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Morando N, Rosenzvit MC, Pando MA, Allmer J. The Role of MicroRNAs in HIV Infection. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:574. [PMID: 38790203 PMCID: PMC11120859 DOI: 10.3390/genes15050574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of small, non-coding RNAs, play a pivotal role in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. These regulatory molecules are integral to many biological processes and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. This review aims to cover the current understanding of the multifaceted roles miRNAs assume in the context of HIV infection and pathogenesis. The discourse is structured around three primary focal points: (i) elucidation of the mechanisms through which miRNAs regulate HIV replication, encompassing both direct targeting of viral transcripts and indirect modulation of host factors critical for viral replication; (ii) examination of the modulation of miRNA expression by HIV, mediated through either viral proteins or the activation of cellular pathways consequent to viral infection; and (iii) assessment of the impact of miRNAs on the immune response and the progression of disease in HIV-infected individuals. Further, this review delves into the potential utility of miRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic agents in HIV infection, underscoring the challenges and prospects inherent to this line of inquiry. The synthesis of current evidence positions miRNAs as significant modulators of the host-virus interplay, offering promising avenues for enhancing the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Morando
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina; (N.M.); (M.A.P.)
| | - Mara Cecilia Rosenzvit
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina;
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM, UBA-CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina
| | - Maria A. Pando
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina; (N.M.); (M.A.P.)
| | - Jens Allmer
- Medical Informatics and Bioinformatics, Institute for Measurement Engineering and Sensor Technology, Hochschule Ruhr West, University of Applied Sciences, 45479 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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Madhuravasal Krishnan J, Kong L, Karns R, Medvedovic M, Sherman KE, Blackard JT. The Synthetic Opioid Fentanyl Increases HIV Replication and Chemokine Co-Receptor Expression in Lymphocyte Cell Lines. Viruses 2023; 15:1027. [PMID: 37113007 PMCID: PMC10145664 DOI: 10.3390/v15041027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the United States, the illicit use of synthetic opioids such as fentanyl has led to a serious public health crisis. Synthetic opioids are known to enhance viral replication and to suppress immunologic responses, but their effects on HIV pathogenesis remain unclear. Thus, we examined the impact of fentanyl on HIV-susceptible and HIV-infected cell types. METHODS TZM-bl and HIV-infected lymphocyte cells were incubated with fentanyl at varying concentrations. Expression levels of the CXCR4 and CCR5 chemokine receptors and HIV p24 antigen were quantified with ELISA. HIV proviral DNA was quantified using SYBR RT-PCR. Cell viability was detected with the MTT assay. RNAseq was performed to characterize cellular gene regulation in the presence of fentanyl. RESULTS Fentanyl enhanced expression of both chemokine receptor levels in a dose-dependent manner in HIV-susceptible and infected cell lines. Similarly, fentanyl induced viral expression in HIV-exposed TZM-bl cells and in HIV-infected lymphocyte cell lines. Multiple genes associated with apoptosis, antiviral/interferon response, chemokine signaling, and NFκB signaling were differentially regulated. CONCLUSIONS Synthetic opioid fentanyl impacts HIV replication and chemokine co-receptor expression. Increased virus levels suggest that opioid use may increase the likelihood of transmission and accelerate disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janani Madhuravasal Krishnan
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (J.M.K.)
| | - Ling Kong
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (J.M.K.)
| | - Rebekah Karns
- Digestive Health Center, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Mario Medvedovic
- Department of Environmental & Public Health Sciences, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Kenneth E. Sherman
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (J.M.K.)
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Jason T. Blackard
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (J.M.K.)
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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3
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Ghafouri-Fard S, Mahmud Hussen B, Abak A, Taheri M, Abdulmajid Ayatollahi S. Emerging role of non-coding RNAs in the course of HIV infection. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 103:108460. [PMID: 34942460 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that non-coding region of the human genome can exert important regulatory roles on critical biological functions, including response to viral infections, among them is human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV/AIDS is characterized by a gradual diminution of CD4 + T cells resulting in progressive deterioration of host immune responses and eventually high vulnerability to opportunistic infections and cancer. T cells functions have been shown to be delicately regulated by an active functional network of non-coding RNAs. Several lncRNAs such as MALAT1, NEAT1, GAS5, LOC102549805, NKILA, BACE1-AS, LINC00313, RP11-539L10.2, PVT1, LINC00173, NRON and AK130181 have been found to affect response of immune system to HIV or its pathological consequences. Moreover, numerous miRNAs such as hsa-miR-191-5p, miR-155, miR-103, miR-107, miR-150, miR-144, miR-125b, miR-146a, miR-146b-5p and miR-15a are involved in this process. In the current manuscript, we explain the role of lncRNAs and miRNAs in the regulation of response to HIV infection, apoptosis and activity of T cells, reactivation or latency of this virus and even pathological manifestations such as Tat-mediated induction of astrocytic amyloidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bashdar Mahmud Hussen
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Hawler Medical University, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | - Atefe Abak
- Men's Health and Reproductive Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Skull Base Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Leo CG, Mincarone P, Tumolo MR, Panico A, Guido M, Zizza A, Guarino R, De Santis G, Sedile R, Sabina S. MiRNA expression profiling in HIV pathogenesis, disease progression and response to treatment: a systematic review. Epigenomics 2021; 13:1653-1671. [PMID: 34693727 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2021-0237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: A systematic review was conducted to identify the association of miRNA expression with HIV pathogenesis, progression and treatment. Methods: A search of articles was conducted in MEDLINE®, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Global Health. Results: 35 articles were included. Due to the heterogeneity of HIV phenotypes, a harmonization based on key progression parameters was proposed. The hsa-miR-29 family, hsa-miR-146b-5p and hsa-miR-150-5p, are the most frequently differentially expressed in HIV. Direct comparison of studies was not possible due to heterogeneity in biological samples and miRNA analysis techniques. Conclusion: This is the first attempt to systematically identify miRNA's different expression in well-defined patient phenotypes and could represent a helpful way to increase general knowledge in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Giacomo Leo
- Institute of Clinical Physiology National Research Council, Branch of Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Pierpaolo Mincarone
- Institute for Research on Population & Social Policies National Research Council, Research Unit of Brindisi, 72100, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Tumolo
- Institute for Research on Population & Social Policies National Research Council, Research Unit of Brindisi, 72100, Italy
| | - Alessandra Panico
- University of Salento, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences & Technologies, Lecce, 73039, Italy
| | - Marcello Guido
- University of Salento, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences & Technologies, Lecce, 73039, Italy
| | - Antonella Zizza
- Institute of Clinical Physiology National Research Council, Branch of Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Roberto Guarino
- Institute of Clinical Physiology National Research Council, Branch of Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Giuseppe De Santis
- Department of Neurology, Card. G. Panico Hospital, Tricase, 73039, Italy
| | - Raffaella Sedile
- Institute of Clinical Physiology National Research Council, Branch of Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Saverio Sabina
- Institute of Clinical Physiology National Research Council, Branch of Lecce, 73100, Italy
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Narożna M, Rubiś B. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Strategies and the Potential Role of miRNA in the Assessment of COVID-19 Morbidity, Recurrence, and Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8663. [PMID: 34445368 PMCID: PMC8395427 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, we have experienced a serious pandemic. Despite significant technological advances in molecular technologies, it is very challenging to slow down the infection spread. It appeared that due to globalization, SARS-CoV-2 spread easily and adapted to new environments or geographical or weather zones. Additionally, new variants are emerging that show different infection potential and clinical outcomes. On the other hand, we have some experience with other pandemics and some solutions in virus elimination that could be adapted. This is of high importance since, as the latest reports demonstrate, vaccine technology might not follow the new, mutated virus outbreaks. Thus, identification of novel strategies and markers or diagnostic methods is highly necessary. For this reason, we present some of the latest views on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 therapeutic strategies and raise a solution based on miRNA. We believe that in the face of the rapidly increasing global situation and based on analogical studies of other viruses, the possibility of using the biological potential of miRNA technology is very promising. It could be used as a promising diagnostic and prognostic factor, as well as a therapeutic target and tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Narożna
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 4 Święcickiego St., 60-781 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Błażej Rubiś
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 49 Przybyszewskiego St., 60-355 Poznan, Poland
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Al Bitar S, Ballouz T, Doughan S, Gali-Muhtasib H, Rizk N. Potential role of micro ribonucleic acids in screening for anal cancer in human papilloma virus and human immunodeficiency virus related malignancies. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2021; 12:59-83. [PMID: 34354849 PMCID: PMC8316837 DOI: 10.4291/wjgp.v12.i4.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite advances in antiretroviral treatment (ART), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) continues to be a major global public health issue owing to the increased mortality rates related to the prevalent oncogenic viruses among people living with HIV (PLWH). Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted viral disease in both men and women worldwide. High-risk or oncogenic HPV types are associated with the development of HPV-related malignancies, including cervical, penile, and anal cancer, in addition to oral cancers. The incidence of anal squamous cell cancers is increasing among PLWH, necessitating the need for reliable screening methods in this population at risk. In fact, the currently used screening methods, including the Pap smear, are invasive and are neither sensitive nor specific. Investigators are interested in circulatory and tissue micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs), as these small non-coding RNAs are ideal biomarkers for early detection and prognosis of cancer. Multiple miRNAs are deregulated during HIV and HPV infection and their deregulation contributes to the pathogenesis of disease. Here, we will review the molecular basis of HIV and HPV co-infections and focus on the pathogenesis and epidemiology of anal cancer in PLWH. The limitations of screening for anal cancer and the need for a reliable screening program that involves specific miRNAs with diagnostic and therapeutic values is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samar Al Bitar
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
| | - Tala Ballouz
- Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
| | - Samer Doughan
- Department of Surgery, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
| | - Hala Gali-Muhtasib
- Department of Biology and Center for Drug Discovery, American University of Beirut, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
| | - Nesrine Rizk
- Department of Internal Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
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MicroRNA-101-3p, MicroRNA-195-5p, and MicroRNA-223-3p in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells May Serve as Novel Biomarkers for Syphilis Diagnosis. Microb Pathog 2021; 152:104769. [PMID: 33524569 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.104769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease of global prevalence. Current diagnostic methods lack sensitivity and specificity, which limits the early diagnosis and prognosis of the disease. MiRNAs hold great promise as potential biomarkers for infectious diseases diagnosis. We previously profiled the expression of miRNAs in PBMCs from patients with different stages of syphilis. We aimed to further confirm the miR-101-3p, miR-195-5p, and miR-223-3p expression profiles and evaluate their diagnostic value in syphilis infection. METHODS The expression levels of PBMC-derived miR-101-3p, miR-195-5p, and miR-223-3p were analyzed in 133 syphilis patients, 18 non-syphilis patients, and 23 healthy controls by RT-qPCR. ROC analysis was used to evaluate the differentiation power of these miRNAs in syphilis diagnosis, while the correlation between the expression of these miRNAs and TRUST titer was also statistically analyzed. RESULTS These miRNAs were significantly upregulated in syphilis patients in a stage-specific manner. ROC analysis indicated that miR-223-3p was powerful in discriminating between controls and patients with early, primary, secondary, and latent syphilis, as well as serological cure; the miR-195-5p/miR-223-3p panel showed an improved capacity to differentiate between syphilis patients, primary, or serofast-stage syphilis and controls, while the three miRNAs combined showed an improved capacity to differentiate latent syphilis or serological cure from controls. Importantly, miR-101-3p and miR-223-3p singly or jointly could specifically distinguish syphilis from non-syphilis patients. Moreover, TRUST titer was significantly correlated with miR-101-3p expression. CONCLUSIONS MiR-101-3p, miR-195-5p, and miR-223-3p might singly or jointly be potential diagnostic biomarkers at different stages of syphilis.
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Tribolet L, Kerr E, Cowled C, Bean AGD, Stewart CR, Dearnley M, Farr RJ. MicroRNA Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases: From Basic Research to Biosensing. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1197. [PMID: 32582115 PMCID: PMC7286131 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the pursuit of improved diagnostic tests for infectious diseases, several classes of molecules have been scrutinized as prospective biomarkers. Small (18–22 nucleotide), non-coding RNA transcripts called microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as promising candidates with extensive diagnostic potential, due to their role in numerous diseases, previously established methods for quantitation and their stability within biofluids. Despite efforts to identify, characterize and apply miRNA signatures as diagnostic markers in a range of non-infectious diseases, their application in infectious disease has advanced relatively slowly. Here, we outline the benefits that miRNA biomarkers offer to the diagnosis, management, and treatment of infectious diseases. Investigation of these novel biomarkers could advance the use of personalized medicine in infectious disease treatment, which raises important considerations for validating their use as diagnostic or prognostic markers. Finally, we discuss new and emerging miRNA detection platforms, with a focus on rapid, point-of-care testing, to evaluate the benefits and obstacles of miRNA biomarkers for infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Tribolet
- Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Emily Kerr
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Christopher Cowled
- Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew G D Bean
- Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Cameron R Stewart
- Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Megan Dearnley
- Diagnostics, Surveillance and Response (DSR), Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Ryan J Farr
- Diagnostics, Surveillance and Response (DSR), Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, VIC, Australia
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Judge M, Parker E, Naniche D, Le Souëf P. Gene Expression: the Key to Understanding HIV-1 Infection? Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2020; 84:e00080-19. [PMID: 32404327 PMCID: PMC7233484 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00080-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression profiling of the host response to HIV infection has promised to fill the gaps in our knowledge and provide new insights toward vaccine and cure. However, despite 20 years of research, the biggest questions remained unanswered. A literature review identified 62 studies examining gene expression dysregulation in samples from individuals living with HIV. Changes in gene expression were dependent on cell/tissue type, stage of infection, viremia, and treatment status. Some cell types, notably CD4+ T cells, exhibit upregulation of cell cycle, interferon-related, and apoptosis genes consistent with depletion. Others, including CD8+ T cells and natural killer cells, exhibit perturbed function in the absence of direct infection with HIV. Dysregulation is greatest during acute infection. Differences in study design and data reporting limit comparability of existing research and do not as yet provide a coherent overview of gene expression in HIV. This review outlines the extraordinarily complex host response to HIV and offers recommendations to realize the full potential of HIV host transcriptomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melinda Judge
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Erica Parker
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Denise Naniche
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigação de Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Manhiça, Mozambique
| | - Peter Le Souëf
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
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Su B, Fu Y, Liu Y, Wu H, Ma P, Zeng W, Zhang T, Lian S, Wu H. Potential Application of MicroRNA Profiling to the Diagnosis and Prognosis of HIV-1 Infection. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3185. [PMID: 30619232 PMCID: PMC6308129 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were first identified in Caenorhabditis briggsae and later recognized as playing pivotal roles in a vast range of cellular activities. It has been shown that miRNAs are an important mechanism not only for host defense against virus but also for the establishment of viral infection. During human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, host miRNA profiles are altered either as a host response against the virus or alternatively as a mechanism for the virus to facilitate viral replication and infection or to maintain latency. The altered miRNA profiles can be detected and quantified by various advanced assays, and potentially serve as more sensitive, accurate and cost-efficient biomarkers for HIV-1 diagnosis and disease progression than those detected by currently available standard clinical assays. Such new biomarkers are critical for optimizing treatment regimens. In this review, we focus on the potential application of miRNA profiling to the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection and the monitoring of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Su
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing, China
| | - Yuping Fu
- Department of Dermatology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing, China
| | - Haoquan Wu
- Kanglin Biotech (Hangzhou) Co., Ltd., Zhejiang, China
| | - Ping Ma
- Department of Infectious Diseases and STDs, Tianjin Second People's Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Weiping Zeng
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Marshall University School of Medicine, Huntington, WV, United States
| | - Tong Zhang
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing, China
| | - Shi Lian
- Department of Dermatology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing, China
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