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Watanabe R, Oikawa H, Tsunemitsu T, Miyahara K, Ozawa M, Numano S, Uchida H, Matsushima R, Suzuki T. A case of paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by consumption of visceral balls from geoduck Panopea japonica in Japan. Toxicon 2024; 243:107738. [PMID: 38685389 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
In the end of March 2018, an unprecedented food poisoning incident due to ingestion of the visceral balls of geoduck Panopea japonica occurred in Japan. The patient, presented with symptoms of numbness on the lips and general weakness, was diagnosed as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). The patient immediately treated with the mechanical ventilation recovered and left the hospital after 3 days treatment. Saxitoxins (STXs) in the plasma and urinary samples collected from the patient on the first and second day after hospitalization were analyzed by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/MS/MS) and liquid chromatography with post-column fluorescent detection (LC/FLD). The STXs levels of 499.1 and 6.0 μg/L of STX dihydrochloride equivalent (STX·2HCl eq.) were quantitated by LC/FLD in the urinary samples on the first and second day, respectively. In addition, geoducks harvested from the same areas of the PSP causative specimens after the incident were analyzed by LC/FLD, and the results showed the level of STXs in their whole bodies of the geoducks exceeding 0.8 mg STX·2HCl eq./kg which is the maximum levels of STX in CODEX STAN 292-2008. Prominent toxins in STXs that detected in urinary and geoduck samples and identified by UHPLC/MS/MS and LC/FLD were gonyautoxin-1+4 (GTX1+4). These results concluded that the incident was the food poisoning due to STXs accumulated in the geoducks. This is the first PSP case caused by consumption of geoducks in Japan. This is also the first PSP case that causative toxins are detected in urinary samples of patients involved in PSP in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Takefumi Tsunemitsu
- Hyogo Prefectural Amagasaki General Medical Center, 2-17-77 Higashi Namba-cho, Amagasaki, Hyogo, 660-8550, Japan.
| | - Kazutaka Miyahara
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Hyogo Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 22-2 Minami-Futami, Futami-cho, Akashi, Hyogo, 674-0093, Japan.
| | - Mayu Ozawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Numano
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
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Cornett JC, Cates RJ, Ledger KJ, Pinger CW, Hart CE, Laboda KR, Larson WA, Hollarsmith JA. Assessing methods for detecting Alexandrium catenella (Dinophyceae) and paralytic shellfish toxins in Southeast Alaska. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2024. [PMID: 38712820 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Blooms of Alexandrium catenella threaten to disrupt subsistence, recreational, and commercial shellfish harvest in Alaska, as the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) produced pose a serious public health risk and can lead to costly shutdowns for shellfish farmers. Current methods of PST detection in the region range from monitoring programs utilizing net tows to detect A. catenella to direct shellfish tissue testing via mouse bioassay (MBA) for commercial aquaculture harvest, as well as various optional testing methods for subsistence and recreational harvesters. The efficacy and feasibility of these methods vary, and they have not been directly compared in Southeast Alaska. In this study, we sought to assess and compare A. catenella and PST early detection methods to determine which can provide the most effective and accurate warning of A. catenella blooms or PST events. We found microscope counts to be variable and prone to missing lower numbers of A. catenella, which may be indicative of bloom formation. However, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) significantly correlated with microscope counts and was able to effectively detect even low numbers of A. catenella on all sampling days. Paralytic shellfish toxin concentrations measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and MBA significantly correlated with each other, qPCR, and some microscope counts. These results show that qPCR is an effective tool for both monitoring A. catenella and serving as a proxy for PSTs. Further work is needed to refine qPCR protocols in this system to provide bloom warnings on an actionable timescale for the aquaculture industry and other shellfish harvesters. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;00:1-14. © 2024 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC). This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana C Cornett
- NOAA Fisheries Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Juneau, Alaska, USA
- Alaska Sea Grant, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
| | - Rebecca J Cates
- NOAA Fisheries Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Juneau, Alaska, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Climate, Ocean, & Ecosystem Studies (CICOES), University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
| | - Kimberly J Ledger
- NOAA Fisheries Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Juneau, Alaska, USA
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Juneau, Alaska, USA
| | - Cody W Pinger
- NOAA Fisheries Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Juneau, Alaska, USA
| | - Courtney E Hart
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Juneau, Alaska, USA
| | | | - Wesley A Larson
- NOAA Fisheries Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Juneau, Alaska, USA
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Liu Y, Xiong J, Qiao F, Xu L, Xu Z. Detection of paralytic shellfish toxins by near-infrared spectroscopy based on a near-Bayesian SVM classifier with unequal misclassification costs. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2024; 104:1984-1991. [PMID: 37899531 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.13086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by human consumption of shellfish fed on toxic algae is a public health hazard. It is essential to implement shellfish monitoring programs to minimize the possibility of shellfish contaminated by paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) reaching the marketplace. RESULTS This paper proposes a rapid detection method for PST in mussels using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technology. Spectral data in the wavelength range of 950-1700 nm for PST-contaminated and non-contaminated mussel samples were used to build the detection model. Near-Bayesian support vector machines (NBSVM) with unequal misclassification costs (u-NBSVM) were applied to solve a classification problem arising from the fact that the quantity of non-contaminated mussels was far less than that of PST-contaminated mussels in practice. The u-NBSVM model performed adequately on imbalanced datasets by combining unequal misclassification costs and decision boundary shifts. The detection performance of the u-NBSVM did not decline as the number of PST samples decreased due to adjustments to the misclassification costs. When the number of PST samples was 20, the G-mean and accuracy reached 0.9898 and 0.9944, respectively. CONCLUSION Compared with the traditional support vector machines (SVMs) and the NBSVM, the u-NBSVM model achieved better detection performance. The results of this study indicate that NIRS technology combined with the u-NBSVM model can be used for rapid and non-destructive PST detection in mussels. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Liu
- School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Jianfang Xiong
- School of Computer Science and Intelligence Education, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Fu Qiao
- School of Computer Science and Intelligence Education, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, China
- Mangrove Institute, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Lele Xu
- School of Life Science and Technology, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Zhen Xu
- Science and Technology Extension Department, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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Chen J, Noorlander A, Wesseling S, Bouwmeester H, Kramer NI, Rietjens IMCM. Integrating In Vitro Data and Physiologically Based Kinetic Modeling to Predict and Compare Acute Neurotoxic Doses of Saxitoxin in Rats, Mice, and Humans. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37478462 PMCID: PMC10399293 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Current climate trends are likely to expand the geographic distribution of the toxigenic microalgae and concomitant phycotoxins, making intoxications by such toxins a global phenomenon. Among various phycotoxins, saxitoxin (STX) acts as a neurotoxin that might cause severe neurological symptoms in mammals following consumptions of contaminated seafood. To derive a point of departure (POD) for human health risk assessment upon acute neurotoxicity induced by oral STX exposure, a physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modeling-facilitated quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (QIVIVE) approach was employed. The PBK models for rats, mice, and humans were built using parameters from the literature, in vitro experiments, and in silico predictions. Available in vitro toxicity data for STX were converted to in vivo dose-response curves via the PBK models established for these three species, and POD values were derived from the predicted curves and compared to reported in vivo toxicity data. Interspecies differences in acute STX toxicity between rodents and humans were found, and they appeared to be mainly due to differences in toxicokinetics. The described approach resulted in adequate predictions for acute oral STX exposure, indicating that new approach methodologies, when appropriately integrated, can be used in a 3R-based chemical risk assessment paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Chen
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Annelies Noorlander
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan Wesseling
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Bouwmeester
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Nynke I Kramer
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
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Nwaji AR, Arieri O, Anyang AS, Nguedia K, Abiade EB, Forcados GE, Oladipo OO, Makama S, Elisha IL, Ozele N, Gotep JG. Natural toxins and One Health: a review. SCIENCE IN ONE HEALTH 2022; 1:100013. [PMID: 39076609 PMCID: PMC11262277 DOI: 10.1016/j.soh.2023.100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Background The One Health concept considers the interconnectivity, interactions and interdependence of humans, animals and the environment. Humans, animals and other organisms are constantly exposed to a wide range of natural toxins present in the environment. Thus, there is growing concern about the potential detrimental effects that natural toxins could pose to achieve One Health. Interestingly, alkaloids, steroids and bioactive peptides obtained from natural toxins could be used for the development of therapeutic agents. Methodology Our literature search focused on the following keywords; toxins, One Health, microbial toxins, mycotoxins, phytotoxins, phycotoxins, insect toxins and toxin effects. Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed and Web of Science were the search engines used to obtain primary databases. We chose relevant full-text articles and review papers published in English language only. The research was done between July 2022 and January 2023. Results Natural toxins are poisonous substances comprising bioactive compounds produced by microorganisms, invertebrates, plants and animals. These compounds possess diverse structures and differ in biological function and toxicity, posing risks to human and animal health through the contamination of the environment, causing disease or death in certain cases. Findings from the articles reviewed revealed that effects of natural toxins on animals and humans gained more attention than the impact of natural toxins on the environment and lower organisms, irrespective of the significant roles that lower organisms play to maintain ecosystem balance. Also, systematic approaches for toxin control in the environment and utilization for beneficial purposes are inadequate in many regions. Remarkably, bioactive compounds present in natural toxins have potential for the development of therapeutic agents. These findings suggest that global, comprehensive and coordinated efforts are required for improved management of natural toxins through an interdisciplinary, One Health approach. Conclusion Adopting a One Health approach is critical to addressing the effects of natural toxins on the health of humans, animals and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azubuike Raphael Nwaji
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
| | - Onikisateinba Arieri
- Department of Industrial Chemistry and Petrochemical Technology, Faculty of Science Laboratory, University of Portharcourt, Nigeria
| | | | - Kaze Nguedia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
| | | | | | | | - Sunday Makama
- Biochemistry Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Ishaku Leo Elisha
- Drug Development Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Nonyelim Ozele
- Biochemistry Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Jurbe Gofwan Gotep
- Drug Development Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
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Sinno-Tellier S, Abadie E, de Haro L, Paret N, Langrand J, Le Roux G, Labadie M, Boels D, Bloch J, Delcourt N. Human poisonings by neurotoxic phycotoxins related to the consumption of shellfish: study of cases registered by the French Poison Control Centres from 2012 to 2019. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2022; 60:759-767. [PMID: 35130811 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2022.2034840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT In June 2019, a paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) case related to the consumption of mussels contaminated by saxitoxins at a concentration below the regulatory threshold came to the attention of the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES). This pointed to probable undetected human cases of poisoning by neurotoxic phycotoxins. METHODS We conducted a retrospective study of poisoning cases by bivalve shellfish (oysters, mussels and scallops) recorded by the French Poison Control Centres (PCC) from 2012 to 2019. All medical records were reviewed by a toxicologist.Cases that could be related to neurotoxic phycotoxins were selected and described. Diagnosis was based on symptoms compatible with ingestion of contaminated shellfish and on contamination data for the shellfish production area (analysed by the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, Ifremer), or notifications to the European Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed when the origin of the shellfish was known. RESULTS Among the 619 shellfish poisoning cases recorded by the PCCs from 2012 to 2019, 22% (n = 134) had reported at least one neurological symptom (headache, dizziness or paraesthesia). Review of medical records for the 134 patients led to suspicion of 14 cases of PSP and one case of amnesic shellfish poisoning. Five patients experienced persistent neurological symptoms. Marine toxins were not tested for in the blood or urine of these patients. CONCLUSION This retrospective identification of cases strongly suspected of being related to neurotoxic phycotoxins led ANSES, PCCs and Ifremer to develop a specific questionnaire and to recommend actions to take when neurological symptoms related to shellfish consumption are reported to a PCC. Daily monitoring of shellfish poisoning cases registered in the national PCCs database was also implemented in order to rapidly detect any suspicious cases, alert the competent authorities, and warn the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Sinno-Tellier
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eric Abadie
- French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, Sète, France
| | - Luc de Haro
- Poison Control Centre, Marseille University Hospital, Marseille, France
| | - Nathalie Paret
- Poison Control Centre, Lyon University Hospital, Lyon, France
| | - Jérôme Langrand
- Poison Control Centre, Paris University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Gaël Le Roux
- Poison Control Centre, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France
| | - Magali Labadie
- Poison Control Centre, Bordeaux University Hospital, Bordeaux, France
| | - David Boels
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Nantes University Hospital, Nantes, France
| | | | - Juliette Bloch
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Nicolas Delcourt
- Poison Control Centre, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
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Changing Trends in Paralytic Shellfish Poisonings Reflect Increasing Sea Surface Temperatures and Practices of Indigenous and Recreational Harvesters in British Columbia, Canada. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19100568. [PMID: 34677468 PMCID: PMC8538720 DOI: 10.3390/md19100568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) occurs when shellfish contaminated with saxitoxin or equivalent paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are ingested. In British Columbia, Canada, documented poisonings are increasing in frequency based on 62 investigations identified from 1941–2020. Two PSP investigations were reported between 1941 and 1960 compared to 31 since 2001 (p < 0.0001) coincident with rising global temperatures (r2 = 0.76, p < 0.006). The majority of PSP investigations (71%) and cases (69%) were linked to self-harvested shellfish. Far more investigations involved harvests by indigenous communities (24%) than by commercial and recreational groups. Single-case-exposure investigations increased by more than 3.5 times in the decade 2011–2020 compared to previous periods. Clams (47%); mussels (26%); oysters (14%); scallops (6%); and, in more recent years, crabs (4%) were linked to illnesses. To guide understanding of self-harvesting consumption risks, we recommend collecting data to determine when PST-producing algae are present in high concentrations, improving the quality of data in online shellfish harvest maps to include dates of last testing; biotoxin testing results; and a description of bivalve species tested. Over reliance on toxin results in biomonitored species may not address actual consumption risks for unmonitored species harvested from the same area. We further recommend introducing phytoplankton monitoring in remote indigenous communities where self-harvesting is common and toxin testing is unavailable, as well as continuing participatory education about biotoxin risks in seafoods.
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Harley JR, Lanphier K, Kennedy E, Whitehead C, Bidlack A. Random forest classification to determine environmental drivers and forecast paralytic shellfish toxins in Southeast Alaska with high temporal resolution. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 99:101918. [PMID: 33218443 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poison toxins (PSTs) produced by the dinoflagellate in the genus Alexandrium are a threat to human health and subsistence lifestyles in Southeast Alaska. It is important to understand the drivers of Alexandrium blooms to inform shellfish management and aquaculture, as well as to predict trends of PST in a changing climate. In this study, we aggregate environmental data sets from multiple agencies and tribal partners to model and predict concentrations of PSTs in Southeast Alaska from 2016 to 2019. We used daily PST concentrations interpolated from regularly sampled blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) analyzed for total PSTs using a receptor binding assay. We then created random forest models to classify shellfish above and below a threshold of toxicity (80 µg 100 g-1) and used two methods to determine variable importance. We obtained a multivariate model with key variables being sea surface temperature, salinity, freshwater discharge, and air temperature. We then used a similar model trained using lagged environmental variables to hindcast out-of-sample (OOS) shellfish toxicities during April-October in 2017, 2018, and 2019. Hindcast OOS accuracies were low (37-50%); however, we found forecasting using environmental variables may be useful in predicting the timing of early summer blooms. This study reinforces the efficacy of machine learning to determine important drivers of harmful algal blooms, although more complex models incorporating other parameters such as toxicokinetics are likely needed for accurate regional forecasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Harley
- University of Alaska Southeast, Alaska Coastal Rainforest Center, 11066 Auke Lake Way, Juneau, AK, 99801.
| | - Kari Lanphier
- Sitka Tribe of Alaska, Environmental Research Laboratory, 456 Katlian St, Sitka, AK, 99835
| | - Esther Kennedy
- Sitka Tribe of Alaska, Environmental Research Laboratory, 456 Katlian St, Sitka, AK, 99835
| | - Chris Whitehead
- Sitka Tribe of Alaska, Environmental Research Laboratory, 456 Katlian St, Sitka, AK, 99835
| | - Allison Bidlack
- University of Alaska Southeast, Alaska Coastal Rainforest Center, 11066 Auke Lake Way, Juneau, AK, 99801
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Vale P. Shellfish contamination with marine biotoxins in Portugal and spring tides: a dangerous health coincidence. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:41143-41156. [PMID: 32809126 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-10389-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Bivalve molluscs can acquire marine biotoxins by filter-feeding upon certain toxin-producing microalgae. The two most common syndromes observed in temperate coastal waters have been diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). While DSP is a non-fatal gastrointestinal syndrome, PSP is a neurological syndrome which can lead to death by respiratory paralysis in high intoxication scenarios. In Portugal, the presence of both DSP and PSP toxins leads to recurrent seasonal bans of bivalve harvesting. On a few occasions, the bans were not placed in time, not properly disseminated to the public or were disregarded by recreational harvesters. Several cases of poisonings have been studied in collaboration between health authorities and the laboratory in charge of the biotoxin monitoring programme. Some of the outbreaks have even called the attention of the local media. In several of these recorded cases, a common trait has emerged throughout the years: bivalve harvest had often been done during very low tides attributed to either new or full moons. These tides expose intertidal bivalves more widely, increase harvesting time, and allow picking of larger-sized specimens. In some occasions, the consumers were extremely unfortunate because a noxious coincidence had occurred: larger-sized specimens were available but had attained the highest toxin content of the toxic season. This review alerts that despite costly monitoring programmes have been perfected through the years, human poisonings still take place due to the rapid increase in toxin levels and/or disrespect of harvest bans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Vale
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Sea and Marine Resources Department, The Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA, IP), R. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal.
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Carvalho ILD, Pelerito A, Ribeiro I, Cordeiro R, Núncio MS, Vale P. Paralytic shellfish poisoning due to ingestion of contaminated mussels: A 2018 case report in Caparica (Portugal). Toxicon X 2019; 4:100017. [PMID: 32550574 PMCID: PMC7286109 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In Portugal, the potent paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) have appeared irregularly since the onset of a national monitoring program for marine biotoxins in 1986. In years where high contamination levels were attained in bivalves, sporadic cases of human poisonings have been recorded, as in 1994 and 2007. The reappearance of high contamination levels led to the appearance of new cases during the autumn of 2018. This study details toxin ingestion, symptomatology and toxin elimination and metabolization in the fluids of two patients, who ingested mussels from the Portuguese southwest coast and required hospitalization due to the severity of symptoms. Toxin elimination was confirmed by ELISA in plasma and urine samples. In mussel samples, the toxin profile obtained by HPLC-FLD displayed a wide diversity of toxins, typical of Gymnodinum catenatum ingestion. However, in the urine samples, the toxin profile was reduced to B1 and dcSTX. Abundant compounds in mussels having an O-sulphate at C11, such as C1+2 and dcGTX2+3, were absent in urine. In plasma, PSTs were not detected by HPLC-FLD. Calculated toxin ingestion, resulting from consumption of an estimated 200-g portion, was in the range of 104-120 μg STX eq./kg b. w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Lopes de Carvalho
- National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, I.P, Infectious Diseases Department, Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Pelerito
- National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, I.P, Infectious Diseases Department, Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês Ribeiro
- The Portuguese Sea and Atmosphere Institute, I.P. (IPMA, IP), Sea and Marine Resources Department (DMRM), R. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal
| | - Rita Cordeiro
- National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, I.P, Infectious Diseases Department, Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Sofia Núncio
- National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, I.P, Infectious Diseases Department, Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Paulo Vale
- The Portuguese Sea and Atmosphere Institute, I.P. (IPMA, IP), Sea and Marine Resources Department (DMRM), R. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal
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Schulz K, Pöhlmann C, Dietrich R, Märtlbauer E, Elßner T. Electrochemical Biochip Assays Based on Anti-idiotypic Antibodies for Rapid and Automated On-Site Detection of Low Molecular Weight Toxins. Front Chem 2019; 7:31. [PMID: 30775361 PMCID: PMC6367258 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins and mycotoxins, such as paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins, type A trichothecenes, and aflatoxins are among the most toxic low molecular weight toxins associated with human poisoning incidents through the consumption of naturally contaminated food. Therefore, there is an utmost need for rapid and sensitive on-site detection systems. Herein, an electrochemical biochip for fast detection of saxitoxin, T-2 toxin as well as aflatoxin M1 and their corresponding congeners, respectively, using a portable and fully automated detection platform (pBDi, portable BioDetector integrated) was developed. Toxin analysis is facilitated upon the biochip via an indirect competitive immunoassay using toxin-specific antibodies combined with anti-idiotypic antibodies. The developed biochips enable detection in the low ng/mL-range within 17 min. Moreover, the assays cover a wide linear working range of 2–3 orders of magnitude above the limit of detection with an inter-chip coefficient of variation lower than 15%. The broad specificity of the employed antibodies which react with a large number of congeners within the respective toxin group allows efficient screening of contaminated samples for the presence of these low molecular weight toxins. With respect to the analysis of human urine samples, we focused here on the detection of saxitoxin, HT-2 toxin, and aflatoxin M1, all known as biomarkers of acute toxin exposure. Overall, it was proved that the developed biochip assays can be used to rapidly and reliably identify severe intoxications caused by these low molecular weight toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Schulz
- Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Richard Dietrich
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Erwin Märtlbauer
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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12
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Smith ZJ, Martin RM, Wei B, Wilhelm SW, Boyer GL. Spatial and Temporal Variation in Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Production by Benthic Microseira (Lyngbya) wollei in a Freshwater New York Lake. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E44. [PMID: 30650549 PMCID: PMC6356249 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterfield Lake is a mesotrophic lake in New York State where residents and pets have experienced unexplained health issues. Microseira wollei (basionym Lyngbya wollei) was found at two of 15 sites in Butterfield Lake and analyzed for microcystins, anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins, and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs). Only PSTs and trace levels of anatoxin-a were detected in these samples. This is the first published report of PSTs within a New York State lake. To evaluate the environmental and temporal drivers leading to the observed toxicity, PST content at the two sites was examined in detail. There were distinct differences in the total PST content, filament nutrient, filament chlorophyll, and relationship to environmental drivers between the sites, as well as distinct differences in the total PST content measured using different analytical techniques. A multivariate model containing site, temperature, and filament chlorophyll explained 85% of the variation in PSTs observed over the growing season. This work emphasizes the importance of proper site selection and choice of analytical technique in the development of monitoring programs to protect lake users from the occurrence of benthic cyanobacteria toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zacharias J Smith
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Robbie M Martin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Bofan Wei
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Steven W Wilhelm
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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13
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Eangoor P, Indapurkar AS, Vakkalanka MD, Knaack JS. Multiplexed ELISA screening assay for nine paralytic shellfish toxins in human plasma. Analyst 2019; 144:4702-4707. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an00494g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a lethal syndrome that can develop in humans who consume shellfish contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins. This rapid screening assay can be used to quickly diagnose exposure to paralytic shellfish toxins.
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14
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Arnich N, Thébault A. Dose-Response Modelling of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in Humans. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E141. [PMID: 29597338 PMCID: PMC5923307 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is caused by a group of marine toxins with saxitoxin (STX) as the reference compound. Symptoms in humans after consumption of contaminated shellfish vary from slight neurological and gastrointestinal effects to fatal respiratory paralysis. A systematic review was conducted to identify reported cases of human poisoning associated with the ingestion of shellfish contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). Raw data were collected from 143 exposed individuals (113 with symptoms, 30 without symptoms) from 13 studies. Exposure estimates were based on mouse bioassays except in one study. A significant relationship between exposure to PSTs and severity of symptoms was established by ordinal modelling. The critical minimal dose with a probability higher than 10% of showing symptoms is 0.37 µg STX eq./kg b.w. This means that 10% of the individuals exposed to this dose would have symptoms (without considering the severity of the symptoms). This dose is four-fold lower than the lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level (LOAEL) established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009) in the region of 1.5 μg STX eq./kg b.w. This work provides critical doses that could be used as point of departure to update the acute reference dose for STX. This is the first time a dose-symptoms model could be built for marine toxins using epidemiological data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Arnich
- Risk Assessment Department, ANSES (French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Anne Thébault
- Risk Assessment Department, ANSES (French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France.
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15
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Eangoor P, Indapurkar AS, Vakkalanka M, Yeh JS, Knaack JS. Rapid and Sensitive ELISA Screening Assay for Several Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Human Urine. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 41:755-759. [PMID: 28977469 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is caused by a group of paralytic shellfish toxins that are produced by dinoflagellates. Toxins in this group include saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin and gonyautoxins. A rapid diagnostic test to identify poisoning by these toxins can be helpful in guiding the appropriate treatment of victims. Additionally, quick receipt of diagnostic results can provide timely proof that shellfish harvesting should be stopped in a given area, thereby preventing additional exposures. We have developed and validated a rapid urinary enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based screening test to diagnose exposure to several major paralytic shellfish toxins. The lower limit of detection (LLOD) for multiple paralytic shellfish toxins was characterized as 0.02, 0.10, 0.10, 1.0, 1.0 and 15 ng/mL for saxitoxin, gonyautoxin 2,3, decarbamoyl gonyautoxin 2,3, decarbamoyl saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin and gonyautoxin 1,4, respectively. No interferences were identified in unspiked pooled urine or in specimens collected from unexposed individuals indicating that this method is specific for the paralytic shellfish toxins tested. The accuracy of this test was demonstrated in 10 individual urine specimens with osmolalities ranging from 217 to 1,063 mOsmol/kg and pHs ranging between 5.06 and 7.45. These specimens were spiked with toxins at their LLODs and the presence of toxins at these concentrations was accurately identified in all cases. These results indicate that this diagnostic test can be used to rapidly and accurately screen urine for paralytic shellfish toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Eangoor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Dr, Atlanta, GA-30341, USA
| | - A S Indapurkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Dr, Atlanta, GA-30341, USA
| | - M Vakkalanka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Dr, Atlanta, GA-30341, USA
| | - J S Yeh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Dr, Atlanta, GA-30341, USA
| | - J S Knaack
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Dr, Atlanta, GA-30341, USA
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16
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Abstract
The five most commonly recognized Harmful Algal Bloom related illnesses include Ciguatera poisoning, Paralytic Shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxin Shellfish poisoning, Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning and Amnesic Shellfish poisoning. Although they are each the product of different toxins, toxin assemblages or HAB precursors these clinical syndromes have much in common. Exposure occurs through the consumption of fish or shellfish; routine clinical tests are not available for diagnosis; there is no known antidote for exposure; and the risk of these illnesses can negatively impact local fishing and tourism industries. Thus, illness prevention is of paramount importance to minimize human and public health risks. To accomplish this, close communication and collaboration is needed among HAB scientists, public health researchers and local, state and tribal health departments at academic, community outreach, and policy levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn M Grattan
- Department of Neurology: Division of Neuropsychology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 110 S. Paca St. 3 Floor, Baltimore, MD 21201,
| | - Sailor Holobaugh
- Department of Neurology: Division of Neuropsychology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 110 S. Paca St. 3 Floor, Baltimore, MD 21201,
| | - J Glenn Morris
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Road; Box 100009, Gainesville, FL 32610,
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