Natural History of Hepatitis C

Regulatory effects of statins on Akt signaling for prevention of cancers

Statins, which are primarily used as lipid-lowering drugs, have been found to exhibit anti-tumor effects through modulating and interfering with various signaling pathways. In observational studies, statin use has been associated with a significant reduction in the progression of various cancers, including colon, lung, prostate, pancreas, and esophagus cancer, as well as melanoma and B and T cell lymphoma. The mevalonate pathway, which is affected by statins, plays a crucial role in activating Rho, Ras, and Rab proteins, thereby impacting the proliferation and apoptosis of tumor cells. Statins block this pathway, leading to the inhibition of isoprenoid units, which are critical for the activation of these key proteins, thereby affecting cancer cell behavior. Additionally, statins affect MAPK and Cdk2, which in turn reduce the expression of p21 and p27 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. Akt signaling plays a crucial role in key cancer cell features like proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis by activating multiple effectors in downstream pathways such as FOXO, PTEN, NF-κB, GSK3β, and mTOR. The PI3K/Akt signaling is necessary for many events in the metastatic pathway and has been implicated in the resistance to cytostatic drugs. The Akt/PTEN axis is currently attracting great interest for its role in carcinogenesis. Statins have been shown to activate the purinergic receptor P2X7 and affect Akt signaling, which may have important anti-cancer effects. Hence, targeting Akt shows promise as an effective approach to cancer prevention and therapy. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion on the specific impact of statins through Akt signaling in different types of cancer.

Hepatitis C Virus Dysregulates Polyamine and Proline Metabolism and Perturbs the Urea Cycle

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an oncogenic virus that causes chronic liver disease in more than 80% of patients. During the last decade, efficient direct-acting antivirals were introduced into clinical practice. However, clearance of the virus does not reduce the risk of end-stage liver diseases to the level observed in patients who have never been infected. So, investigation of HCV pathogenesis is still warranted. Virus-induced changes in cell metabolism contribute to the development of HCV-associated liver pathologies. Here, we studied the impact of the virus on the metabolism of polyamines and proline as well as on the urea cycle, which plays a crucial role in liver function. It was found that HCV strongly suppresses the expression of arginase, a key enzyme of the urea cycle, leading to the accumulation of arginine, and up-regulates proline oxidase with a concomitant decrease in proline concentrations. The addition of exogenous proline moderately suppressed viral replication. HCV up-regulated transcription but suppressed protein levels of polyamine-metabolizing enzymes. This resulted in a decrease in polyamine content in infected cells. Finally, compounds targeting polyamine metabolism demonstrated pronounced antiviral activity, pointing to spermine and spermidine as compounds affecting HCV replication. These data expand our understanding of HCV's imprint on cell metabolism.

No association between hepatitis C virus infection and risk of colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies

Background and aim

There is still uncertainty regarding whether hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with colorectal cancer (CRC). This study aims to investigate the potential association between HCV infection and CRC through a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were systematically searched from the beginning of their inception to October 2023 to find relevant cohort studies on the association between HCV infection and CRC risk. The random-effect, generic inverse variance method was used to calculate the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for CRC outcome among individuals with HCV infection. We also performed subgroup and sensitivity analysis.

Results

A total of 8 cohort studies involving 1,939,164 participants were included in this meta-analysis. The result from the meta-analysis suggested that there was no statistically significant association between HCV and the risk of developing CRC (HR = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.82-1.88, p = 0.88) with low statistical heterogeneity (I2 = 28%, p = 0.20). Subgroup analyses that were conducted based on study design, diagnosis of HCV infection, and publication year yielded similar results. Analyses of subgroups based on study areas revealed that there was no significant association between HCV infection and CRC risk in Asia (n = 2, HR = 0.96, 95% CI: 0.71-1.29, p = 0.79; I2 = 26%), Europe (n = 3, HR = 1.06, 95% CI: 0.83-1.37, p = 0.63; I2 = 0%), and North America (n = 2, HR = 1.10, 95% CI: 0.87-1.38, p = 0.44; I2 = 0%); however, a negative correlation was found in Oceania (n = 1, HR = 0.43, 95% CI: 0.22-0.84, p = 0.01). Sensitivity analysis further reinforce the stability of our conclusion.

Conclusion

Our cohort-based meta-analysis showed insufficient evidence to support the association between HCV infection and an increased risk of CRC. To gain a clearer insight into the potential association between these two conditions, it would be beneficial to conduct large, well-designed, high-quality prospective cohort studies that consider different ethnic populations and potential confounding factors.Systematic review registration: PROSPERO, identifier [CRD42023472688], https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42023472688.

Statins in Chronic Liver Disease: Review of the Literature and Future Role

Chronic liver disease (CLD) is a major contributor to global mortality, morbidity, and healthcare burden. Progress in pharmacotherapeutic for CLD management is lagging given its impact on the global population. While statins are indicated for the management of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease, their role in CLD prevention and treatment is emerging. Beyond their lipid-lowering effects, their liver-related mechanisms of action are multifactorial and include anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and immune-protective effects. In this review, we highlight what is known about the clinical benefits of statins in viral and nonviral etiologies of CLD and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and explore key mechanisms and pathways targeted by statins. While their benefits may span the spectrum of CLD and potentially HCC treatment, their role in CLD chemoprevention is likely to have the largest impact. As emerging data suggest that genetic variants may impact their benefits, the role of statins in precision hepatology will need to be further explored.

Forecasting Hepatitis C Virus Status for Children in the United States: A Modeling Study

BACKGROUND

Virtually all cases of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in children in the United States occur through vertical transmission, but it is unknown how many children are infected. Cases of maternal HCV infection have increased in the United States, which may increase the number of children vertically infected with HCV. Infection has long-term consequences for a child's health, but treatment options are now available for children ≥3 years old. Reducing HCV infections in adults could decrease HCV infections in children.

METHODS

Using a stochastic compartmental model, we forecasted incidence of HCV infections in children in the United States from 2022 through 2027. The model considered vertical transmission to children <13 years old and horizontal transmission among individuals 13-49 years old. We obtained model parameters and initial conditions from the literature and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2021 Viral Hepatitis Surveillance Report.

RESULTS

Model simulations assuming direct-acting antiviral treatment for children forecasted that the number of acutely infected children would decrease slightly and the number of chronically infected children would decrease even more. Alone, treatment and early screening in individuals 13-49 years old reduced the number of forecasted cases in children and, together, these policy interventions were even more effective.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our simulations, acute and chronic cases of HCV infection are remaining constant or slightly decreasing in the United States. Improving early screening and increasing access to treatment in adults may be an effective strategy for reducing the number of HCV infected children in the United States.

Dynamic Elevation of Aromatic Amino Acids in Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Cirrhosis After a Standard Meal

INTRODUCTION

Perturbations in aromatic (AAAs) and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are seen in decompensated liver disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the dynamic, postprandial relationship between hepatitis C virus-induced liver disease and amino acid concentrations in patients with compensated liver disease.

METHODS

Patients infected with hepatitis C virus underwent a baseline liver biopsy to determine Ishak Fibrosis Score and evaluate the liver transcriptome. Patients ate a standard meal and underwent peripheral vein sampling at defined intervals. Quantitative analysis of amino acids was performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

At baseline, there was no difference in AAA and BCAA concentrations between patients with cirrhosis and non-cirrhotic patients. After a standard meal, AAAs, but not BCAAs, were elevated in patients with cirrhosis compared with non-cirrhotic patients at every time point. The HepQuant SHUNT fraction was significantly higher in patients with cirrhosis and positively correlated with AAA concentration at all time points, but not BCAA. Analysis of the hepatic transcriptome demonstrated greater downregulation of the AAA degradation pathways than the BCAA degradation pathways.

DISCUSSION

At baseline, cirrhotic patients with compensated liver disease have adequate reserve liver function to metabolize AAAs and BCAAs. When faced with a metabolic stressor, such as a standard meal, patients with cirrhosis are less able to metabolize the increased load of AAAs. This impairment correlates with portosystemic shunting. Further evaluation of AAA levels in compensated liver disease might further the understanding of the liver-muscle axis and the role it may play in the development of sarcopenia in liver disease.

Can Surgeons Reliably Identify Non-cirrhotic Liver Disease During Laparoscopic Bariatric Surgery?

INTRODUCTION

Identification of liver disease during bariatric operations is an important task given the patients risk for occult fatty liver disease. Surgeon's accuracy of assessing for liver disease during an operation is poorly understood. The objective was to measure surgeons' performance on intra-operative visual assessment of the liver in a simulated environment.

METHODS

Liver images from 100 patients who underwent laparoscopic bariatric surgery and pre-operative ultrasound elastography between July 2020 and July 2021 were retrospectively evaluated. The perception of 15 surgeons regarding the degree of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis was collected in a simulated clinical environment by survey and compared to results determined by ultrasonographic exam.

RESULTS

The surgeons' ability to correctly identify the class of steatosis and fibrosis was poor (accuracy 61% and 59%, respectively) with a very weak correlation between the surgeon's predicted class and its true class (r = 0.17 and r = 0.12, respectively). When liver disease was present, surgeons completely missed its presence in 26% and 51% of steatosis and fibrosis, respectively. Digital image processing demonstrated that surgeons subjectively classified steatosis based on the "yellowness" of the liver and fibrosis based on texture of the liver, despite neither correlating with the true degree of liver disease.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic visual assessment of the liver surface for identification of non-cirrhotic liver disease was found to be an inaccurate method during laparoscopic bariatric surgery. While validation studies are needed, the results suggest the clinical need for alternative approaches.

Effects of HCV Clearance with Direct-Acting Antivirals (DAAs) on Liver Stiffness, Liver Fibrosis Stage and Metabolic/Cellular Parameters

INTRODUCTION

Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is a clinical and pathological syndrome with various causes and is characterized by varying degrees of hepatocellular necrosis and inflammation. It is a significant cause of liver transplantation and liver-related death worldwide. The hepatic manifestations of CHC are typically characterized by slowly progressing liver fibrosis, which is a non-specific and often disproportionate response to tissue damage. A large majority of HCV patients have extrahepatic manifestations with varying degrees of severity. HCV infection is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus, which increases insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and iron overload and causes chronic systemic inflammation. HCV infection is treated using direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) with cure rates of over 95 percent, minimal side effects, and shorter therapeutic courses. Despite the effective elimination of the virus, it seemed pertinent to understand to what extent HCV clearance eliminates or attenuates all the systemic alterations already induced by the virus during infection and chronicity.

OBJECTIVES

Our study aimed to determine whether eliminating HCV with DAAs alters the severity of liver disease (liver stiffness and liver fibrosis stage by TE) and the metabolic/cellular profile of patients with CHC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A group of 329 CHC patients from a Gastroenterology and Hepatology outpatient department were prospectively studied. Of these, 134 were also studied with DAAs. The liver fibrosis stage was evaluated by transient elastography (TE) using a FibroScan® device, and two groups were established for the analysis of liver stiffness (LS): mild and moderate stiffness (fibrosis F1 and F2; F1/2) and severe stiffness (fibrosis and cirrhosis F3 and F4; F3/4). Metabolic/cellular parameters were evaluated before and after antiviral treatment using standard methods: alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), γ-glutamyl-transpeptidase (γ-GT), haptoglobin (Hp), total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides (TG), free iron (Fe), transferrin saturation (TS), total iron binding capacity (TIBC), ferritin (Ft), glycemia, insulin, Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) and platelets count. The results were statistically analyzed using SPSS 24.0 for Windows.

RESULTS

Comparing the fibrosis stage before and after DAAs treatment, we verify a reduction in LS in 85.7% of patients and an improvement in liver fibrosis stage in 22.2% of them after DAAs treatment. Before DAAs treatment, patients showed a 2.410 risk for higher fibrosis stages (F3/4). Comparing metabolic/cellular parameters before and after DAAs treatment, patients showed lower ALP, AST, ALT, γGT, TG, Fe, TIBC, and Ft values and higher TC, LDL, and Hp values after treatment. As such, HCV elimination reduces iron overload and insulin resistance. On the other hand, it caused dyslipidemia, raising total cholesterol and LDL to levels outside the reference values. The improvement in the liver fibrosis stage by TE was mainly associated with higher baseline platelet count and HDL values and lower insulin resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

With this study, we were able to contribute to the knowledge of the effects of HCV elimination with DAAs on liver disease and metabolic profile to improve the quality of treatment and follow-up of these patients after HCV elimination.

Screening for hepatitis C as part of an opioid stewardship quality improvement initiative: Identifying infected patients and analyzing linkage to care

Screening patients with opioid use disorder (OUD) for HCV can potentially decrease morbidity and mortality if HCV-infected individuals are linked to care. We describe a quality improvement initiative focused on patients with OUD, incorporating an electronic health record decision-support tool for HCV screening across multiple health care venues, and examining the linkage to HCV care. Of 5829 patients with OUD, 4631 were tested for HCV (79.4%), (compared to a baseline of 8%) and 1614 (27.7%) tested positive. Two hundred and thirty patients had died at the study onset. Patients tested in the acute care and emergency department settings were more likely to test positive than those in the ambulatory setting (OR = 2.21 and 2.49, p < 0.001). Before patient outreach, 279 (18.2%) HCV-positive patients were linked to care. After patient outreach, 326 (23.0%) total patients were linked to care. Secondary end points included mortality and the number of patients who were HCV-positive who achieved a cure. The mortality rate in patients who were HCV-positive (12.2%) was higher than that in patients who were HCV-negative (7.4%) (OR = 1.72, p < 0.001) or untested patients (6.2%) (OR = 2.10, p<0.001). Of the 326 with successful linkage to care, 113 (34.7%) had a documented cure. An additional 55 (16.9%) patients had a possible cure, defined as direct acting antiviral ordered but no follow-up documented, known treatment in the absence of documented sustained viral response lab draw, or documentation of cure noted in outside medical records but unavailable laboratory results. A strategy utilizing electronic health record decision-support tools for testing patients with OUD for HCV was highly effective; however, linking patients with HCV to care was less successful.

Initiation of oral hepatitis C virus treatment: Which barriers are pertinent for ambulatory individuals with a history of illicit substance use? A qualitative interview study

Background and Aims

The World Health Organization has set a goal to eradicate hepatitis C virus (HCV) by the year 2030. Nonadherence to HCV treatment has substantial economic implications due to high treatment costs, among others. Barriers to start HCV treatment may be critical. The aim of this study was to assess pertinent barriers to HCV treatment in ambulatory patients with a history of illicit substance use and to compare them to the literature.

Methods

Barriers to HCV treatment mentioned by the key risk group (i.e., people who inject drugs) were retrieved from literature through a pragmatic literature search. From 34 published articles, we identified 80 modifiable barriers that were bundled in 23 items within the four topics "Personal difficulties and barriers to treatment," "Personal motivation to be treated," "Knowledge about the disease," and "Received information about the medicine." In-depth semistructured interviews were performed face-to-face with ambulatory patients from the University Psychiatric Clinics in Basel, Switzerland. Transcripts were coded inductively.

Results

Interviews were performed with seven individuals (mean age: 48.3 years; range: 38-63 years; one woman) treated with oral direct-acting antivirals between 2014 and 2022. Thirteen barriers to start HCV treatment were mentioned that corresponded to the five categories: information, attitudes, swallowing difficulties, social environment, and unfavorable lifestyle. The barrier "swallowing difficulties" emerged exclusively from the statements provided by the interviewees.

Conclusion

Barriers to the initiation of HCV treatment indicated by our interviewees clearly differed from the literature. Notably, the challenge of swallowing medicines may be particularly relevant for physicians prescribing and pharmacists dispensing HCV medication.

Hepatitis C in Black Individuals in the US: A Review

Importance

In the US, the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is 1.8% among people who are Black and 0.8% among people who are not Black. Mortality rates due to HCV are 5.01/100 000 among people who are Black and 2.98/100 000 among people who are White.

Observations

While people of all races and ethnicities experienced increased rates of incident HCV between 2015 and 2021, Black individuals experienced the largest percentage increase of 0.3 to 1.4/100 000 (367%) compared with 1.8 to 2.7/100 000 among American Indian/Alaska Native (50%), 0.3 to 0.9/100 000 among Hispanic (200%), and 0.9 to 1.6/100 000 among White (78%) populations. Among 47 687 persons diagnosed with HCV in 2019-2020, including 37 877 (79%) covered by Medicaid (7666 Black and 24 374 White individuals), 23.5% of Black people and 23.7% of White people with Medicaid insurance initiated HCV treatment. Strategies to increase HCV screening include electronic health record prompts for universal HCV screening, which increased screening tests from 2052/month to 4169/month in an outpatient setting. Awareness of HCV status can be increased through point-of-care testing in community-based settings, which was associated with increased likelihood of receiving HCV test results compared with referral for testing off-site (69% on-site vs 19% off-site, P < .001). Access to HCV care can be facilitated by patient navigation, in which an individual is assigned to work with a patient to help them access care and treatments; this was associated with greater likelihood of HCV care access (odds ratio, 3.7 [95% CI, 2.9-4.8]) and treatment initiation within 6 months (odds ratio, 3.2 [95% CI, 2.3-4.2]) in a public health system providing health care to individuals regardless of their insurance status or ability to pay compared with usual care. Eliminating Medicaid's HCV treatment restrictions, including removal of a requirement for advanced fibrosis or a specialist prescriber, was associated with increased treatment rates from 2.4 persons per month to 72.3 persons per month in a retrospective study of 10 336 adults with HCV with no significant difference by race (526/1388 [37.8%] for Black vs 2706/8277 [32.6%] for White patients; adjusted odds ratio, 1.02 [95% CI, 0.8-1.3]).

Conclusions and Relevance

In the US, the prevalence of HCV is higher in people who are Black than in people who are not Black. Point-of-care HCV tests, patient navigation, electronic health record prompts, and unrestricted access to HCV treatment in community-based settings have potential to increase diagnosis and treatment of HCV and improve outcomes in people who are Black.

Machine learning for predicting hepatitis B or C virus infection in diabetic patients

Highly prevalent hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus (HBV and HCV) infections have been reported among individuals with diabetes. Given the frequently asymptomatic nature of hepatitis and the challenges associated with screening in some vulnerable populations such as diabetes patients, we conducted an investigation into the performance of various machine learning models for the identification of hepatitis in diabetic patients while also evaluating the significance of features. Analyzing NHANES data from 2013 to 2018, machine learning models were evaluated; random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) along with stacked ensemble model. We performed hyperparameter tuning to improve the performance of the model, and selected important predictors using the best performance model. LASSO showed the highest predictive performance (AUC-ROC = 0.810) rather than other models. Illicit drug use, poverty, and race were highly ranked as predictive factors for developing hepatitis in diabetes patients. Our study demonstrated that a machine-learning-based model performed optimally in the detection of hepatitis among diabetes patients, achieving high performance. Furthermore, models and predictors evaluated from the current study, we expect, could be supportive information for developing screening or treatment methods for hepatitis care in diabetes patients.

Temporal trends in HCV treatment uptake and success among people who inject drugs in Baltimore, MD since the introduction of direct acting antivirals

Background

Although hepatitis C virus (HCV) can be cured by direct acting antivirals (DAA), uptake is not well characterized for people who inject drugs (PWID).

Methods

Among 1,130 participants of a community-based cohort of PWID with chronic HCV, we longitudinally characterized HCV treatment uptake and cure early (2014-2016) and later (2017-2020).

Results

Cumulative HCV treatment uptake increased from 4% in 2014 to 68% in 2020 and the percent with HCV viremia declined from nearly 100% to 33%. Predictors of treatment uptake varied across periods. Age (incidence rate ratio [IRR] per 5-year increase: 1.28; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.15, 1.42), educational attainment (IRR for ≥ high school diploma: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.66), HIV coinfection with suppressed viral load (IRR vs. HIV negative: 2.08; 95% CI: 1.63, 2.66) and alcohol dependence (IRR vs. no alcohol use: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.43, 0.91) were associated with treatment uptake in the early period, but not later. HIV coinfection with a detectable viral load (IRR vs. HIV negative: 0.46; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.95) and daily injecting (IRR: 0.46 vs. no injection; 95% CI: 0.27, 0.79) were significantly associated with lower treatment uptake later. Homelessness was associated with significantly reduced likelihood of viral clearance in the late DAA era (IRR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.88).

Conclusion

Treatment uptake improved substantially in this cohort of PWID in the first five years of DAA availability with commensurate declines in viremia. Additional efforts are needed to treat those actively injecting and unstably housed in order to realize elimination goals.

Dismal prognosis for cirrhotic patients with hepatitis C after initial failure of direct acting anti-virals, but salvage therapy may be life-saving

BACKGROUND

Effective direct-acting antiviral treatment against hepatitis C virus infection is available in many countries worldwide. Despite good treatment results, a proportion of patients does not respond to treatment. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term prognosis and the outcome of salvage therapy, after an initial treatment failure, in a nation-wide real-life setting.

METHOD

Data from all adult patients registered in the national Swedish hepatitis C treatment register who did not achieve sustained virological response after initial antiviral treatment, was retrieved from 2014 through 2018.

RESULTS

In total, 288 patients with primary treatment failure were included, of whom 236 underwent a second treatment course as salvage therapy after a median delay of 353 (IQR: 215-650) days. Fifteen patients received a third treatment course as second salvage treatment after a further median delay of 193 (IQR: 160-378) days. One-hundred-eleven out of 124 (90%) non-cirrhotic and 62/79 (78%) cirrhotic patients achieved sustained virological response following the first salvage treatment. Sustained virological response was achieved by 108/112 (96%) patients who received a triple antiviral regimen. In total 69 patients were lost to follow-up or died waiting for salvage treatment. Baseline cirrhosis was associated with poor long-term survival.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicates that salvage therapy was effective in most patients with primary treatment failure, in particular when a triple direct acting antiviral regimen was given. To avoid the risk of death or complications, patients with primary treatment failure should be offered salvage therapy with a triple regimen, as soon as possible.

Maternal hepatitis C virus infection and three adverse maternal outcomes in the United States

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis Virus C (HCV) infection rates have trended upwards among pregnant people in the USA since 2009. Existing evidence about HCV infections and maternal outcomes is limited; therefore, we used birth certificate data to investigate the association between HCV infection and maternal health outcomes.

METHODS

We used the 2017 US birth certificate dataset (a cross-section of 1.4 million birth records) to assess the association between prevalent HCV infection and gestational diabetes, gestational hypertension, and eclampsia. Potential confounding variables included prenatal care, age, education, smoking, presence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), body mass index (BMI), and weight gain during pregnancy. We restricted our analysis to only women with a first singleton pregnancy. Odds ratios were estimated by logistic regression models and separate models were tested for white and Black women.

RESULTS

Only 0.31% of the women in our sample were infected with HCV (n = 4412). In an unadjusted model, we observed a modest significant protective association between HCV infection and gestational diabetes (Odds ratio [OR]: 0.83; 95% CI: 0.76-0.96); but this was attenuated with adjustment for confounding variables (Adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.76, 1.02). There was no association between HCV and gestational hypertension (AOR: 1.03; 95% CI: 0.91, 1.16) or eclampsia (AOR: 1.15; 95% CI: 0.69, 1.93). Results from the race stratified models were similar to the non-stratified summary models.

CONCLUSION

We observed no statistically significant associations between maternal HCV infection with maternal health outcomes. Although, our analysis did indicate that HCV may lower the risk of gestational diabetes, this may be attributable to confounding. Studies utilizing more accurately measured HCV infection including those collecting type and timing of testing, and timing of infection are warranted to ensure HCV does not adversely impact maternal and/or fetal health. Particularly in the absence of recommended therapy for HCV during pregnancy.

HLA-G 3'UTR haplotype analyses in HCV infection and HCV-derived cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and fibrosis

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease. Chronic HCV infection is also an important cause of hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HCV has the capacity to evade immune surveillance by altering the host immune response. Moreover, variations in immune-related genes can lead to differential susceptibility to HCV infection as well as interfere on the susceptibility to the development of hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis and HCC. The human leucocyte antigen G (HLA-G) gene codes for an immunomodulatory protein known to be expressed in the maternal-foetal interface and in immune-privileged tissues. The HLA-G 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) is important for mRNA stability, and variants in this region are known to impact gene expression. Studies, mainly focusing in a 14 bp insertion/deletion polymorphism, have correlated HLA-G 3'UTR with susceptibility to viral infections, but other polymorphic variants in the HLA-G 3'UTR might also affect HCV infection as they are inherited as haplotypes. The present study evaluated HLA-G 3'UTR polymorphisms and performed linkage disequilibrium test and haplotype assembly in 286 HCV infected patients who have developed fibrosis, cirrhosis or HCC, as well as in 129 healthy control subjects. Haplotypes UTR-1, UTR-2 and UTR-3 were the most observed in HCV+ patients, in the frequencies of 0.276, 0.255 and 0.121, respectively. No statistically significant difference was observed between HCV+ and control subjects, even when patients were grouped according to outcome (HCC, cirrhosis or fibrosis). Despite that, some trends in the results were observed, and therefore, we cannot rule out the possibility that variants associated to high HLA-G expression can be involved in HCV infection susceptibility.

A study on the clinical spectrum of Hepatitis C virus infection from a tertiary care center in Sub-Himalayan India-spontaneous clearance, a neglected phenomenon

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has varied clinical manifestations. Noninvasive tools can be useful to assess the severity of liver disease and the rate of spontaneous clearance. HCV infection was determined by antibody or RNA-based tests over a period of 18 months in 8030 samples from the Gastroenterology department. Noninvasive indicators (AST-to-platelet ratio index and fibrosis-4 index) were computed. HCV RNA load was compared with Child-Turcotte-Pugh score. Rate of spontaneous clearance was estimated. About 3.2% of patients were found to have HCV. Fatigue, anorexia, and nausea were the primary complaints followed by ascites and encephalopathy. Extrahepatic features such as autoimmune hepatitis and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma were rare. There was an absence of advanced liver cirrhosis (κ = 0.96) in the majority of cases. Spontaneous HCV resolution was seen in 10.37%.

Risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma After Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus and in Noncirrhosis Chronic Hepatitis C Patients With Sustained Virological Response: A Systematic Review

In a hepatitis C virus (HCV)-controlled human infection model (CHIM), healthy volunteers are inoculated with HCV and then treated. Residual hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk after viral clearance is an important consideration when evaluating the CHIM. We estimate HCC risk in spontaneously cleared HCV and in noncirrhosis after sustained virological response (SVR) to HCV treatment in a systematic review and using data from 3 cohorts: German anti-D, Taiwan, and US Veterans Affairs (VA). For noncirrhosis SVR, the overall HCC rate is 0.33 per 100 patient-years in meta-analysis. HCC rates for the German, Taiwan, and US Veterans Affairs cohorts are 0, 0.14, and 0.02 per 100 patient-years, respectively. Past hepatitis B virus exposure was not accounted for in the Taiwan cohort, while VA patients were likely tested based on liver disease/risk factors, which may confound HCC outcomes. The German cohort with no HCC after 44 years is most comparable to the CHIM participants. Although it is difficult to precisely estimate HCC risk from an HCV CHIM, the data suggest the risk to be very low or negligible.

Hepatitis C: recent advances and practical management

Hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus (HCV) remain leading causes of disability and premature death worldwide. In May 2016, the UK, as a member of the World Health Assembly, adopted the Global Health Sector Strategy and its targets to eliminate viral hepatitis as a public health threat by 2030. In pursuit of this goal, there have been a number of recent advances in viral hepatitis care. Perhaps most notable is the availability of short courses of all-oral curative direct acting antivirals for hepatitis C. However, while access to treatment has been scaled up across the UK, an estimated 93 000 people were still living with HCV at the end of 2021 of which three-quarters remained unaware of their infection. This review article will summarise key advances in hepatitis C treatment and prevention and provide a practical approach to the management of individuals living with hepatitis C infection.

Accessing hepatitis C direct acting antivirals among people living with hepatitis C: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C is curable with direct-acting antivirals (DAAs). However, treatment uptake remains low among marginalized populations such as people who inject drugs. We sought to understand challenges to treatment uptake with DAAs among people living with hepatitis C and compare treatment experiences between people who do and do not inject prescription and/or unregulated drugs.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative study using focus groups with 23 adults aged 18 years and over who completed DAA treatment or were about to begin such treatment at the time of the study. Participants were recruited from hepatitis C treatment clinics across Toronto, Ontario. We drew upon stigma theory to interpret participants' accounts.

RESULTS

Following analysis and interpretation, we generated five theoretically-informed themes characterizing the experiences of individuals accessing DAAs: "being 'worthy' of the cure", "spatially enacted stigma", "countering social and structural vulnerability: the importance of peers", "identity disruption and contagion: attaining a 'social cure'" and "challenging stigma with population-based screening". Overall, our findings suggest that structural stigma generated and reproduced through healthcare encounters limits access to DAAs among people who inject drugs. Peer-based programs and population-based screening were proposed by participants as mechanisms for countering stigma within health care settings and 'normalizing' hepatitis C among the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the availability of curative therapies, access to such treatment for people who inject drugs is limited by stigma enacted in and structured within healthcare encounters. Developing novel, low-threshold delivery programs that remove power differentials and attend to the social and structural determinants of health and reinfection are needed to facilitate further scale up of DAAs and support the goal of eradicating hepatitis C as a public health threat.

Sex- and age-based comparison of serum immunoglobulins following liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Over a quarter of organ transplant recipients have low immunoglobulin levels in their early post-transplant course, which is associated with increased risk of infection and mortality. Although immunoglobulin level varies by sex among healthy individuals, it is unknown how such differences are affected by transplant-related immunosuppression. This study compared post-liver transplant immunoglobulin G (IgG) between sexes at varying ages.

METHODS

Serum specimens from a prospective cohort of 130 liver transplant recipients were analyzed. IgG was measured at time of transplant and from one-month post-transplant samples. Post-transplant IgG was compared between sexes using multivariable linear regression. Four age and sex categories were created (women<50, women≥50, men<50, men≥50) and the model repeated with this as the explanatory variable. The relationship between sex hormone concentrations and post-transplant IgG was also explored. Infection type and incidence were examined within groups.

RESULTS

The cohort included 99 men, 31 women (mean age 53). In adjusted linear regression, post-transplant IgG was not significantly different by sex (p = 0.92). However, when broken into four categories by age and sex, the contrast in IgG levels between younger versus older patients was strikingly greater among women than among men. An interaction term including age and sex was statistically significant (p = 0.03). The combined age-sex categorical variable was also significantly associated with post-transplant IgG (p = 0.01). Finally, an association was identified between baseline estradiol level and post-transplant change in IgG (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Sex and age have an important relationship with post-transplant IgG with older women demonstrating lowest concentrations. Immunoglobulin levels have previously demonstrated association with post-transplant outcomes.

Maternal Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Adverse Newborn Outcomes in the US

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the relationship between maternal hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and infant health. Furthermore, we evaluated racial disparities with these associations.

METHODS

Using 2017 US birth certificate data, we investigated the association between maternal HCV infection and infant birthweight, preterm birth, and Apgar score. We used unadjusted and adjusted linear regression and logistic regression models. Models were adjusted for use of prenatal care, maternal age, maternal education, maternal smoking status, and the presence of other sexually transmitted infections. We stratified the models by race to describe the experiences of White and Black women separately.

RESULTS

Maternal HCV infection was associated with reduced infant birthweight on average by 42.0 g (95% CI: -58.81, -25.30) for women of all races, 64.6 g (95% CI: -81.91, -47.26) for White women and 80.3 g (95% CI: -162.48, 1.93) for Black women. Women with maternal HCV infection had increased odds of having a preterm birth of 1.06 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.17) for women of all races, 1.06 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.18) for White women and 1.35 (95% CI: 0.93, 1.97) for Black women. Overall, women with maternal HCV infection had increased odds 1.26 (95% CI: 1.03, 1.55) of having a low/intermediate Apgar score; White and Black women with HCV infection had similarly increased odds of an infant with low/intermediate Apgar score in a stratified analysis: 1.23 (95% CI: 0.98, 1.53) for White women and 1.24 (95% CI: 0.51, 3.02) for Black women.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal HCV infection was associated with lower infant birthweight and higher odds of having a low/intermediate Apgar score. Given the potential for residual confounding, these results should be interpreted with caution.

A randomized controlled trial of SOF/VEL/VOX with or without ribavirin for retreatment of chronic hepatitis C

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The combination of sofosbuvir, velpatasvir and voxilaprevir (SOF/VEL/VOX) is recommended retreatment for patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection who failed previous direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatment. However, whether ribavirin further increases the therapeutic efficacy of SOF/VEL/VOX retreatment remains unclear. We aimed to test this hypothesis by a randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

We randomly assigned 315 patients with DAA treatment failure from 5 Egyptian sites into two groups. Group A (n=158) received SOF/VEL/VOX for 12 weeks, and group B (n=157) received SOF/VEL/VOX + weight-based ribavirin for 12 weeks. Therapeutic efficacy was defined as SVR12 (undetectable HCV RNA 12 weeks after treatment completion). Safety and tolerability were evaluated by monitoring treatment-related adverse events (AEs) and laboratory abnormalities.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients in each group were lost to follow-up. SVR12 rates by intention-to-treat (ITT) were 87.3% (138/158), and by per-protocol analysis, 97.8% (138/141) in group A; and 87.9% (138/157) and 98.5% (138/140) in group B (p=NS for ITT and PP). Males comprised 53.9% of group A, and 57.1% in group B (p=0.58), with mean ages of 51.8 and 47.3 years in group A and B, respectively. Both regimens were well-tolerated, with no deaths and only one serious AE (anemia) in group B requiring ribavirin discontinuation. Fifty-five patients in group A vs. 77 in group B experienced any adverse events (p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

This randomized controlled trial showed equal, high efficacy of both regiments in retreating previous DAA failures, although ribavirin was associated with more adverse events. Therefore SOF/VEL/VOX monotherapy should be the preferred retreatment strategy.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

HCV treatment guidelines recommend retreating DAA treatment failures with the combination of sofosbuvir, velpatasvir and voxilaprevir (SOF/VEL/VOX) for 12 weeks. However, whether ribavirin exerts an additional/synergistic effect remains unclear. The present study confirmed that SOF/VEL/VOX without ribavirin is the best regimen for retreating DAA treatment failures, and thus will help clinicians caring for patients who are not cured with a first course of DAA therapy. CLINCIALTRIALS.

GOV NUMBER

NCT04695769.

Elucidating the distinct contributions of miR-122 in the HCV life cycle reveals insights into virion assembly

Efficient hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA accumulation is dependent upon interactions with the human liver-specific microRNA, miR-122. MiR-122 has at least three roles in the HCV life cycle: it acts as an RNA chaperone, or 'riboswitch', allowing formation of the viral internal ribosomal entry site; it provides genome stability; and promotes viral translation. However, the relative contribution of each role in HCV RNA accumulation remains unclear. Herein, we used point mutations, mutant miRNAs, and HCV luciferase reporter RNAs to isolate each of the roles and evaluate their contribution to the overall impact of miR-122 in the HCV life cycle. Our results suggest that the riboswitch has a minimal contribution in isolation, while genome stability and translational promotion have similar contributions in the establishment phase of infection. However, in the maintenance phase, translational promotion becomes the dominant role. Additionally, we found that an alternative conformation of the 5' untranslated region, termed SLIIalt, is important for efficient virion assembly. Taken together, we have clarified the overall importance of each of the established roles of miR-122 in the HCV life cycle and provided insight into the regulation of the balance between viral RNAs in the translating/replicating pool and those engaged in virion assembly.

Hepatitis C care cascade in a large academic healthcare system, 2012 to 2018

To determine the hepatitis C virus (HCV) care cascade among persons who were born during 1945 to 1965 and received outpatient care on or after January 2014 at a large academic healthcare system. Deidentified electronic health record data in an existing research database were analyzed for this study. Laboratory test results for HCV antibody and HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) indicated seropositivity and confirmatory testing. HCV genotyping was used as a proxy for linkage to care. A direct-acting antiviral (DAA) prescription indicated treatment initiation, an undetectable HCV RNA at least 20 weeks after initiation of antiviral treatment indicated a sustained virologic response. Of the 121,807 patients in the 1945 to 1965 birth cohort who received outpatient care between January 1, 2014 and June 30, 2017, 3399 (3%) patients were screened for HCV; 540 (16%) were seropositive. Among the seropositive, 442 (82%) had detectable HCV RNA, 68 (13%) had undetectable HCV RNA, and 30 (6%) lacked HCV RNA testing. Of the 442 viremic patients, 237 (54%) were linked to care, 65 (15%) initiated DAA treatment, and 32 (7%) achieved sustained virologic response. While only 3% were screened for HCV, the seroprevalence was high in the screened sample. Despite the established safety and efficacy of DAAs, only 15% initiated treatment during the study period. To achieve HCV elimination, improved HCV screening and linkage to HCV care and DAA treatment are needed.

Hepatitis C mortality trends in Mexico from 2001 to 2017

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

We aimed to analyze the trends of total and sex-stratified mortality from hepatitis C virus (HCV) and to estimate the proportion of non-alcoholic liver disease deaths in Mexico attributable to HCV from 2001-2017.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Using the mortality multiple-cause dataset, we selected the codes for acute HCV and chronic HCV to analyze trends from 2001 to 2017. We then estimated the proportion of HCV-related deaths out of non-alcoholic chronic liver disease deaths, by including in the denominator: other acute and chronic viral hepatitis, malignant neoplasm of the liver, liver failure, chronic hepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis of the liver, and other inflammatory diseases of the liver. Average percent change (APC) for trends, overall and by sex, were estimated using Joinpoint regression.

RESULTS

The trend in crude mortality rate significantly increased from 2001-2005 (APC 18.4%; 95%CI=12.5, 24.5; p value<0.001), and then significantly decreased from 2013-2017 (APC -6.5%; 95%CI=-10.1, -2.9; p value<0.001). Stratified by sex women experienced a more rapid decline in the 2014-2017 period than men.

CONCLUSIONS

HCV mortality seems to have started to decrease, but much remains to be done in terms of prevention, diagnosis, and timely access to treatment.

NS5A domain I antagonises PKR to facilitate the assembly of infectious hepatitis C virus particles

Hepatitis C virus NS5A is a multifunctional phosphoprotein comprised of three domains (DI, DII and DIII). DI and DII have been shown to function in genome replication, whereas DIII has a role in virus assembly. We previously demonstrated that DI in genotype 2a (JFH1) also plays a role in virus assembly, exemplified by the P145A mutant which blocked infectious virus production. Here we extend this analysis to identify two other conserved and surface exposed residues proximal to P145 (C142 and E191) that exhibited no defect in genome replication but impaired virus production. Further analysis revealed changes in the abundance of dsRNA, the size and distribution of lipid droplets (LD) and the co-localisation between NS5A and LDs in cells infected with these mutants, compared to wildtype. In parallel, to investigate the mechanism(s) underpinning this role of DI, we assessed the involvement of the interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR). In PKR-silenced cells, C142A and E191A exhibited levels of infectious virus production, LD size and co-localisation between NS5A and LD that were indistinguishable from wildtype. Co-immunoprecipitation and in vitro pulldown experiments confirmed that wildtype NS5A domain I (but not C142A or E191A) interacted with PKR. We further showed that the assembly phenotype of C142A and E191A was restored by ablation of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF1), a downstream effector of PKR. These data suggest a novel interaction between NS5A DI and PKR that functions to evade an antiviral pathway that blocks virus assembly through IRF1.

Decade of optimizing therapy with direct-acting antiviral drugs and the changing profile of patients with chronic hepatitis C

Chronic infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a major health problem affecting approximately 58 million people worldwide. In the era of interferon (IFN)-based regimens, patients particularly infected with genotypes 1 and 4 achieved a low response rate. The implementation of direct-acting antivirals changed the landscape of HCV treatment. The increase in effectiveness provided us with the hope of eliminating HCV as a significant public threat by 2030. In the following years, there was an observed improvement in the treatment of HCV with genotype-specific regimens and highly effective pangenotypic options that are the most recent stage of the revolution. The optimization of therapy was accompanied by changes in the patient profile from the beginning of the IFN-free era over time. Patients treated with antiviral therapies were younger in successive periods, less burdened with comorbidities and comedications, more frequently treatment-naïve and had less advanced liver disease. Before the IFN-free era, specific subpopulations such as patients with HCV/HIV coinfection, those with a history of previous treatment, patients with renal impairment or with cirrhosis had lower chances for a virologic response. Currently, these populations should no longer be considered difficult to treat. Despite the high effectiveness of HCV therapy, there is a small percentage of patients with treatment failure. However, they can be effectively retreated with pangenotypic rescue regimens.

EVALUATION OF SEROLOGICAL SCREENING AND PCR-AMPLIFICATION OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS DNA AMONG IRAQI BLOOD DONORS

OBJECTIVE

The aim: Infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) caused by blood transfusion is a big problem throughout the world. The aim of study is to determine the faster and more accurate methods for detection of hepatitis B infections by serological screening and PCR- amplification.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and methods: A total of 140528 donors were tested for HBsAg and total anti-HBc from January to October 2021 in Iraq's National Blood Transfusion Center; however, only 100 samples with HBsAg (-) and anti-HBc (+) were collected and tested for HBV DNA using quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

Results: From 2015 to 2021, the percentage of HBsAg positive donors was 0.33 percent in 2015, 0.32 percent in 2016, 0.30 percent in 2017, 0.28 percent in 2018, 0.23 percent in 2019, 0.22 percent in 2020, and 0.27 percent in 2021. Between January and October of 2021, the overall anti-HBc rate among the (140528) donors was 4.42 percent. According to our findings, only 7% of blood samples from NBTC donors with HBsAg (-) anti-HBc (+) were positive for HBV DNA. The results showed no significant change in HBs Ag (+) and total anti-HBc rates among blood donors between 2015 and 2021.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: HBV infection could be transmitted from a blood donor with OBI. PCR (RT PCR) is substantially more sensitive and effective. Despite this the use of an anti-HBc test for blood donors could be seen as a second choice to control HBV from spreading during blood transfusions.

Genetic variants of IFIH1 and DHX58 affect the chronicity of hepatitis C in the Chinese Han population

Hepatitis C remains a major public health problem in the world. The host immune system plays a key role in viral clearance. This study aimed to investigate the connection between retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like (RIG-I-like) receptor gene polymorphism and hepatitis C chronicity in the Chinese Han population. The current study genotyped three SNPs (IFIH1 rs10930046 and DHX58 rs2074158, rs2074160) to assess their association with the chronicity of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among 1,590 participants (590 spontaneous HCV clearance cases and 1,000 persistent infection patients). Our research shows that DHX58 rs2074158-G allele (dominant model: adjusted OR = 1.53, 95% CI [1.20-1.95], P = 0.001; additive model: adjusted OR = 1.50, 95% CI [1.27-1.78], P < 0.001) and IFIH1 rs10930046-C allele (additive model: adjusted OR = 1.26, 95% CI [1.07-1.49], P = 0.005) were associated with chronic hepatitis C (CHC). And the risk of CHC increased in people carrying more unfavorable genotypes (rs2074158-AG/GG or rs10930046-CC), with the chronic rates for genotypes number from zero to two in 60.69%, 57.33%, and 85.93%, respectively (adjusted OR = 3.64, 95% CI [2.18-6.08]; P < 0.001). Genetic polymorphism of IFIH1 and DHX58 may be related to CHC in the Chinese Han population. Furthermore, the risk of CHC increases as the number of unfavorable genotypes carried by the HCV-infected person increases. IFIH1 rs10930046, DHX58 rs2074158, age, ALT, and AST levels were all independent predictors of CHC.

Hepatitis C Virus-Lipid Interplay: Pathogenesis and Clinical Impact

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection represents the major cause of chronic liver disease, leading to a wide range of hepatic diseases, including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. It is the leading indication for liver transplantation worldwide. In addition, there is a growing body of evidence concerning the role of HCV in extrahepatic manifestations, including immune-related disorders and metabolic abnormalities, such as insulin resistance and steatosis. HCV depends on its host cells to propagate successfully, and every aspect of the HCV life cycle is closely related to human lipid metabolism. The virus circulates as a lipid-rich particle, entering the hepatocyte via lipoprotein cell receptors. It has also been shown to upregulate lipid biosynthesis and impair lipid degradation, resulting in significant intracellular lipid accumulation (steatosis) and circulating hypocholesterolemia. Patients with chronic HCV are at increased risk for hepatic steatosis, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease, including accelerated atherosclerosis. This review aims to describe different aspects of the HCV viral life cycle as it impacts host lipoproteins and lipid metabolism. It then discusses the mechanisms of HCV-related hepatic steatosis, hypocholesterolemia, and accelerated atherosclerosis.

Role of Inflammatory/Immune Response and Cytokine Polymorphisms in the Severity of Chronic Hepatitis C (CHC) before and after Direct Acting Antiviral (DAAs) Treatment

Host regulatory immune response is involved in the hepatic inflammatory process caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). We aimed to determine if HCV clearance with direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) changes the hepatic fibrosis stage, biochemical parameters of liver injury, and inflammatory/immune responses. Sample: 329 chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients, 134 of them treated with DAAs. Liver fibrosis was evaluated by transient elastography (FibroScan), biochemical and cellular parameters were determined by standard methods, cytokine concentration by enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA), and genetic polymorphisms by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) or endpoint genotyping. Before DAA treatment, severe fibrosis or cirrhosis (F3/4) was associated with higher values of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and genotypes transforming growth factor-beta-509 C/T_CC (TGF-β-509 C/T_CC), interleukine-10-1082 T/C_CC (IL-10-1082 T/C_CC), and IL-10-592 G/T_GT. After DAA treatment, fewer F3/4 patients and lower values of TNF-α were found. Patients with TNF-α-308 G/A_GG and IL-10-592 G/T_GT were at risk for F3/4. Lack of improvement of liver fibrosis was associated with lower baseline values of platelet count for genotypes TNF-α-308 G/A_GG and haplotype TT/GG of IL-10-1082 T/C and IL-10-592 G/T. Our study showed decreased liver fibrosis/inflammation and normalization of liver injury biomarkers after DAA treatment. It also points to the importance of suppressing the pro-inflammatory response by DAAs in the resolution of hepatitis C, contributing to the improvement of liver damage evaluated by transient elastography.

Chronic Hepatitis C: Acute Exacerbation and Alanine Aminotransferase Flare

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes acute and chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, as well as extrahepatic manifestations such as malignant lymphoma. Currently, direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) against HCV infection can lead to a sustained virological response (SVR) in almost all HCV-infected patients. In this review article, we discuss acute exacerbation and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) flare in patients with chronic HCV infection. Although acute liver failure caused by HCV infection is rare, careful attention should be paid to the cases with ALT elevation during the natural course of chronic HCV infection. HCV genotype 2 infection, the use of rituximab, and a higher dose of corticosteroid are factors associated with HCV acute exacerbation and ALT flare. Treatment regimens for cancer have been interrupted or changed due to ALT flare due to HCV infection in some patients undergoing chemotherapy for cancer. The pathogenesis of HCV acute exacerbation and ALT flare could involve cellular as well as humoral immune responses. In the DAA era, the earlier introduction of DAAs may prevent chronic HCV-infected patients with acute exacerbation and ALT flare from developing into a more severe form, although DAAs may not be effective for all of them.

Interprofessional Collaboration Between a Clinical Pharmacist and Specialty Physicians to Treat Hepatitis C in an Interdisciplinary Medical Practice Setting

Objective: Describes the activities of a clinical pharmacist in a gastroenterology (GI) clinic providing services to hepatitis C virus (HCV) patients, with a focus on practice management activities and tools. Practice Description: Located inside a GI specialty clinic in Fort Worth, Texas, the pharmacist provides comprehensive medication management under a collaborative practice agreement (CPA). Once referred by the GI physician, the pharmacist has face-to-face patient visits, develops the care plan, orders medications, and follows patients through sustained virologic response and the development of a hepatocellular carcinoma surveillance plan. Practice Innovation: The role of pharmacists in the management of HCV is important to understand. This article details a pharmacist-led clinic in an open GI medical practice. Evaluation: A retrospective chart review study was conducted to assess outcomes related to the integration of the clinical pharmacist. Methods: Completed by the study team, this study included manual chart reviews of patients with the ambulatory care pharmacist-driven HCV practice to pull data and information that were then tabulated using Qualtrics. Results: A total of 95 charts were surveyed, 78 records were created, and 49 patients were started on direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatment by the pharmacist. Patients required multiple pharmacist communication actions. The minimum duration of the pharmacist service was 6 months and could extend more than 9 months depending on the time it took to get the patient started on medication. Pharmacist integration into the practice resulted in improved intake for the GI clinic, improved interprofessional interaction, and increased utilization of newer treatment modalities for HCV which feature cure rates up to 99% with limited side effects. Conclusion: Clinical pharmacists are well positioned to help navigate patients through the complexities of the medication use system, medication access, drug interactions and adverse effects, promote medication adherence, and allow patients to start and complete therapy.

Intrauterine Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Concomitant with Isolated Severe Fetal Ascites

Background: Perinatal Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) transmission occurs in 4–7% of the cases with detectable viremia at delivery. HCV testing in pregnancy is recommended. The fetal infection was previously described as asymptomatic although there are two cases, including this one, to report the presence of isolated fetal ascites in HCV infected fetuses. Case report: A 42-year-old patient, 3G, 3P, presented in the Emergency Room for painful uterine contraction. The third-trimester ultrasound examination noted severe fetal ascites, accompanied by hyperechoic bowels and polyhydramnios. The diagnosis required a detailed ultrasound exam, invasive testing (amniocentesis, cordocentesis, and fetal paracentesis), and a complete workup. The mother tested positive for HCV antibodies, and the fetal cord blood tested positive for HCV RNA. The ascites resolved after paracentesis, and the gastrointestinal and respiratory functions markedly improved. The fetus was delivered at term in good condition. Conclusions: The etiology of isolated fetal ascites is broad. This case may indicate that intrauterine HCV transmission is a potential cause of isolated fetal ascites in the absence of other explanation, and isolated fetal ascites can be the only sign revealed on a routine examination. We suspected, having no other detected cause for ascites, the intrauterine transmission of HCV. Invasive procedures, such as paracentesis, are required for abdominal decompression to manage isolated fetal ascites, as it may be a saving procedure. A genetic investigation is needed, and a good neonatal outcome is expected in the absence of fetal structural or genetic abnormalities, as in our case.

A cross-sectional study of hepatitis C prevalence and correlates among persons who inject drugs in rural and non-rural communities

Persons who inject drugs (PWID) have been experiencing a higher burden of new hepatitis C (HCV) due to the opioid epidemic. The greatest increases in injection have been in rural communities. However, less is known about the prevalence of HCV or its risk factors in rural compared to non-rural communities. This study compared HCV infection history, current infection, and associated behavioural and sociodemographic correlates among PWID recruited from rural and non-rural communities from Upstate New York (NY). This cross-sectional study recruited 309 PWID, using respondent-driven sampling. Blood samples were collected through finger stick for HCV antibody and RNA tests. A survey was also self-administered for HCV infection history, sociodemographics and behavioural correlates to compare by setting rurality. HCV seropositivity was significantly higher among PWID from rural than non-rural communities (71.0% vs. 46.8%), as was current infection (41.4% vs. 25.9%). High levels of past year syringe (44.4%) and equipment (62.2%) sharing were reported. Factors associated with infection history include syringe service program utilization, non-Hispanic white race, sharing needles and methamphetamine injection, which was higher in rural vs. non-rural communities (38.5% vs. 15.5%). HCV burden among PWID appears higher in rural than non-rural communities and may be increasing possibly due to greater levels of methamphetamine injection. On-going systematic surveillance of HCV prevalence and correlates is crucial to respond to the changing opioid epidemic landscape. Additionally, improving access to harm reduction services, especially with special focus on stimulants, may be important to reduce HCV prevalence among PWID in rural settings.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: measures to improve the outlook in sub-Saharan Africa

Hepatocellular carcinoma is a leading public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, and it is most prevalent in young adults (median 45 years [IQR 35-57]). Overall, outcomes are poor, with a median survival of 2·5 months after presentation. Major risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma are hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus, aflatoxin B1 exposure, and alcohol consumption, with metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease slowly emerging as a risk factor over the past few years. Crucially, these risk factors are preventable and manageable with effective implementation of the HBV birth-dose vaccination, treatment of chronic viral hepatitis, provision of harm reduction services, and by decreasing aflatoxin B1 exposure and harmful alcohol consumption. Primary prevention is central to the management of hepatocellular carcinoma, especially in poorly resourced environments. Effective screening and surveillance programmes with recall policies need to be implemented, because detection and curative management of hepatocellular carcinoma is possible if it is detected at an early stage, even in countries with minimal resources, with appropriate upskilling of medical personnel. The establishment of centres of excellence with advanced diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities within countries should improve hepatocellular carcinoma outcomes and assist in driving the implementation of much needed systematic data systems focused on hepatocellular carcinoma to establish the accurate burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Such data would support the public health importance of hepatocellular carcinoma and provide a strong basis for advocacy, programme development, resource allocation, and monitoring of progress in reducing mortality.

Improved detection of hepatitis C virus-positive blood donors and determination of infection status

BACKGROUND

In low-risk populations, variability in the sensitivity of current serological tests for Hepatitis C virus (HCV) blood donor screening may lead to the presence of false-positive results. This contributes to the unnecessary loss of blood donor samples as well as to difficulty in accurate donor counselling. The present study determined the optimal cut-off value of a chemiluminescent immunoassay for identification of HCV-reactive blood donors.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

In a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of 193 973 blood donations, 578 samples that were positive for HCV antibody in a chemiluminescent immunoassay and/or RNA screening tests were identified. Blood from 379 of these positive samples was available for retesting by a second confirmatory HCV immunoassay followed by a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Donors were also recalled for a new analysis.

RESULTS

Only 71 (18.7%) blood samples remained HCV-positive upon retesting, while 233 (61.5%) now tested negative and 75 (19.8%) yielding indeterminate results. A signal to cutoff ratio ≥4.32 was determined as the best differential threshold between a positive and negative result, increasing the positive predictive value from 27.3% to 66.7%.

CONCLUSION

Using a higher threshold for an HCV-positive blood sample enhances the chemiluminescent immunoassay screening test´s accuracy and helps to improve donor counselling and notification processes.

Viral hepatitis in pregnancy

Viral hepatitis is caused by a heterogenous group of viral agents representing a wide range of phylogenetic groups. Many viruses can involve the liver and cause liver injury but only a subset are delineated as 'hepatitis viruses' based upon their primary site of replication and tropism for hepatocytes which make up the bulk of the liver cell population. Since their discovery, beginning with the agent that caused serum hepatitis in the 1960s, the alphabetic designations have been utilized. To date, we have five hepatitis viruses, A through E, though it is postulated that others may exist. This chapter will focus on those viruses. Note that hepatitis D is included as a subset of hepatitis B, as it cannot exist without concurrent hepatitis B infection. Pregnancy has the potential to affect all aspects of these viral agents due to the unique immunologic and physiologic changes that occur during and after the gestational period. In this review, we will discuss the most common viral hepatitis and their effects during pregnancy.

Direct antiviral therapy for hepatitis C cirrhotic patients in liver transplantation settings: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C (HCV)-induced decompensated cirrhosis warrants liver transplantation (LT) as the only ultimate solution. These patients experience liver deterioration, while on the transplant waitlist. However, debate remains over the optimal timing for treating HCV relative to before or after LT.

METHODS

We performed a literature search between 1/2011 and 1/2022 on PubMed and OVID Medline. Data were extracted from direct antiviral agent (DAA) studies in English. The outcomes of interest included sustained virological response (SVR) rates from various cohorts as well as long- and short-term outcomes in the LT settings.

RESULTS

After screening, 54 studies were eligible and included into the review. In aligning with the EASL and AASLD guidelines and suggestions, many studies supported DAA therapy before LT in patients with Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) scores < 18 and DAA therapy post-LT in MELD scores > 20 through SVR rates, long-term survival factors, liver deterioration, and incidences of severe adverse events. However, uncertainty still lies in the guideline recommendations and unsettled issues remain for various patient cohorts that may benefit from opposing the guideline cutoffs. Based on the recent studies on predictors of treatment outcomes in decompensated patients and the impact of DAA on the waiting list for LT, we proposed an algorithm to manage patients with MELD scores between 18 and 20.

CONCLUSION

DAA therapy for decompensated patients must be personalized with consideration of different factors, particularly among those with MELD scores between the two cutoff-values proposed by the current associational guidelines.

Effect of HCV or HIV infection on mortality among hospitalized persons who used opioids, 2000-2010

Mortality due to opioid misuse and overdose has increased substantially in the United States over the past two decades. The study objective was to describe the causes of death among persons with opioid-related hospitalizations and examine survival by Hepatitis C virus (HCV) or HIV. Opioid-related hospitalization records in Pennsylvania from 2000 to 2010 were linked to death registry files to assess cause of death, and survival from first hospital discharge date to death date, or December 31, 2010. Accelerated failure time models were used to compare survival between persons with and without HCV or HIV diagnoses. Among the 136,416 individuals with an opioid-related hospitalization, 13.0% died over a median of 56 months of follow-up; the most common causes of death were circulatory diseases (26.4%) and drug overdose (23.5%). There were 27,122 (19.9%) and 3662 (2.7%) persons who had an HCV and HIV diagnosis, respectively. Among patients aged ≥20 years, those with HCV had shorter survival time compared to those without HCV, with discrepancies more pronounced at older ages. Patients with HIV also had shorter survival time (time ratio: 0.29 [95% CI: 0.26, 0.34]) compared to without HIV. These findings show that in a cohort of patients with opioid-related hospitalizations, those with HCV or HIV diagnoses have shorter survival. This has public health implications, providing further evidence that medical providers should educate patients who use opioids about the risks of HCV and HIV infection and focus prevention and treatment to decrease mortality among patients hospitalized for opioid use.

Atorvastatin favorably modulates a clinical hepatocellular carcinoma risk gene signature

Lipophilic but not hydrophilic statins have been shown to be associated with reduced risk for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with chronic viral hepatitis. We investigated differential actions of lipophilic and hydrophilic statins and their ability to modulate a clinical prognostic liver signature (PLS) predicting HCC risk in patients with liver disease. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)–infected Huh7.5.1 cells, recently developed as a model to screen HCC chemopreventive agents, were treated with lipophilic statins (atorvastatin and simvastatin) and hydrophilic statins (rosuvastatin and pravastatin), and then analyzed by RNA sequencing and PLS. Lipophilic statins, particularly atorvastatin, more significantly suppressed the HCV‐induced high‐risk pattern of PLS and genes in YAP and AKT pathway implicated in fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis, compared with the hydrophilic statins. While atorvastatin inhibited YAP activation through the mevalonate pathway, the distinctive AKT inhibition of atorvastatin was mediated by stabilizing truncated retinoid X receptor alpha, which has been known to enhance AKT activation, representing a target for HCC chemoprevention. In addition, atorvastatin modulated the high‐risk PLS in an in vitro model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Conclusion: Atorvastatin distinctively inhibits YAP and AKT activation, which are biologically implicated in HCC development, and attenuates a high‐risk PLS in an in vitro model of HCV infection and NAFLD. These findings suggest that atorvastatin is the most potent statin to reduce HCC risk in patients with viral and metabolic liver diseases.

Longitudinal assessment of liver stiffness by transient elastography for chronic hepatitis C patients

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis is a common pathway of liver injury and is a feature of most chronic liver diseases. Fibrosis progression varies markedly in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Liver stiffness has been recommended as a parameter of fibrosis progression/regression in patients with HCV.

AIM

To investigate changes in liver stiffness measured by transient elastography (TE) in a large, racially diverse cohort of United States patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC).

METHODS

We evaluated the differences in liver stiffness between patients treated with direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy and untreated patients. Patients had ≥ 2 TE measurements and no prior DAA exposure. We used linear regression to measure the change in liver stiffness between first and last TE in response to treatment, controlling for age, sex, race, diabetes, smoking status, human immunodeficiency virus status, baseline alanine aminotransferase, and baseline liver stiffness. Separate regression models analyzed the change in liver stiffness as measured by kPa, stratified by cirrhosis status.

RESULTS

Of 813 patients, 419 (52%) initiated DAA treatment. Baseline liver stiffness was 12 kPa in 127 (16%). Median time between first and last TE was 11.7 and 12.7 mo among treated and untreated patients, respectively. There was no significant change in liver stiffness observed over time in either the group initiating DAA treatment (0.016 kPa/month; CI: -0.051, 0.084) or in the untreated group (0.001 kPa/mo; CI: -0.090, 0.092), controlling for covariates. A higher baseline kPa score was independently associated with decreased liver stiffness.

CONCLUSION

DAA treatment was not associated with a differential change in liver stiffness over time in patients with CHC compared to untreated patients.

Association of toll-like receptors single nucleotide polymorphisms with HBV and HCV infection: research status

Background

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections have become increasingly severe worldwide and are a threat to public health. There have been a number of studies conducted recently on the relationship of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to innate immune receptor genes such as toll-like receptors (TLRs). Some literature suggests that SNPs of TLRs are associated with HBV and HCV infection. We summarized the role of TLRs gene polymorphisms associated with HBV and HCV infections and explored their possible mechanisms of action.

Methodology

PubMed and Web of Science were used to perform the literature review. Related articles and references were identified and used to analyze the role of TLRs gene polymorphism in HBV and HCV infection.

Results

TLRs gene polymorphisms may have beneficial or detrimental effects in HBV and HCV infection, and some SNPs can affect disease progression or prognosis. They affect the disease state by altering gene expression or protein synthesis; however, the mechanism of action is not clearly understood.

Conclusions

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of TLRs play a role in HBV and HCV infection, but the mechanism of action still needs to be explored in future studies.

Therapeutic Advances in Viral Hepatitis A-E

Viral hepatitis remains a significant global health problem. All forms of viral hepatitis A through E (A-E) can lead to acute symptomatic infection, while hepatitis B and C can lead to chronic infection associated with significant morbidity and mortality related to progression to cirrhosis, end-stage-liver disease, and liver cancer. Viral hepatitis occurs worldwide, though certain regions are disproportionately affected. We now, remarkably, have highly effective curative regimens for hepatitis C, and safe and tolerable medications to suppress hepatitis B activity, and to prevent liver damage and slow disease progression. We have effective vaccines for hepatitis A and B which provide long-lasting immunity, while improved sanitation and awareness can curb outbreaks of hepatitis A and E. However, more effective and available preventive and curative strategies are needed to achieve global eradication of viral hepatitis. This review provides an overview of the epidemiology, transmission, diagnosis, and clinical features of each viral hepatitis with a primary focus on current and future therapeutic and curative options.

Retrospective multicentre study on the effectiveness of first-line direct-acting antivirals against hepatitis C virus genotype-1

What is known and objective

In Japan, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir and glecaprevir/pibrentasvir are recommended as first‐line treatments for patients with untreated hepatitis C virus genotype 1. Although they have demonstrated a high efficacy in clinical trials, there are no direct comparative studies. Clarification of their effectiveness and safety in real‐world clinical practice is required. Therefore, we conducted a retrospective multicentre study on the effectiveness of these direct‐acting antivirals in real‐world clinical practice.

Methods

We retrospectively evaluated the clinical data of untreated patients with persistent HCV genotype 1 infection who started first‐line treatment with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir or glecaprevir/pibrentasvir between September 2015 and January 2019 at 11 medical institutions in Japan. The primary efficacy endpoint was a sustained virologic response after 12 weeks of treatment. The secondary endpoints included sustained virologic response after 24 weeks of treatment and end of treatment response. The safety endpoint was treatment completion rate.

Results and discussion

During the study, 420 patients (median age, 70 years; 181 males) received ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, 48 (median age 72, years; 29 males) received elbasvir/grazoprevir and 63 (median age 66, years; 35 males) received glecaprevir/pibrentasvir. For ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir and glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, the sustained virologic response after 12 weeks of treatment was 98.6%, 97.9% and 100%; the sustained virologic response after 24 weeks of treatment was 99.0%, 97.7% and 100%; the end of treatment response was 99.8%, 97.9% and 98.4%; and the treatment completion rate was 98.3%, 91.7% and 100% respectively.

What is new and conclusion

In real‐world clinical practice, hepatitis C virus treatment with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir and glecaprevir/pibrentasvir was effective with safety.

Hepatitis C virus: A critical approach to who really needs treatment

Introduction of effective drugs in the treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has prompted the World Health Organization to declare a global eradication target by 2030. Propositions have been made to screen the general population and treat all HCV carriers irrespective of the disease status. A year ago the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus appeared causing a worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 disease. Huge financial resources were redirected, and the pandemic became the first priority in every country. In this review, we examined the feasibility of the World Health Organization elimination program and the actual natural course of HCV infection. We also identified and analyzed certain comorbidity factors that may aggravate the progress of HCV and some marginalized subpopulations with characteristics favoring HCV dissemination. Alcohol consumption, HIV coinfection and the presence of components of metabolic syndrome including obesity, hyperuricemia and overt diabetes were comorbidities mostly responsible for increased liver-related morbidity and mortality of HCV. We also examined the significance of special subpopulations like people who inject drugs and males having sex with males. Finally, we proposed a different micro-elimination screening and treatment program that can be implemented in all countries irrespective of income. We suggest that screening and treatment of HCV carriers should be limited only in these particular groups.

Universal screening for hepatitis C - in for a penny, in for a pound

Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major public health problem. In fact, chronic HCV is a leading cause of cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death from liver disease in most countries. The advent of highly effective oral direct-acting antiviral therapy is the most significant advance in the treatment of HCV in decades and now allows us to cure chronic HCV. However, a large number of infected patients have not been diagnosed since hepatitis C is a largely asymptomatic disease. Thus, it is fundamental to improve the screening system in order to identify individuals who are currently infected and to treat them. Risk-based hepatitis C testing and birth cohort screening have had limited success and many patients living with the infection are not aware of their status. Universal screening for HCV is a tremendous improvement compared with the previous strategies. Indeed, global screening leads to the appropriate identification and treatment of all individuals chronically infected with HCV and prevents the progression of liver disease and the associated morbidity and mortality. In addition, universal HCV testing appears to be cost-effective. In this article, we review the current barriers to HCV eradication and the different strategies for HCV infection screening.

Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatitis C virus cure

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a significant cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The direct-acting antivirals marked a new era of HCV therapy and are associated with greater than 95% cure rate. Successful treatment of chronic hepatitis C greatly reduces the risk of HCC. A proportion of patients, especially those with pre-existing cirrhosis, remain at risk for HCC despite sustained virologic response (SVR). Diabetes mellitus, hepatic steatosis, alcohol consumption and lack of fibrosis regression are associated with risks of HCC after HCV cure. Noninvasive modalities such as aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index and fibrosis-4 index and transient elastography have been used to monitor hepatic fibrosis. More recently, various fibrosis scores have been combined with clinical parameters and other novel biomarkers to predict risks of HCC for patients who achieved SVR. These models still need to be validated and standardized prior to applying to routine clinical care.