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Vinkler M, Fiddaman SR, Těšický M, O'Connor EA, Savage AE, Lenz TL, Smith AL, Kaufman J, Bolnick DI, Davies CS, Dedić N, Flies AS, Samblás MMG, Henschen AE, Novák K, Palomar G, Raven N, Samaké K, Slade J, Veetil NK, Voukali E, Höglund J, Richardson DS, Westerdahl H. Understanding the evolution of immune genes in jawed vertebrates. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:847-873. [PMID: 37255207 PMCID: PMC10247546 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Driven by co-evolution with pathogens, host immunity continuously adapts to optimize defence against pathogens within a given environment. Recent advances in genetics, genomics and transcriptomics have enabled a more detailed investigation into how immunogenetic variation shapes the diversity of immune responses seen across domestic and wild animal species. However, a deeper understanding of the diverse molecular mechanisms that shape immunity within and among species is still needed to gain insight into-and generate evolutionary hypotheses on-the ultimate drivers of immunological differences. Here, we discuss current advances in our understanding of molecular evolution underpinning jawed vertebrate immunity. First, we introduce the immunome concept, a framework for characterizing genes involved in immune defence from a comparative perspective, then we outline how immune genes of interest can be identified. Second, we focus on how different selection modes are observed acting across groups of immune genes and propose hypotheses to explain these differences. We then provide an overview of the approaches used so far to study the evolutionary heterogeneity of immune genes on macro and microevolutionary scales. Finally, we discuss some of the current evidence as to how specific pathogens affect the evolution of different groups of immune genes. This review results from the collective discussion on the current key challenges in evolutionary immunology conducted at the ESEB 2021 Online Satellite Symposium: Molecular evolution of the vertebrate immune system, from the lab to natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Vinkler
- Department of ZoologyFaculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | | | - Martin Těšický
- Department of ZoologyFaculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | | | - Anna E. Savage
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Central FloridaFloridaOrlandoUSA
| | - Tobias L. Lenz
- Research Unit for Evolutionary ImmunogenomicsDepartment of BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
| | | | - Jim Kaufman
- Institute for Immunology and Infection ResearchUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Department of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Daniel I. Bolnick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrsConnecticutUSA
| | | | - Neira Dedić
- Department of Botany and ZoologyMasaryk UniversityBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Andrew S. Flies
- Menzies Institute for Medical ResearchUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - M. Mercedes Gómez Samblás
- Department of ZoologyFaculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
- Department of ParasitologyUniversity of GranadaGranadaSpain
| | | | - Karel Novák
- Department of Genetics and BreedingInstitute of Animal SciencePragueUhříněvesCzech Republic
| | - Gemma Palomar
- Faculty of BiologyInstitute of Environmental SciencesJagiellonian UniversityKrakówPoland
| | - Nynke Raven
- Department of ScienceEngineering and Build EnvironmentDeakin UniversityVictoriaWaurn PondsAustralia
| | - Kalifa Samaké
- Department of Genetics and MicrobiologyFaculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Joel Slade
- Department of BiologyCalifornia State UniversityFresnoCaliforniaUSA
| | | | - Eleni Voukali
- Department of ZoologyFaculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Jacob Höglund
- Department of Ecology and GeneticsUppsala UniversitetUppsalaSweden
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Lindsey RC, Xing W, Pourteymoor S, Godwin C, Gow A, Mohan S. Novel Role for Claudin-11 in the Regulation of Osteoblasts via Modulation of ADAM10-Mediated Notch Signaling. J Bone Miner Res 2019; 34:1910-1922. [PMID: 31112308 PMCID: PMC6813858 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.3763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The claudin (Cldn) family comprises 27 members of 20 to 34 kDa transmembrane tight junction proteins. In addition to Cldns' established canonical role as barriers controlling paracellular flow of molecules, a distinct noncanonical role for them as mediators of cell signaling is now emerging. In our studies evaluating Cldn family expression levels during osteoblast differentiation, Cldn-11 showed the largest increase (60-fold). Immunohistochemistry studies revealed high Cldn-11 expression in trabecular (Tb) bone lining cells. Micro-CT analysis of femurs and vertebrae of Cldn-11 knock-out (KO) mice at 12 weeks of age exhibited a 40% (p < 0.01) reduction in Tb bone volume adjusted for tissue volume compared with control mice, a change caused by significant reductions in Tb number and thickness and increase in Tb separation. Histomorphometry and serum biomarker studies revealed that reduced bone formation, not increased resorption, is the cause for reduced Tb bone volume in the Cldn-11 KO mice. Cldn-11 KO osteoblasts expressed reduced ALP and BSP, whereas Cldn-11 overexpression in MC3T3-E1 cells increased expression of ALP and BSP. Mechanistically, Cldn-11 interacted with tetraspanin (Tspan)3 in osteoblasts, and Tspan3 knockdown reduced osteoblast differentiation. Because members of the Tspan family regulate cell functions via Notch signaling, we evaluated whether Cldn-11/Tspan3 regulates Notch signaling in osteoblasts. Accordingly, Notch targets Hey1 and Hey2 were significantly upregulated in Cldn-11 overexpressing cultures but downregulated in both Cldn-11 KO and Tspan3 knockdown osteoblasts. Because ADAM10 has been shown to interact with Tspan family members to regulate Notch signaling, we evaluated whether Cldn-11 regulates ADAM10 expression. Cldn-11 overexpressing cells express more mature ADAM10, and an ADAM10 inhibitor blocked the Cldn-11 effect on osteoblast differentiation. Based on these data, we propose Cldn-11 as a novel component of an osteoblast cell surface protein complex, comprising Tspan3 and ADAM10, which regulates Notch signaling and cell differentiation. © 2019 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard C Lindsey
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Division of Biochemistry, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Weirong Xing
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Sheila Pourteymoor
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Catrina Godwin
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Alexander Gow
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.,Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.,Department of Neurology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Subburaman Mohan
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Division of Biochemistry, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.,Department of Orthopedics, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
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Song Y, Yang X, Shen Y, Wang Y, Xia X, Zhang AM. STAT3 signaling pathway plays importantly genetic and functional roles in HCV infection. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2019; 7:e821. [PMID: 31219249 PMCID: PMC6687657 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is an extensive health problem, which leads to serious liver diseases. Host genetic polymorphisms were associated with HCV infection, progression, and treatment effect of patients. Signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway was important to HCV infection, but no genetic association was studied between STAT3 signaling pathway and HCV infection. Methods To investigate the genetic and functional roles of the STAT3 signaling pathway, we collected 394 HCV patients and 395 normal controls to genotype 25 signal nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of six genes (Interleukin 6 [IL6, OMIM 147620], Interleukin 6 receptor [IL6R, OMIM 147880], Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha [HNF1A, OMIM 142410], Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha [HNF4A, OMIM 600281], STAT3 [OMIM 102582], and ATP binding cassette subfamily C member 2 [ABCC2, OMIM 601107]). Then expression level of these genes were analyzed in HCV infected cells with or without IL6 transfection. Results Our results identified that the SNPs in STAT3 signaling pathway were associated with HCV infection or biochemical features of Yunnan HCV patients. Genotype AA of rs4075015 (IL6R) and GG of rs3212172 (HNF4A) increased the risk of HCV infection (p = 0.024 and 0.029), but the genotype AA of rs7553796 (IL6R) played a protective role in HCV infection (p = 0.0008). High‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‐C) and Glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) level were associated with genotypes of rs4845617 (IL6R, p = 0.045) and rs1053023 (STAT3, p = 0.034), respectively. Cell assays suggested that IL6 transfection could suppress HCV proliferation. RNA and protein levels of the IL6R, HNF1A, STAT3, and ABCC2 genes significantly increased after HCV infection. Conclusion We identified STAT3 signaling pathway influenced HCV infection and biochemical characteristics of HCV patients through genetic and functional aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhu Song
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China.,Molecular Medicine Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Xianyao Yang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Yunsong Shen
- Molecular Medicine Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Yiqian Wang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Xueshan Xia
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China.,Molecular Medicine Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - A-Mei Zhang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China.,Molecular Medicine Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
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Polymorphisms in CLDN1 are associated with age and differentiation of triple-negative breast cancer patients. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20181952. [PMID: 30910845 PMCID: PMC6481238 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20181952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly heterogeneous disease. It is very important to explore novel biomarkers to better clarify the characteristics of TNBC. It has been reported that polymorphisms in claudin 1 (CLDN1) are associated with risk of several cancers. But till now, there is no report about these polymorphisms and TNBC. Patients and methods: Between January 2004 and December 2013, 267 patients with stage I-III primary TNBC were included in our study. We investigated the association between polymorphisms in CLDN1 gene and clinicopathological characteristics or survival of these patients. We used Haploview 4.2 software to identify Tag single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). MassARRAY MALDI-TOF System was used for genotyping. Results: We found that rs10513846 GA genotype was associated with older age [P=0.013, hazard ratios (HR) = 2.231, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.186-4.195]. Rs10513846 AA genotype carriers were more likely to develop grade 3 tumors (P=0.005, HR = 2.889, 95% CI: 1.389-6.007). And rs9283658 genotypes were also related to grade, more patients with grade 3 tumors were rs9283658 CC genotype carriers (P=0.023, HR = 0.446, 95% CI: 0.222-0.894). There was no association between polymorphisms in CLDN1 and survival of TNBC patients. After multivariate analysis, tumor size (P=0.021, HR = 3.146, 95% CI: 1.185-8.354) and lymph node status (P<0.001, HR = 10.930, 95% CI: 3.276-36.470) were demonstrated to be independent prognostic factors. Conclusion: We first demonstrated that polymorphisms in CLDN1 gene were associated with age and differentiation of TNBC patients.
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Liang W, Gao M, Song X, Han Y, Go M, Su P, Li Q, Liu X. A novel CD81 homolog identified in lamprey, Lampetra japonica, with roles in the immune response of lamprey VLRB+ lymphocytes. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2018; 50:1158-1165. [PMID: 30260364 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmy116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The cluster of differentiation 81 (CD81), a member of the transmembrane 4 superfamily, is primarily found to be expressed in a wide variety of cells including T and B cells of vertebrates as a critical modulator. In the present study, the open reading frame of a CD81 gene homolog (Lja-CD81) was cloned in lamprey, Lampetra japonica, which is 702 bp long and encodes a protein of 233-amino acids. Although Lja-CD81 seems to be close to CD9 molecules in their full-length sequences, Lja-CD81 possesses higher identity to vertebrates' CD81 than to CD9 (including a lamprey CD9) molecules in their large extracellular loops. In addition, it also possesses a myristoylation site (Met-Gly-Val-Glu-Gly-Cys-Leu-Lys) in its N-terminal region which is identical to the N-terminal regions of CD81 molecules. These data suggest that CD9 and CD81 molecules diverged no later than the emergence of jawless vertebrates. The mRNA levels of Lja-CD81 in lymphocytes and supraneural myeloid bodies were up-regulated significantly after stimulation with mixed antigens, and a similar expressional pattern of Lja-CD81 at protein level was also confirmed. Furthermore, Lja-CD81 was found to be co-localized with variable lymphocyte receptor B (VLRB) evenly on the cell membrane of peripheral blood lymphocytes isolated from control group, but they were found to aggregate on one side of the membrane of peripheral blood VLRB+ lymphocytes after stimulation with mixed antigens. All these results indicate that the Lja-CD81 identified in lamprey may play an important role in the immune response of lamprey VLRB+ lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Liang
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Miceng Gao
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Xueying Song
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Yinglun Han
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Meng Go
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Peng Su
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Qingwei Li
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Xin Liu
- College of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Lamprey Research Center, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
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Nafari M, Irani S, Vaziri F, Gharibzadeh S, Sakhaee F, Khazeni M, Kalhor N, Jamnani FR, Siadat SD, Fateh A. Correlation of CD81 and SCARB1 polymorphisms on virological responses in Iranian patients with chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 62:296-303. [PMID: 29715527 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cluster of differentiation 81 (CD81) and scavenger receptor class B member 1 (SCARB1) plays an important role in the entry of hepatitis C virus (HCV). We assessed the correlation of five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of CD81 (rs800136, rs2651842, rs2522012, rs800146, and rs708564) and SCARB1 rs10846744 polymorphisms with treatment responses in 395 treatment-naïve patients with chronic HCV (CHC) genotype 1 treated with pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin (pegIFN-α/RBV). The frequency of rapid virologic response (RVR), complete early virologic response (cEVR) and sustained virologic response (SVR) were 57.2%, 55.2%, and 58.2%, respectively. RVR, cEVR, and SVR were significantly associated with CD81 rs800136 (CC), CD81 rs2651842 (AA), CD81 rs708564 (TT), and SCARB1 rs10846744 (CC). High rates of RVR, cEVR, and SVR were reported for the CD81 rs800136 (CC), CD81 rs2651842 (AA), and CD81 rs708564 (TT) genotypes when correlated with higher levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and lower levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) as well as lower levels of HDL and LDL in the SCARB1 rs10846744 (CC) genotype. In addition, patients with GG genotype had higher fasting blood glucose (FBS) level than those with CC genotype. In conclusion, CD81 and SCARB1 SNPs may serve as powerful predictor factors for treatment responses in CHC patients, and this effect is correlated with serum lipoprotein and FBS levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Nafari
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Irani
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farzam Vaziri
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Safoora Gharibzadeh
- Research Centre for Emerging and Reemerging infectious diseases, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sakhaee
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khazeni
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Naser Kalhor
- Stem Cell Laboratory, The Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR), Qom Branch, Qom, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Rahimi Jamnani
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Davar Siadat
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Fateh
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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Suhail M, Sohrab SS, Qureshi A, Tarique M, Abdel-Hafiz H, Al-Ghamdi K, Qadri I. Association of HCV mutated proteins and host SNPs in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 60:160-172. [PMID: 29501636 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus plays a significant role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) globally. The pathogenic mechanisms of hepatocellular carcinoma with HCV infection are generally linked with inflammation, cytokines, fibrosis, cellular signaling pathways, and liver cell proliferation modulating pathways. HCV encoded proteins (Core, NS3, NS4, NS5A) interact with a broad range of hepatocytes derived factors to modulate an array of activities such as cell signaling, DNA repair, transcription and translational regulation, cell propagation, apoptosis, membrane topology. These four viral proteins are also implicated to show a strong conversion potential in tissue culture. Furthermore, Core and NS5A also trigger the accretion of the β-catenin pathway as a common target to contribute viral induced transformation. There is a strong association between HCV variants within Core, NS4, and NS5A and host single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with the HCC pathogenesis. Identification of such viral mutants and host SNPs is very critical to determine the risk of HCC and response to antiviral therapy. In this review, we highlight the association of key variants, mutated proteins, and host SNPs in development of HCV induced HCC. How such viral mutants may modulate the interaction with cellular host machinery is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Suhail
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sayed Sartaj Sohrab
- Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abid Qureshi
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS), Srinagar, J&K, India
| | - Mohd Tarique
- Department of Surgery, Sylvester Cancer Center, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, United States
| | - Hany Abdel-Hafiz
- Dept of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, United States
| | - Khalid Al-Ghamdi
- Department of Biological Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ishtiaq Qadri
- Department of Biological Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
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