was mainly found in insects. The nucleotide sequence of MgCLYZ was predicted to encode a polypeptide of 154 amino acid residues with the signal peptide comprising the first 24 residues. The deduced mature peptide of MgCLYZ was of a calculated molecular weight of 14.4 kD and a theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 8.08. Evolution analysis suggested that bivalve branch of the invertebrate c-type lysozymes phylogeny tree underwent positive selection during evolution. By quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis, MgCLYZ transcript was widely detected in all examined tissues and responded sensitively to bacterial challenge in hemocytes and hepatopancreas. The optimal temperature and pH of recombinant MgCLYZ (rMgCLYZ) were 20°C and 4, respectively. The rMgCLYZ displayed lytic activities against Gram-positive bacteria including Micrococcus luteus and Staphyloccocus aureus, and Gram-negative bacteria including Vibrio anguillarum, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas putida, Proteus mirabilis and Bacillus aquimaris. These results suggest that MgCLYZ perhaps play an important role in innate immunity of M. galloprovincialis, and invertebrate c-type lysozymes might be under positive selection in a species-specific manner during evolution for undergoing adaptation to different environment and diverse pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunyan Wang
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, People’s Republic of China
| | - Changkao Mu
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huifeng Wu
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Linbao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianmin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, People’s Republic of China
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20
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Futahashi R, Tanaka K, Tanahashi M, Nikoh N, Kikuchi Y, Lee BL, Fukatsu T. Gene expression in gut symbiotic organ of stinkbug affected by extracellular bacterial symbiont. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64557. [PMID: 23691247 PMCID: PMC3653873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bean bug Riptortus pedestris possesses a specialized symbiotic organ in a posterior region of the midgut, where numerous crypts harbor extracellular betaproteobacterial symbionts of the genus Burkholderia. Second instar nymphs orally acquire the symbiont from the environment, and the symbiont infection benefits the host by facilitating growth and by occasionally conferring insecticide resistance. Here we performed comparative transcriptomic analyses of insect genes expressed in symbiotic and non-symbiotic regions of the midgut dissected from Burkholderia-infected and uninfected R. pedestris. Expression sequence tag analysis of cDNA libraries and quantitative reverse transcription PCR identified a number of insect genes expressed in symbiosis- or aposymbiosis-associated patterns. For example, genes up-regulated in symbiotic relative to aposymbiotic individuals, including many cysteine-rich secreted protein genes and many cathepsin protease genes, are likely to play a role in regulating the symbiosis. Conversely, genes up-regulated in aposymbiotic relative to symbiotic individuals, including a chicken-type lysozyme gene and a defensin-like protein gene, are possibly involved in regulation of non-symbiotic bacterial infections. Our study presents the first transcriptomic data on gut symbiotic organ of a stinkbug, which provides initial clues to understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying the insect-bacterium gut symbiosis and sheds light on several intriguing commonalities between endocellular and extracellular symbiotic associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Futahashi
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Bao YY, Qu LY, Zhao D, Chen LB, Jin HY, Xu LM, Cheng JA, Zhang CX. The genome- and transcriptome-wide analysis of innate immunity in the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:160. [PMID: 23497397 PMCID: PMC3616906 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) is one of the most serious rice plant pests in Asia. N. lugens causes extensive rice damage by sucking rice phloem sap, which results in stunted plant growth and the transmission of plant viruses. Despite the importance of this insect pest, little is known about the immunological mechanisms occurring in this hemimetabolous insect species. Results In this study, we performed a genome- and transcriptome-wide analysis aiming at the immune-related genes. The transcriptome datasets include the N. lugens intestine, the developmental stage, wing formation, and sex-specific expression information that provided useful gene expression sequence data for the genome-wide analysis. As a result, we identified a large number of genes encoding N. lugens pattern recognition proteins, modulation proteins in the prophenoloxidase (proPO) activating cascade, immune effectors, and the signal transduction molecules involved in the immune pathways, including the Toll, Immune deficiency (Imd) and Janus kinase signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathways. The genome scale analysis revealed detailed information of the gene structure, distribution and transcription orientations in scaffolds. A comparison of the genome-available hemimetabolous and metabolous insect species indicate the differences in the immune-related gene constitution. We investigated the gene expression profiles with regards to how they responded to bacterial infections and tissue, as well as development and sex expression specificity. Conclusions The genome- and transcriptome-wide analysis of immune-related genes including pattern recognition and modulation molecules, immune effectors, and the signal transduction molecules involved in the immune pathways is an important step in determining the overall architecture and functional network of the immune components in N. lugens. Our findings provide the comprehensive gene sequence resource and expression profiles of the immune-related genes of N. lugens, which could facilitate the understanding of the innate immune mechanisms in the hemimetabolous insect species. These data give insight into clarifying the potential functional roles of the immune-related genes involved in the biological processes of development, reproduction, and virus transmission in N. lugens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Yuan Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Agricultural Entomology, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
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Van Herreweghe JM, Michiels CW. Invertebrate lysozymes: Diversity and distribution, molecular mechanism and in vivo function. J Biosci 2012; 37:327-48. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-012-9201-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Gao FY, Qu L, Yu SG, Ye X, Tian YY, Zhang LL, Bai JJ, Lu M. Identification and expression analysis of three c-type lysozymes in Oreochromis aureus. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 32:779-788. [PMID: 22343107 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Lysozyme is an important molecule of innate immune system for the defense against bacterial infections. Three genes encoding chicken-type (c-type) lysozymes, C1-, C2-, C3-type, were obtained from tilapia Oreochromis aureus by RT-PCR and the RACE method. Catalytic and other conserved structure residues required for functionality were identified. The amino acid sequence identities between C1- and C2-type, C1- and C3-type, C2- and C3-type were 67.8%, 65.7% and 63.9%, respectively. Phylogenetic tree analyze indicated the three genes were firstly grouped to those of higher teleosteans, Pleuronectiformes and Tetraodontiformes fishes, and then clustered to those of lower teleosteans, Cypriniformes fishes. Bioinformatic analysis of mature peptide showed that the three genes possess typical sequence characteristics, secondary and tertiary structure of c-type lysozymes. The three tilapia c-type lysozymes mRNAs were mainly expressed in liver and muscle, and C1-type lysozyme also highly expressed in intestine. C1-type lysozyme mRNA was weakly expressed in stomach, C2- and C3-type mRNAs were weakly expressed in intestine. After bacterial challenge, up-regulation was obvious in kidney and spleen for C1-type lysozyme mRNA, while for C2- and C3-type lysozyme obvious increase were observed in stomach and liver, suggesting that C1-type lysozyme may mainly play roles in defense, while C2- and C3-type lysozyme mainly conduct digestive function against bacteria infection. All the three c-type recombinant lysozymes displayed lytic activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. These results indicated that three c-type lysozymes play important roles in the defense of O. aureus against bacteria infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-ying Gao
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, PR China
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Waldock J, Olson KE, Christophides GK. Anopheles gambiae antiviral immune response to systemic O'nyong-nyong infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1565. [PMID: 22428080 PMCID: PMC3302841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mosquito-borne viral diseases cause significant burden in much of the developing world. Although host-virus interactions have been studied extensively in the vertebrate host, little is known about mosquito responses to viral infection. In contrast to mosquitoes of the Aedes and Culex genera, Anopheles gambiae, the principal vector of human malaria, naturally transmits very few arboviruses, the most important of which is O'nyong-nyong virus (ONNV). Here we have investigated the A. gambiae immune response to systemic ONNV infection using forward and reverse genetic approaches. Methodology/Principal Findings We have used DNA microarrays to profile the transcriptional response of A. gambiae inoculated with ONNV and investigate the antiviral function of candidate genes through RNAi gene silencing assays. Our results demonstrate that A. gambiae responses to systemic viral infection involve genes covering all aspects of innate immunity including pathogen recognition, modulation of immune signalling, complement-mediated lysis/opsonisation and other immune effector mechanisms. Patterns of transcriptional regulation and co-infections of A. gambiae with ONNV and the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei suggest that hemolymph immune responses to viral infection are diverted away from melanisation. We show that four viral responsive genes encoding two putative recognition receptors, a galectin and an MD2-like receptor, and two effector lysozymes, function in limiting viral load. Conclusions/Significance This study is the first step in elucidating the antiviral mechanisms of A. gambiae mosquitoes, and has revealed interesting differences between A. gambiae and other invertebrates. Our data suggest that mechanisms employed by A. gambiae are distinct from described invertebrate antiviral immunity to date, and involve the complement-like branch of the humoral immune response, supressing the melanisation response that is prominent in anti-parasitic immunity. The antiviral immune response in A. gambiae is thus composed of some key conserved mechanisms to target viral infection such as RNAi but includes other diverse and possibly species-specific mechanisms. Mosquito-borne viral diseases are found across the globe and are responsible for numerous severe human infections. In order to develop novel methods for prevention and treatment of these diseases, detailed understanding of the biology of viral infection and transmission is required. Little is known about invertebrate responses to infection in mosquito hosts. In this study we used a model system of Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes and O'nyong-nyong virus to study mosquito immune responses to infection. We examined the global transcriptional responses of A. gambiae to viral infection of the mosquito blood equivalent (the hemolymph) identifying a number of genes with immune functions that are switched on or off in response to infection, including complement-like proteins that circulate in the mosquito hemolymph. The switching on of these genes combined with co-infection experiments with malaria parasites suggests that viral infection inhibits the melanisation pathway. Through silencing the function of a selection of viral responsive genes, we identified four genes that have roles in A. gambiae anti-viral immunity; two putative recognition receptors (a galectin and an MD2-like receptor); two effector lysozymes. These molecules have previously non-described roles in antiviral immunity, and suggest uncharacterised mechanisms for targeting viral infection in A. gambiae mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Waldock
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kenneth E. Olson
- Arthropod Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - George K. Christophides
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Lapcharoen P, Komalamisra N, Rongsriyam Y, Wangsuphachart V, Dekumyoy P, Prachumsri J, Kajla MK, Paskewitz SM. Investigations on the role of a lysozyme from the malaria vector Anopheles dirus during malaria parasite development. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 36:104-11. [PMID: 21741400 PMCID: PMC3200504 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2011] [Revised: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A cDNA encoding a lysozyme was obtained by rapid amplification of cDNA ends-polymerase chain reaction (RACE-PCR) from females of the malaria vector Anopheles dirus A (Diptera: Culicidae). The 623 bp lysozyme (AdLys c-1) cDNA encodes the 120 amino acid mature protein with a predicted molecular mass of 13.4 kDa and theoretical pI of 8.45. Six cysteine residues and a potential calcium binding motif that are present in AdLys c-1 are highly conserved relative to those of c-type lysozymes found in other insects. RT-PCR analysis of the AdLys c-1 transcript revealed its presence at high levels in the salivary glands both in larval and adult stages and in the larval caecum. dsRNA mediated gene knockdown experiments were conducted to examine the potential role of this lysozyme during Plasmodium berghei infection. Silencing of AdLys c-1 resulted in a significant reduction in the number of oocysts as compared to control dsGFP injected mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parichat Lapcharoen
- Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Narumon Komalamisra
- Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Yupha Rongsriyam
- Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Voranuch Wangsuphachart
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Paron Dekumyoy
- Department of Helminthology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Prachumsri
- Department of Entomology, United States Army Medical Component, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Mayur K Kajla
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Susan M. Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Kajla MK, Shi L, Li B, Luckhart S, Li J, Paskewitz SM. A new role for an old antimicrobial: lysozyme c-1 can function to protect malaria parasites in Anopheles mosquitoes. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19649. [PMID: 21573077 PMCID: PMC3089642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium requires an obligatory life stage in its mosquito host. The parasites encounter a number of insults while journeying through this host and have developed mechanisms to avoid host defenses. Lysozymes are a family of important antimicrobial immune effectors produced by mosquitoes in response to microbial challenge. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A mosquito lysozyme was identified as a protective agonist for Plasmodium. Immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated that Anopheles gambiae lysozyme c-1 binds to oocysts of Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum at 2 and 5 days after infection. Similar results were observed with Anopheles stephensi and P. falciparum, suggesting wide occurrence of this phenomenon across parasite and vector species. Lysozyme c-1 did not bind to cultured ookinetes nor did recombinant lysozyme c-1 affect ookinete viability. dsRNA-mediated silencing of LYSC-1 in Anopheles gambiae significantly reduced the intensity and the prevalence of Plasmodium berghei infection. We conclude that this host antibacterial protein directly interacts with and facilitates development of Plasmodium oocysts within the mosquito. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This work identifies mosquito lysozyme c-1 as a positive mediator of Plasmodium development as its reduction reduces parasite load in the mosquito host. These findings improve our understanding of parasite development and provide a novel target to interrupt parasite transmission to human hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayur K. Kajla
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Lei Shi
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Section of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Section of Microbiology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Shirley Luckhart
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jianyong Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Susan M. Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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27
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Khajuria C, Buschman LL, Chen MS, Zurek L, Zhu KY. Characterization of six antibacterial response genes from the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) larval gut and their expression in response to bacterial challenge. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 57:345-355. [PMID: 21167833 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2010.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/07/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Six cDNAs encoding putative antibacterial response proteins were identified and characterized from the larval gut of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis). These antibacterial response proteins include four peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), one β-1,3-glucanase-1 (βglu-1), and one lysozyme. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that these genes were highly expressed in the midgut, except for lysozyme. Analysis of expression of these genes in different developmental stage showed that they were expressed in larval stages, but little or no detectable expression was found in egg, pupa and adult. When larvae were challenged with Gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacter aerogenes), the expression of all six genes was up-regulated in the fatbodies. However, when larvae were challenged with Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus), only PGRP-C and lysozyme genes were up-regulated. This study provides additional insights into the expression of antibacterial response genes in O. nubilalis larvae and helps us better understand the immune defense response in O. nubilalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chitvan Khajuria
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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28
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Tanaka T, Kawano S, Nakao S, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Rahman MM, Boldbaatar D, Battur B, Liao M, Fujisaki K. The identification and characterization of lysozyme from the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2010; 1:178-85. [PMID: 21771526 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Revised: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A full-length cDNA-encoding lysozyme was obtained from cDNA libraries of salivary glands of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis and designated as HlLysozyme. The HlLysozyme sequence represents an open reading frame for a putative signal peptide and the mature protein composed of 121 amino acids. The calculated molecular weight of the protein is 13.7 kDa, and the theoretical isoelectric point is 9.85. HlLysozyme shares 41-79% amino acid sequence identity with the lysozymes of other organisms. The activity of recombinant HlLysozyme expressed in Escherichia coli was confirmed by a lytic zone assay using lyophilized Micrococcus lysodeikticus. The HlLysozyme activity decreased at 70 °C and was demonstrated at acidic side and neutral in a pH range. Elevated gene expression of HlLysozyme was observed when female ticks were challenged with bacteria, suggesting possible roles of lysozyme as an innate immunity of ticks against microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Frontier Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
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29
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Wang MH, Marinotti O, James AA, Walker E, Githure J, Yan G. Genome-wide patterns of gene expression during aging in the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13359. [PMID: 20967211 PMCID: PMC2954169 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary means of reducing malaria transmission is through reduction in longevity in days of the adult female stage of the Anopheles vector. However, assessing chronological age is limited to crude physiologic methods which categorize the females binomially as either very young (nulliparous) or not very young (parous). Yet the epidemiologically relevant reduction in life span falls within the latter category. Age-grading methods that delineate chronological age, using accurate molecular surrogates based upon gene expression profiles, will allow quantification of the longevity-reducing effects of vector control tools aimed at the adult, female mosquito. In this study, microarray analyses of gene expression profiles in the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae were conducted during natural senescence of females in laboratory conditions. Results showed that detoxification-related and stress-responsive genes were up-regulated as mosquitoes aged. A total of 276 transcripts had age-dependent expression, independently of blood feeding and egg laying events. Expression of 112 (40.6%) of these transcripts increased or decreased monotonically with increasing chronologic age. Seven candidate genes for practical age assessment were tested by quantitative gene amplification in the An. gambiae G3 strain in a laboratory experiment and the Mbita strain in field enclosures set up in western Kenya under conditions closely resembling natural ones. Results were similar between experiments, indicating that senescence is marked by changes in gene expression and that chronological age can be gauged accurately and repeatedly with this method. These results indicate that the method may be suitable for accurate gauging of the age in days of field-caught, female An. gambiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Hui Wang
- Program in Public Health, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Osvaldo Marinotti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Anthony A. James
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Edward Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - John Githure
- Division of Human Health, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Guiyun Yan
- Program in Public Health, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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30
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Arrighi RB, Faye I. Plasmodium falciparum GPI toxin: a common foe for man and mosquito. Acta Trop 2010; 114:162-5. [PMID: 19539593 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2008] [Revised: 06/06/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, which can be regarded as an endotoxin, plays a role in the induced pathology associated with severe malaria in humans. However, it is unclear whether the main mosquito vector, Anopheles gambiae, can specifically recognize, and respond to GPI from the malaria parasite. Recent data suggests that the malaria vector does mount a specific response against malaria GPI. In addition, following the strong immune response, mosquito fecundity is severely affected, resulting in a significant reduction in viable eggs produced. In this mini-review we look at the increased interest in understanding the way that malaria antigens are recognized in the mosquito, and how this relates to a better understanding of the interactions between the malaria parasite and both human and vector.
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31
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Characterization of expression, activity and role in antibacterial immunity of Anopheles gambiae lysozyme c-1. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 155:201-9. [PMID: 19932188 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
There are eight lysozyme genes in the Anopheles gambiae genome. Transcripts of one of these genes, LYSC-1, increased in Anopheles gambiae cell line 4a3B by 24 h after exposure to heat-killed Micrococcus luteus. Lysozyme activity was also identified in conditioned media from the cell line from which the protein was purified to homogeneity using ion exchange and gel filtration. Mass spectrometric analysis of the purified protein showed 100% identity to lysozyme c-1. Purified lysozyme c-1 was tested against non-mosquito-derived as well as culturable bacteria isolated from mosquito midguts. Lysozyme c-1 had negligible effects on the growth of most mosquito-derived bacteria in vitro but did inhibit the growth of M. luteus. Although Lys c-1 did not directly kill most bacteria, knockdown of LYSC-1 resulted in significant mortality in mosquitoes subjected to hemocoelic infections with Escherichia coli but not M. luteus thus suggesting that this protein plays an important role in antibacterial defense against selected bacteria.
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32
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Gerardo NM, Altincicek B, Anselme C, Atamian H, Barribeau SM, de Vos M, Duncan EJ, Evans JD, Gabaldón T, Ghanim M, Heddi A, Kaloshian I, Latorre A, Moya A, Nakabachi A, Parker BJ, Pérez-Brocal V, Pignatelli M, Rahbé Y, Ramsey JS, Spragg CJ, Tamames J, Tamarit D, Tamborindeguy C, Vincent-Monegat C, Vilcinskas A. Immunity and other defenses in pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum. Genome Biol 2010; 11:R21. [PMID: 20178569 PMCID: PMC2872881 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2010-11-2-r21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent genomic analyses of arthropod defense mechanisms suggest conservation of key elements underlying responses to pathogens, parasites and stresses. At the center of pathogen-induced immune responses are signaling pathways triggered by the recognition of fungal, bacterial and viral signatures. These pathways result in the production of response molecules, such as antimicrobial peptides and lysozymes, which degrade or destroy invaders. Using the recently sequenced genome of the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), we conducted the first extensive annotation of the immune and stress gene repertoire of a hemipterous insect, which is phylogenetically distantly related to previously characterized insects models. RESULTS Strikingly, pea aphids appear to be missing genes present in insect genomes characterized to date and thought critical for recognition, signaling and killing of microbes. In line with results of gene annotation, experimental analyses designed to characterize immune response through the isolation of RNA transcripts and proteins from immune-challenged pea aphids uncovered few immune-related products. Gene expression studies, however, indicated some expression of immune and stress-related genes. CONCLUSIONS The absence of genes suspected to be essential for the insect immune response suggests that the traditional view of insect immunity may not be as broadly applicable as once thought. The limitations of the aphid immune system may be representative of a broad range of insects, or may be aphid specific. We suggest that several aspects of the aphid life style, such as their association with microbial symbionts, could facilitate survival without strong immune protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Gerardo
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Boran Altincicek
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Caroline Anselme
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
- UMR Interactions Biotiques et Santé Végétale, INRA 1301-CNRS 6243-Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, 400 routes des Chappe, F-06903 Sophia-Antipolis cedex, France
| | - Hagop Atamian
- Department of Nematology, Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Seth M Barribeau
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Martin de Vos
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Duncan
- Genetics Otago and The Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, BARC-East Bldg 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Toni Gabaldón
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Murad Ghanim
- Department of Entomology, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Adelaziz Heddi
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Isgouhi Kaloshian
- Department of Nematology, Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Amparo Latorre
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Andres Moya
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Atsushi Nakabachi
- Advanced Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Benjamin J Parker
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Vincente Pérez-Brocal
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Miguel Pignatelli
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Yvan Rahbé
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - John S Ramsey
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Chelsea J Spragg
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Javier Tamames
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Daniel Tamarit
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Cecilia Tamborindeguy
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Department, Cornell University, Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Caroline Vincent-Monegat
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
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Expression pattern of antibacterial genes in the Musca domestica. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 52:823-30. [PMID: 19802740 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-009-0121-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This work studied the transcriptional patterns of three antibacterial genes, attacin, defensin and cecropin, during the development of Musca domestica. Quantitative analysis by real-time PCR was performed on mRNA levels in different development stages and challenged 3rd-instar larva at different time points after challenge of Musca domestica. The results revealed a predominance of the transcripts of all three genes during the 3rd-instar larvae and the adults. In the meanwhile, it revealed the greatest increase in mRNA. The transcript levels increased to 801 times, 1009 times and 2500 times respectively for cecropin, attacin and defensin in 3rd-instar larvae after challenging susceptible bacterium. The results suggested that the transcriptional patterns of Musca domestica antibacterial genes were different during the different growth stages as well as the microbial challenge encountered in 3rd-instar larvae.
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Genome-wide transcriptomic profiling of Anopheles gambiae hemocytes reveals pathogen-specific signatures upon bacterial challenge and Plasmodium berghei infection. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:257. [PMID: 19500340 PMCID: PMC2703655 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is a major vector of human malaria. Increasing evidence indicates that blood cells (hemocytes) comprise an essential arm of the mosquito innate immune response against both bacteria and malaria parasites. To further characterize the role of hemocytes in mosquito immunity, we undertook the first genome-wide transcriptomic analyses of adult female An. gambiae hemocytes following infection by two species of bacteria and a malaria parasite. Results We identified 4047 genes expressed in hemocytes, using An. gambiae genome-wide microarrays. While 279 transcripts were significantly enriched in hemocytes relative to whole adult female mosquitoes, 959 transcripts exhibited immune challenge-related regulation. The global transcriptomic responses of hemocytes to challenge with different species of bacteria and/or different stages of malaria parasite infection revealed discrete, minimally overlapping, pathogen-specific signatures of infection-responsive gene expression; 105 of these represented putative immunity-related genes including anti-Plasmodium factors. Of particular interest was the specific co-regulation of various members of the Imd and JNK immune signaling pathways during malaria parasite invasion of the mosquito midgut epithelium. Conclusion Our genome-wide transcriptomic analysis of adult mosquito hemocytes reveals pathogen-specific signatures of gene regulation and identifies several novel candidate genes for future functional studies.
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Dong Y, Manfredini F, Dimopoulos G. Implication of the mosquito midgut microbiota in the defense against malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000423. [PMID: 19424427 PMCID: PMC2673032 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 525] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria-transmitting mosquitoes are continuously exposed to microbes, including their midgut microbiota. This naturally acquired microbial flora can modulate the mosquito's vectorial capacity by inhibiting the development of Plasmodium and other human pathogens through an unknown mechanism. We have undertaken a comprehensive functional genomic approach to elucidate the molecular interplay between the bacterial co-infection and the development of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in its natural vector Anopheles gambiae. Global transcription profiling of septic and aseptic mosquitoes identified a significant subset of immune genes that were mostly up-regulated by the mosquito's microbial flora, including several anti-Plasmodium factors. Microbe-free aseptic mosquitoes displayed an increased susceptibility to Plasmodium infection while co-feeding mosquitoes with bacteria and P. falciparum gametocytes resulted in lower than normal infection levels. Infection analyses suggest the bacteria-mediated anti-Plasmodium effect is mediated by the mosquitoes' antimicrobial immune responses, plausibly through activation of basal immunity. We show that the microbiota can modulate the anti-Plasmodium effects of some immune genes. In sum, the microbiota plays an essential role in modulating the mosquito's capacity to sustain Plasmodium infection. The Anopheles gambiae mosquito that transmits the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium has an intestinal bacterial flora, or microbiota, which comprises a variety of species. Elimination of this microbiota with antibiotic treatment will render the Anopheles mosquito more susceptible to Plasmodium infection. In this study we show that these bacteria can inhibit the infection of the mosquito with the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum through a mechanism that involves the mosquito's immune system. Our study suggests that the microbial flora of mosquitoes is stimulating a basal immune activity, which comprises several factors with known anti-Plasmodium activity. The same immune factors that are needed to control the mosquito's microbiota are also defending against the malaria parasite Plasmodium. This complex interplay among the mosquito's microbiota, the innate immune system, and the Plasmodium parasite may have significant implications for the transmission of malaria in the field where the bacterial exposure of mosquitoes may differ greatly between ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuemei Dong
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Fabio Manfredini
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - George Dimopoulos
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Neira Oviedo M, Ribeiro JMC, Heyland A, VanEkeris L, Moroz T, Linser PJ. The salivary transcriptome of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae: A microarray-based analysis. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:382-94. [PMID: 19328852 PMCID: PMC2766661 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
In spite of the many recent developments in the field of vector sialomics, the salivary glands of larval mosquitoes have been largely unexplored. We used whole-transcriptome microarray analysis to create a gene-expression profile of the salivary gland tissue of fourth-instar Anopheles gambiae larvae, and compare it to the gene-expression profile of a matching group of whole larvae. We identified a total of 221 probes with expression values that were (a) significantly enriched in the salivary glands, and (b) sufficiently annotated as to allow the prediction of the presence/absence of signal peptides in their corresponding gene products. Based on available annotation of the protein sequences associated with these probes, we propose that the main roles of larval salivary secretions include: (a) immune response, (b) mouthpart lubrication, (c) nutrient metabolism, and (d) xenobiotic detoxification. Other highlights of the study include the cloning of a transcript encoding a previously unknown salivary defensin (AgDef5), the confirmation of mucus secretion by the larval salivary glands, and the first report of salivary lipocalins in the Culicidae.
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Chi YH, Salzman RA, Balfe S, Ahn JE, Sun W, Moon J, Yun DJ, Lee SY, Higgins TJV, Pittendrigh B, Murdock LL, Zhu-Salzman K. Cowpea bruchid midgut transcriptome response to a soybean cystatin--costs and benefits of counter-defence. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 18:97-110. [PMID: 19196350 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2008.00854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The insect digestive system is the first line of defence protecting cells and tissues of the body from a broad spectrum of toxins and antinutritional factors in its food. To gain insight into the nature and breadth of genes involved in adaptation to dietary challenge, a collection of 20 352 cDNAs was prepared from the midgut tissue of cowpea bruchid larvae (Callosobruchus maculatus) fed on regular diet and diets containing antinutritional compounds. Transcript responses of the larvae to dietary soybean cystatin (scN) were analysed using cDNA microarrays, followed by quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR) confirmation with selected genes. The midgut transcript profile of insects fed a sustained sublethal scN dose over the larval life was compared with that of insects treated with an acute high dose of scN for 24 h. A total of 1756 scN-responsive cDNAs was sequenced; these clustered into 967 contigs, of which 653 were singletons. Many contigs (451) did not show homology with known genes, or had homology only with genes of unknown function in a Blast search. The identified differentially regulated sequences encoded proteins presumptively involved in metabolism, structure, development, signalling, defence and stress response. Expression patterns of some scN-responsive genes were consistent in each larval stage, whereas others exhibited developmental stage-specificity. Acute (24 h), high level exposure to dietary scN caused altered expression of a set of genes partially overlapping with the transcript profile seen under chronic lower level exposure. Protein and carbohydrate hydrolases were generally up-regulated by scN whereas structural, defence and stress-related genes were largely down-regulated. These results show that insects actively mobilize genomic resources in the alimentary tract to mitigate the impact of a digestive protease inhibitor. The enhanced or restored digestibility that may result is possibly crucial for insect survival, yet may be bought at the cost of weakened response to other stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y H Chi
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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Arrighi RBG, Debierre-Grockiego F, Schwarz RT, Faye I. The immunogenic properties of protozoan glycosylphosphatidylinositols in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 33:216-223. [PMID: 18822312 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2008.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2008] [Revised: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 08/23/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to humans, mosquitoes do not have an adaptive immune response to deal with pathogens, and therefore must rely on their innate immune system to deal with invaders. This facilitates the recognition of different microbes on the basis of surface components or antigens. Such antigens have been identified in various types of microbe such as bacteria and fungi, yet none has been identified in the genus protozoa, which includes pathogens such as the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. This study allowed us to test the antigenic properties of protozoan glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) on the mosquito immune system. We found that both P. falciparum GPI and T. gondii GPI induce the strong expression of several antimicrobial peptides following ingestion, and that as a result of the immune response against the GPIs, the number of eggs produced by the mosquito is reduced dramatically. Such effects have been associated with malaria infected mosquitoes, but never associated with a Plasmodium specific antigen. This study demonstrates that protozoan GPIs can be considered as protozoan specific immune elicitors in mosquitoes, and that P. falciparum GPI plays a critical role in the malaria parasite manipulation of the mosquito vector to facilitate its transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romanico B G Arrighi
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Dixit R, Sharma A, Mourya DT, Kamaraju R, Patole MS, Shouche YS. Salivary gland transcriptome analysis during Plasmodium infection in malaria vector Anopheles stephensi. Int J Infect Dis 2009; 13:636-46. [PMID: 19128996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 06/19/2008] [Accepted: 07/12/2008] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the tissue-specific molecular cross-talk mechanism during the mosquito-parasite interaction is of prime importance in the design of new strategies for malaria control. Because mosquito salivary glands are the final destination for the parasite maturation and transmission of vector-borne diseases, identification and characterization of salivary genes and their products are equally important in order to access their effect on the infectivity of the parasite. During the last five years there have been several studies on the sialomes of Anopheles mosquitoes, however very limited information is available on the changes in the salivary gland transcriptome in the presence of Plasmodium, and this information is limited to the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. METHODS In this study we aimed to explore and identify parasite-induced transcripts from the salivary glands of Anopheles stephensi, using a subtractive hybridization protocol. RESULTS Ninety-four percent of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) showed close homology to previously known families of mosquito salivary gland secretary proteins, representing the induced expression of alternative splicing and/or additional new members of the protein family. The remaining 6% of ESTs did not yield significant homology to any known proteins in the non-redundant database and thus may represent a class of unknown/novel salivary proteins. Primary analysis of the ESTs also revealed identification of several novel immune-related transcripts, including defensin and cecropins, probably involved in counter-activation of the antagonistic defense system. A comprehensive description of each family of proteins has been discussed in relation to the tissue-specific mosquito-parasite interaction. CONCLUSION This is the first report on the identification of new putative salivary genes, presumably activated during parasite infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajnikant Dixit
- Molecular Biology Unit, National Center for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, India.
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Zhang Y, Huang J, Zhou B, Zhang C, Liu W, Miao X, Huang Y. Up-regulation of lysozyme gene expression during metamorphosis and immune challenge of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 70:18-29. [PMID: 18615707 DOI: 10.1002/arch.20258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Lysozymes act as crucial bacteriolytic enzymes in insect immune system by hydrolyzing the beta (1-->4) bonds between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid in the peptidoglycan of prokaryotic cell walls. We have isolated and characterized a Helicoverpa armigera cDNA encoding an insect lysozyme named HaLyz. We amplified a fragment by PCR, using degenerate primers derived from the conservative amino acid sequences for performing 5' and 3' RACE. The full-length cDNA was 661 base pairs. The theoretical pI and molecular weight of the protein were computed to be 9.08 and 15.6 kDa, respectively. Prokaryotic expression of the HaLyz ORF by Escherichia coli confirmed the calculated molecular weight of the protein. The deduced 135 amino acids showed high homology with known lysozymes from other insects, ranging from 47% to 89% by BLASTp search in NCBI. Analyses revealed that this protein has a typical lysozyme C signature among amino acids 93-111, CNVTCAEMLLDDITKASTC. An interesting relation between immunity and larva to pupa metamorphosis in insects was discovered. Real time-PCR showed that HaLyz gene expression was transiently enhanced at the onset of metamorphosis of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera. The gene expression was up-regulated after the injection of E. coli or entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana, but showed different expression patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Ren Q, Zhao X, Wang J. Molecular characterization and expression analysis of a chicken-type lysozyme gene from housefly (Musca domestica). J Genet Genomics 2009; 36:7-16. [DOI: 10.1016/s1673-8527(09)60002-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2008] [Revised: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 10/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Paskewitz SM, Li B, Kajla MK. Cloning and molecular characterization of two invertebrate-type lysozymes from Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 17:217-25. [PMID: 18397277 PMCID: PMC2995370 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2008.00797.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We sequenced and characterized two novel invertebrate-type lysozymes from the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Alignment and phylogenetic analysis of these and a number of related insect proteins identified through bioinformatics strategies showed a high degree of conservation of this protein family throughout the Class Insecta. Expression profiles were examined for the two mosquito genes through semiquantitative and real-time PCR analysis. Lys i-1 transcripts were found in adult females in the fat body and Malpighian tubules, whereas Lys i-2 was detected only in fat bodies. Blood-feeding resulted in significantly increased transcript abundance for both genes in the midguts. Neither gene was upregulated following bacterial challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Schulenburg H, Boehnisch C. Diversification and adaptive sequence evolution of Caenorhabditis lysozymes (Nematoda: Rhabditidae). BMC Evol Biol 2008; 8:114. [PMID: 18423043 PMCID: PMC2383907 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-8-114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lysozymes are important model enzymes in biomedical research with a ubiquitous taxonomic distribution ranging from phages up to plants and animals. Their main function appears to be defence against pathogens, although some of them have also been implicated in digestion. Whereas most organisms have only few lysozyme genes, nematodes of the genus Caenorhabditis possess a surprisingly large repertoire of up to 15 genes. RESULTS We used phylogenetic inference and sequence analysis tools to assess the evolution of lysozymes from three congeneric nematode species, Caenorhabditis elegans, C. briggsae, and C. remanei. Their lysozymes fall into three distinct clades, one belonging to the invertebrate-type and the other two to the protist-type lysozymes. Their diversification is characterised by (i) ancestral gene duplications preceding species separation followed by maintenance of genes, (ii) ancestral duplications followed by gene loss in some of the species, and (iii) recent duplications after divergence of species. Both ancestral and recent gene duplications are associated in several cases with signatures of adaptive sequence evolution, indicating that diversifying selection contributed to lysozyme differentiation. Current data strongly suggests that genetic diversity translates into functional diversity. CONCLUSION Gene duplications are a major source of evolutionary innovation. Our analysis provides an evolutionary framework for understanding the diversification of lysozymes through gene duplication and subsequent differentiation. This information is expected to be of major value in future analysis of lysozyme function and in studies of the dynamics of evolution by gene duplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hinrich Schulenburg
- Department of Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Zoological Institute, University of Tuebingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Boehnisch
- Department of Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Zoological Institute, University of Tuebingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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Ursic-Bedoya RJ, Nazzari H, Cooper D, Triana O, Wolff M, Lowenberger C. Identification and characterization of two novel lysozymes from Rhodnius prolixus, a vector of Chagas disease. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 54:593-603. [PMID: 18258253 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2007.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2007] [Revised: 12/12/2007] [Accepted: 12/14/2007] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Lysozymes have been described in invertebrates as digestive or immune molecules. We report here the characterization of two novel c-type lysozymes, RpLys-A (EU250274) and RpLys-B (EU250275), isolated from the fat body and digestive tract of immune stimulated Rhodnius prolixus, a major vector of Chagas disease. Transcriptional profiles indicate that the temporal and spatial expression patterns of these two peptides are very different. RpLys-A is expressed predominantly in the midgut after ingestion of Trypanosoma cruzi in a bloodmeal, or after injection of bacteria into the hemocoel. RpLys-B is expressed primarily in the fat body after bacterial injection. Phylogenetic alignments indicate that RpLys-A aligns best with molecules from other hemipterans whose major expression is found in the intestinal tract whereas RpLys-B aligns best with mosquito and tick molecules whose expression is found principally in hemocytes and fat body and whose role has been described as immune-related. These data suggest a differential compartmentalized role of two closely related molecules; one for immunity in the hemocoel and the other for digestion in the midgut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul J Ursic-Bedoya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6.
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Waterhouse RM, Kriventseva EV, Meister S, Xi Z, Alvarez KS, Bartholomay LC, Barillas-Mury C, Bian G, Blandin S, Christensen BM, Dong Y, Jiang H, Kanost MR, Koutsos AC, Levashina EA, Li J, Ligoxygakis P, Maccallum RM, Mayhew GF, Mendes A, Michel K, Osta MA, Paskewitz S, Shin SW, Vlachou D, Wang L, Wei W, Zheng L, Zou Z, Severson DW, Raikhel AS, Kafatos FC, Dimopoulos G, Zdobnov EM, Christophides GK. Evolutionary dynamics of immune-related genes and pathways in disease-vector mosquitoes. Science 2007; 316:1738-43. [PMID: 17588928 PMCID: PMC2042107 DOI: 10.1126/science.1139862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 461] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are vectors of parasitic and viral diseases of immense importance for public health. The acquisition of the genome sequence of the yellow fever and Dengue vector, Aedes aegypti (Aa), has enabled a comparative phylogenomic analysis of the insect immune repertoire: in Aa, the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae (Ag), and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Dm). Analysis of immune signaling pathways and response modules reveals both conservative and rapidly evolving features associated with different functional gene categories and particular aspects of immune reactions. These dynamics reflect in part continuous readjustment between accommodation and rejection of pathogens and suggest how innate immunity may have evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Waterhouse
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Castillo JC, Robertson AE, Strand MR. Characterization of hemocytes from the mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 36:891-903. [PMID: 17098164 PMCID: PMC2757042 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2006.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2006] [Revised: 08/28/2006] [Accepted: 08/30/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Hemocytes are an essential component of the mosquito immune system but current knowledge of the types of hemocytes mosquitoes produce, their relative abundance, and their functions is limited. Addressing these issues requires improved methods for collecting and maintaining mosquito hemocytes in vitro, and comparative data that address whether important vector species produce similar or different hemocyte types. Toward this end, we conducted a comparative study with Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. Collection method greatly affected the number of hemocytes and contaminants obtained from adult females of each species. Using a collection method called high injection/recovery, we concluded that hemolymph from An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti adult females contains three hemocyte types (granulocytes, oenocytoids and prohemocytes) that were distinguished from one another by a combination of morphological and functional markers. Significantly more hemocytes were recovered from An. gambiae females than Ae. aegypti. However, granulocytes were the most abundant cell type in both species while oenocytoids and prohemocytes comprised less than 10% of the total hemocyte population. The same hemocyte types were collected from larvae, pupae and adult males albeit the absolute number and proportion of each hemocyte type differed from adult females. The number of hemocytes recovered from sugar fed females declined with age but blood feeding transiently increased hemocyte abundance. Two antibodies tested as potential hemocyte markers (anti-PP06 and anti-Dox-A2) also exhibited alterations in staining patterns following immune challenge with the bacterium Escherichia coli.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. R. Strand
- Send Correspondence to: M. R. Strand, Department of Entomology, 413 Biological Sciences Bldg., University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA, Phone: (706) 583-8237, Fax: (706) 549-3872,
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Mittapalli O, Shukle RH, Sardesai N, Giovanini MP, Williams CE. Expression patterns of antibacterial genes in the Hessian fly. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 52:1143-52. [PMID: 17070830 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2006.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Revised: 08/25/2006] [Accepted: 08/28/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We report on the transcriptional patterns of three antibacterial genes, a defensin (MdesDEF-1), a diptericin (MdesDIP-1) and a lysozyme (MdesLYS-1), during development in Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor. Quantitative analysis by real-time PCR of mRNA levels in different tissues revealed a predominance of the transcripts for all three genes in the midgut, while analysis during development revealed greatest abundance in mRNA during the 3rd-instar. An evaluation of the midgut lumen revealed the presence of a diverse bacterial flora in larvae maintained on susceptible wheat. Further, the titer of bacteria in the midgut increased approximately 250-fold from the 1st-instar through the 2nd-instar. However, no detectable titer of bacteria was observed from the midgut lumen of larvae maintained on resistant plants. PCR amplicons produced using primers designed to conserved regions of the Pseudomonas 16S rRNA gene supported taxonomic identification for some of the bacteria comprising the midgut flora as belonging to the genus Pseudomonas. Analysis of mRNA for the Hessian fly antibacterial genes in larvae feeding on susceptible and resistant plants revealed an increase in the transcript level for MdesDEF-1 in 1st-instar larvae on susceptible plants, while the transcript levels for MdesDIP-1 and MdesLYS-1 were constant. Results suggest the transcriptional patterns of the Hessian fly antibacterial genes observed could be associated with the developing midgut bacterial flora present in larvae feeding on susceptible wheat as well as microbial challenge encountered at other stages in development.
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Li B, Paskewitz SM. A role for lysozyme in melanization of Sephadex beads in Anopheles gambiae. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 52:936-42. [PMID: 16876189 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2006.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2006] [Revised: 05/30/2006] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Melanization of foreign targets in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, was studied using a model Sephadex bead system. A mosquito factor that was deposited on beads and prevented bead melanization (MPF) was purified. The N-terminal sequence of the factor identified it as lysozyme c-1 (Lys c-1). Gene silencing of Lys c-1 mediated by RNA interference resulted in a significant reduction in the MPF activity compared with controls. The purified Lys c-1 protein reduced dopachrome formation by mosquito hemolymph phenoloxidase in solution assays in vitro. In vivo, Lys c-1 might inhibit melanization of beads by blocking attachment of critical factors to the bead surface or by inhibiting PO directly. This work indicates that insect lysozymes can play unexpected roles in mediating melanization of foreign targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Li
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, 237 Russell Labs, 1630 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Pacheco MA, Concepción JL, Rangel JDR, Ruiz MC, Michelangeli F, Domínguez-Bello MG. Stomach lysozymes of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus), an arboreal folivore from the Neotropics. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2006; 147:808-819. [PMID: 16959513 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2006] [Revised: 07/14/2006] [Accepted: 07/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lysozymes are antimicrobial defences that act as digestive enzymes when expressed in the stomach of herbivores with pre-gastric fermentation. We studied this enzyme in the complex stomach of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus), a folivore with pre-gastric fermentation. Lysozymes were identified by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting in all portions: diverticulum, pouch, glandular and muscular prepyloric area with 14.3 kDa of molecular mass. Purified lysozymes from all areas but the diverticulum were characterized by MALDI-TOF, optimal pH, optimal ionic strength, and specific activity. The differences observed suggested at least three isoforms. The optimal pHs were similar to the pH of the stomach portion where the enzymes were isolated. The lysozyme from the pouch (fermentation chamber) exhibited higher specific activity and concentration than the others. The specific activity of the enzyme from the acid muscular prepyloric portion was comparable to that reported in the cow abomasums; however, its concentration was lower than that observed in cow. This distinctive pattern of secretion/specific activity and overall low concentration suggests different roles for the lysozymes in this herbivore compared to Artiodactyla. We postulate that sloth stomach lysozymes may still be antimicrobial defences by protecting the microbial flora of the fermentation chamber against foreign bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Andreína Pacheco
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Gastrointestinal, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado postal 21827, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela; Centro de Cálculo Científico de la Universidad de Los Andes, Parque Tecnológico, Mérida 5101, Venezuela.
| | - Juan Luís Concepción
- Unidad de Bioquímica de Parásitos, Centro de Ingeniería Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
| | - José David Rosales Rangel
- Centro de Cálculo Científico de la Universidad de Los Andes, Parque Tecnológico, Mérida 5101, Venezuela; Unidad de Bioquímica de Parásitos, Centro de Ingeniería Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
| | - Marie Christine Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Gastrointestinal, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado postal 21827, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela
| | - Fabián Michelangeli
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Gastrointestinal, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado postal 21827, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela
| | - María G Domínguez-Bello
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, PO Box 23360, San Juan Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico 00931
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