1
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Moriyama SI, Mankyu H, Tsunokawa T, Kurono T, Mizukoshi H, Ogita F. Does a jammer-type racing swimsuit improve sprint performance during maximal front-crawl swimming? Sports Biomech 2024; 23:611-623. [PMID: 33663333 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1878263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of jammer-type racing swimsuits (RS) on swimming performance during arm-stroke-only (pull) and whole-body stroke (swim) in 25-m front-crawl with maximal effort. Twelve well-trained male collegiate swimmers wore RS and a conventional swimsuit (CS) and performed three tests: pull, swim, and pull using the system to measure active drag (MAD pull). Swimming velocity and intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) were determined in all tests. Stroke indices during pull and swim and drag-swimming velocity relationship and maximum propulsive power during MAD pull were also determined. Swimming velocities during pull and swim while wearing an RS (1.59 ± 0.13 and 1.77 ± 0.09 m·s-1, respectively) were significantly higher than those wearing a CS (1.57 ± 0.14 and 1.74 ± 0.08 m·s-1, respectively). Stroke length during pull and swim was significantly greater while wearing an RS (1.68 ± 0.12 and 1.83 ± 0.13 m, respectively) than wearing a CS (1.63 ± 0.10 and 1.81 ± 0.13 m, respectively). However, no significant differences were confirmed between the other variables in all tests. In conclusion, swimming performance is improved when wearing an RS compared with a CS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ichiro Moriyama
- Department of Health and Sports Sciences, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Mankyu
- Faculty of Sports and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kayona, Japan
| | - Takaaki Tsunokawa
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Tsubasa Kurono
- Graduate School of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Japan
| | - Hayato Mizukoshi
- Graduate School of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Japan
| | - Futoshi Ogita
- Faculty of Sports and Life Science, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
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2
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Cortesi M, Gatta G, Carmigniani R, Zamparo P. Estimating Active Drag Based on Full and Semi-Tethered Swimming Tests. J Sports Sci Med 2024; 23:17-24. [PMID: 38455441 PMCID: PMC10915618 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2024.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
During full tethered swimming no hydrodynamic resistance is generated (since v = 0) and all the swimmer's propulsive force (FP) is utilized to exert force on the tether (FT = FP). During semi-tethered swimming FP can be made useful to one of two ends: exerting force on the tether (FST) or overcoming drag in the water (active drag: Da). At constant stroke rate, the mean propulsive force (FP) is constant and the quantity FP - FST (the "residual thrust") corresponds to Da. In this study we explored the possibility to estimate Da based on this method ("residual thrust method") and we compared these values with passive drag values (Dp) and with values of active drag estimated by means of the "planimetric method". Based on data obtained from resisted swimming (full and semi-tethered tests at 100% and 35, 50, 60, 75, 85% of the individual FT), active drag was calculated as: DaST = kaST.vST2 = FP - FST ("residual thrust method"). Passive drag (Dp) was calculated based on data obtained from passive towing tests and active drag ("planimetric method") was estimated as: DaPL = Dp.1.5. Speed-specific drag (k = D/v2) in passive conditions (kp) was )25 kg.m-1 and in active conditions (ka) )38 kg.m-1 (with either method); thus, DaST > Dp and DaST > DaPL. In human swimming active drag is, thus, about 1.5 times larger than passive drag. These experiments can be conducted in an ecological setting (in the swimming pool) by using basic instrumentation and a simple set of calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Italy
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3
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Kadi T, Washino S, Tsunokawa T, Narita K, Mankyu H, Murai A, Tamaki H. Role of kicking action in front crawl: the inter-relationships between swimming velocity, hand propulsive force and trunk inclination. Sports Biomech 2024:1-19. [PMID: 38250792 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2024.2303361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the essential role of the kicking action in front crawl. To achieve this objective, we examined the relationships of the hand propulsive force and trunk inclination with swimming velocity over a wide range of velocities from 0.75 m·s-1 to maximum effort, including the experimental conditions of arm stroke without a pull buoy. Seven male swimmers performed a 25 m front crawl at various speeds under three swimming conditions: arm stroke with a pull buoy, arm stroke without a pull buoy (AWOB) and arm stroke with a six-beat kick (SWIM). Swimming velocity, hand propulsive force and trunk inclination were calculated using an underwater motion-capture system and pressure sensors. Most notably, AWOB consistently exhibited greater values than SWIM for hand propulsive force across the range of observed velocities (p < 0.05) and for trunk inclination below the severe velocity (p < 0.05), and these differences increased with decreasing velocity. These results indicate that 1) the kicking action in front crawl has a positive effect on reducing the pressure drag acting on the trunk, thereby allowing swimmers to achieve a given velocity with less hand propulsive force, and 2) this phenomenon is significant in low-velocity ranges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Kadi
- Graduate School of Physical Education, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Sohei Washino
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takaaki Tsunokawa
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- Advanced Research Initiative for Human High Performance (ARIHHP), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kenzo Narita
- Faculty of Sports and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Mankyu
- Faculty of Sports and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akihiko Murai
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Tamaki
- Faculty of Sports and Life Science, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
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4
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Wettengl C, Karlsson R, Olstad BH, Gonjo T. Load-Velocity Profile and Active Drag in Young Female Swimmers: An Age-Group Comparison. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:44-52. [PMID: 37857381 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present study aimed to establish differences in load-velocity profiling, active drag (AD), and drag coefficient (Cd) between 3 age groups of female swimmers. METHODS Thirty-three swimmers (11, 13, or 16 y old) were recruited. The individual load-velocity profile was determined for the 4 competitive swimming strokes. The maximal velocity (V0), maximal load (L0), L0 normalized to the body mass, AD, and Cd were compared between the groups. A 2-way analysis of variance and correlation analysis were conducted. RESULTS Compared with their younger counterparts, 16-year-old swimmers generally had larger V0, L0, and AD, which was particularly evident when comparing them with 11-year-old swimmers (P ≤ .052). The exception was breaststroke, where no differences were observed in L0 and AD and Cd was smaller in the 16-year-old group than the 11-year-old group (P = .03). There was a negative correlation between Cd and V0 for all groups in backstroke (P ≤ .038) and for the 11-year-old group and 13-year-old group in breaststroke (P ≤ .022) and front crawl (P ≤ .010). For the 16-year-old group, large correlations with V0 were observed for L0, L0 normalized to the body mass, and AD (P ≤ .010) in breaststroke and for L0 and AD with V0 in front crawl (P ≤ .042). In butterfly, large negative correlations with V0 were observed in the 13-year-old group for all parameters (P ≤ .027). CONCLUSIONS Greater propulsive force is likely the factor that differentiates the oldest age group from the younger groups, except for breaststroke, where a lower Cd (implying a better technique) is evident in the oldest group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wettengl
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Institute for Physiotherapy, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Karlsson
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Bjørn H Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Rehabilitation and Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
- School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Institute for Life and Earth Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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5
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Sacilotto G, Sanders R, Gonjo T, Marinho D, Mason B, Naemi R, Vilas-Boas JP, Papic C. "Selecting the right tool for the job" a narrative overview of experimental methods used to measure or estimate active and passive drag in competitive swimming. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:1572-1589. [PMID: 37081773 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2023.2197858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Free-swimming performance depends strongly on the ability to develop propulsive force and minimise resistive drag. Therefore, estimating resistive drag (passive or active) may be important to understand how free-swimming performance can be improved. The purpose of this narrative overview was to describe and discuss experimental methods of measuring or estimating active and passive drag relevant to competitive swimming. Studies were identified using a mixed-model approach comprising a search of SCOPUS and Web of Science data bases, follow-up of relevant studies cited in manuscripts from the primary search, and additional studies identified by the co-authors based on their specific areas of fluid dynamics expertise. The utility and limitations of active and passive drag methods were critically discussed with reference to primary research domains in this field, 'swimmer morphology' and 'technique analysis'. This overview and the subsequent discussions provide implications for researchers when selecting an appropriate method to measure resistive forces (active or passive) relevant to improving performance in free-swimming.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation and Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | - Daniel Marinho
- Research Center in Sports Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | | | - Roozbeh Naemi
- School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
| | | | - Christopher Papic
- Exercise and Sports Science, School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
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6
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Lopes TJ, Morais JE, Pinto MP, Marinho DA. Numerical and experimental methods used to evaluate active drag in swimming: A systematic narrative review. Front Physiol 2022; 13:938658. [PMID: 36338476 PMCID: PMC9630912 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.938658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: In swimming, it is necessary to understand and identify the main factors that are important to reduce active drag and, consequently, improve the performance of swimmers. However, there is no up-to-date review in the literature clarifying this topic. Thus, a systematic narrative review was performed to update the body of knowledge on active drag in swimming through numerical and experimental methods. Methods: To determine and identify the most relevant studies for this review, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach was used. Results: 75 studies related to active drag in swimming and the methodologies applied to study them were analyzed and kept for synthesis. The included studies showed a high-quality score by the Delphi scale (mean score was 5.85 ± 0.38). Active drag was included in seven studies through numerical methods and 68 through experimental methods. In both methods used by the authors to determine the drag, it can be concluded that the frontal surface area plays a fundamental role. Additionally, the technique seems to be a determining factor in reducing the drag force and increasing the propulsive force. Drag tends to increase with speed and frontal surface area, being greater in adults than in children due to body density factors and high levels of speed. However, the coefficient of drag decreases as the technical efficiency of swimming increases (i.e., the best swimmers (the fastest or most efficient) are those with the best drag and swimming hydrodynamics efficiency). Conclusion: Active drag was studied through numerical and experimental methods. There are significantly fewer numerical studies than experimental ones. This is because active drag, as a dynamical phenomenon, is too complex to be studied numerically. Drag is greater in adults than in children and greater in men than in women across all age groups. The study of drag is increasingly essential to collaborate with coaches in the process of understanding the fundamental patterns of movement biomechanics to achieve the best performance in swimming. Although most agree with these findings, there is disagreement in some studies, especially when it is difficult to define competitive level and age. The disagreement concerns three main aspects: 1) period of the studies and improvement of methodologies; 2) discrimination of methodologies between factors observed in numerical vs. experimental methods; 3) evidence that drag tends to be non-linear and depends on personal, technical, and stylistic factors. Based on the complexity of active drag, the study of this phenomenon must continue to improve swimming performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago J. Lopes
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Tiago J. Lopes,
| | - Jorge E. Morais
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Mafalda P. Pinto
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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7
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Washino S, Murai A, Mankyu H, Ogita F, Kanehisa H, Yoshitake Y. The projected frontal area and its components during front crawl depend on lung volume. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2022; 32:1724-1737. [PMID: 36086887 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We examined the influence of lung volume on the vertical body position, trunk inclination, and projected frontal area (PFA) during swimming and the inter-relationships among these factors. Twelve highly trained male swimmers performed a 15 m front crawl with sustained maximal inspiration (INSP), maximal expiration (EXP), and intermediate (MID) at a target velocity of 1.20 m·s-1 . Using our developed digital human model, which allows inverse kinematics calculations by fitting individual body shapes measured with a three-dimensional photonic image scanner to individually measured underwater motion capture data, vertical center of mass (CoM) position, trunk inclination, and PFA were calculated for each complete stroke cycle. In particular, the PFA was calculated by automatic processing of a series of parallel frontal images obtained from a reconstructed digital human model. The vertical CoM position was higher with a larger lung-volume level (P < 0.01). The trunk inclination was smaller in INSP and MID than in EXP (P < 0.01). PFA was smaller with a larger lung-volume level (P < 0.01). Additionally, there was a significant interaction of vertical CoM position and trunk inclination with PFA (P = 0.006). There was a negative association between PFA and vertical CoM position, and a positive association between PFA and trunk inclination less than the moderate vertical CoM position (each P < 0.05). These results obtained using our methodology indicate that PFA decreases with increasing lung volume due to an increase in vertical CoM position, and additionally due to a decrease in trunk inclination at low-to-moderate lung-volume levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohei Washino
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Chiba, Japan
| | - Akihiko Murai
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Chiba, Japan.,PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Mankyu
- Department of Coaching of Sports and Budo, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Futoshi Ogita
- Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kanehisa
- Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan.,School of Sports and Health Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Yasuhide Yoshitake
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda, Nagano, Japan.,School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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8
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Vision-Based System for Automated Estimation of the Frontal Area of Swimmers: Towards the Determination of the Instant Active Drag: A Pilot Study. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22030955. [PMID: 35161700 PMCID: PMC8839815 DOI: 10.3390/s22030955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Swimmers take great advantage by reducing the drag forces either in passive or active conditions. The purpose of this work is to determine the frontal area of swimmers by means of an automated vision system. The proposed algorithm is automated and also allows to determine lateral pose of the swimmer for training purposes. In this way, a step towards the determination of the instantaneous active drag is reached that could be obtained by correlating the effective frontal area of the swimmer to the velocity. This article shows a novel algorithm for estimating the frontal and lateral area in comparison with other models. The computing time allows to obtain a reasonable online representation of the results. The development of an automated method to obtain the frontal surface area during swimming increases the knowledge of the temporal fluctuation of the frontal surface area in swimming. It would allow the best monitoring of a swimmer in their swimming training sessions. Further works will present the complete device, which allows to track the swimmer while acquiring the images and a more realistic model of conventional active drag ones.
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9
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Knechtle B, Barkai R, Hill L, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Sousa CV. Influence of Anthropometric Characteristics on Ice Swimming Performance-The IISA Ice Mile and Ice Km. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18136766. [PMID: 34202426 PMCID: PMC8297229 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18136766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ice swimming following the rules of IISA (International Ice Swimming Association) is a recent sports discipline starting in 2009. Since then, hundreds of athletes have completed an Ice Mile or an Ice Km in water colder than 5 °C. This study aimed to expand our knowledge about swimmers completing an Ice Mile or an Ice Km regarding the influence of anthropometric characteristics (i.e., body mass, body height, and body mass index, BMI) on performance. We analyzed data from 957 swimmers in the Ice Km (590 men and 367 women) and 585 swimmers in the Ice Mile (334 men and 251 women). No differences were found for anthropometric characteristics between swimmers completing an Ice Mile and an Ice Km although water temperatures and wind chill were lower in the Ice Km than in the Ice Mile. Men were faster than women in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km. Swimming speed decreased significantly with increasing age, body mass, and BMI in both women and men in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km. Body height was positively correlated to swimming speed in women in the Ice Km. Air temperature was significantly and negatively related to swimming speed in the Ice Km but not in the Ice Mile. Water temperature was not associated with swimming speed in men in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km but significantly and negatively in women in Ice Km. In summary, swimmers intending to complete an Ice Mile or an Ice Km do not need to have a high body mass and/or a high BMI to swim these distances fast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| | - Ram Barkai
- International Ice Swimming Association (IISA), 7798 Cape Town, South Africa;
| | - Lee Hill
- Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
| | - Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Egaleo, Greece;
- Laboratory of Exercise Testing, Hellenic Air Force Academy, 13671 Acharnes, Greece
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
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10
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Morais J, Barbosa TM, Lopes VP, Marques MC, Marinho DA. Propulsive Force of Upper Limbs and its Relationship to Swim Velocity in the Butterfly Stroke. Int J Sports Med 2021; 42:1105-1112. [PMID: 33862640 DOI: 10.1055/a-1386-4985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to: (1) verify the sex effect; (2) assess upper limb asymmetry in anthropometrics and propulsive force variables; and (3) identify the main determinants of butterfly swim velocity based on a set of anthropometrics, kinematics, and propulsive force variables. Twenty swimmers (10 males: 15.40±0.30 years; 10 females: 14.43±0.23 years) at the national level were recruited for analysis. A set of anthropometrics, kinematics, and propulsive force variables were measured. Overall, a significant sex effect was verified (p≤0.05). Non-significant differences between upper-limbs were noted for males and females in all variables, except for the dF in males (t=-2.66, p=0.026, d=0.66). Stroke frequency presented the highest contribution, where a one unit increase in the stroke frequency imposed an increase of 0.375 m·s-1 (95CI: 0.105;0.645, p=0.010) in the swim velocity. The swim velocity was predicted by the mean propulsive force, intra-cyclic variation of the swim velocity, and stroke frequency. Overall, swimmers exhibit non-significant differences in the variables assessed. Swim velocity in the butterfly stroke was determined by an interaction of propulsive force and kinematic variables in young swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Tiago M Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Vitor P Lopes
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Mario C Marques
- Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel Almeida Marinho
- Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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11
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Gonjo T, Njøs N, Eriksrud O, Olstad BH. The Relationship Between Selected Load-Velocity Profile Parameters and 50 m Front Crawl Swimming Performance. Front Physiol 2021; 12:625411. [PMID: 33679439 PMCID: PMC7933527 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.625411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to establish relationships between sprint front crawl performance and a swimming load-velocity profile. Fourteen male national-level swimmers performed 50 m front crawl and semi-tethered swimming with three progressive loads. The 50 m performance was recorded with a multi-camera system, with which two-dimensional head displacement and the beginning of each arm-stroke motion were quantified. Forward velocity (V50m), stroke length (SL) and frequency (SF) were quantified for each cycle, and the mean value of all cycles, excluding the first and last cycles, was used for the analysis. From the semi-tethered swimming test, the mean velocity during three stroke cycles in mid-pool was calculated and plotted as a function of the external load, and a linear regression line expressing the relationship between the load and velocity was established for each swimmer. The intercepts between the established line and the axes of the plot were defined as theoretical maximum velocity (V0) and load (L0). Large to very large correlations were observed between V50m and all variables derived from the load-velocity profiling; L0 (R = 0.632, p = 0.015), L0 normalized by body mass (R = 0.743, p = 0.002), V0 (R = 0.698, p = 0.006), and the slope (R = 0.541, p < 0.046). No significant relationships of SL and SL with V50m and the load-velocity variables were observed, suggesting that each swimmer has his own strategy to achieve the highest swimming velocity. The findings suggest that load-velocity profiling can be used to assess swimming-specific strength and velocity capabilities related to sprint front crawl performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nikolai Njøs
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ola Eriksrud
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Bjørn H Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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12
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Dopsaj M, Zuoziene IJ, Milić R, Cherepov E, Erlikh V, Masiulis N, di Nino A, Vodičar J. Body Composition in International Sprint Swimmers: Are There Any Relations with Performance? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17249464. [PMID: 33348744 PMCID: PMC7766121 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The paper addresses relations between the characteristics of body composition in international sprint swimmers and sprint performance. The research included 82 swimmers of international level (N = 46 male and N = 36 female athletes) from 8 countries. We measured body composition using multifrequency bioelectrical impedance methods with “InBody 720” device. In the case of male swimmers, it was established that the most important statistically significant correlation with sprint performance is seen in variables, which define the quantitative relationship between their fat and muscle with the contractile potential of the body (Protein-Fat Index, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Index of Body Composition, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.392, p = 0.016). In the case of female athletes, statistically significant relations with sprint performance were established for variables that define the absolute and relative amount of a contractile component in the body, but also with the variables that define the structure of body fat characteristics (Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.732, p = 0.000; Free Fat Mass, r = 0.702, p = 0.000; Fat Mass Index, r = −0.642, p = 0.000; Percent of Body Fat, r = −0.621, p = 0.000). Using Multiple Regression Analysis, we managed to predict swimming performance of sprint swimmers with the help of body composition variables, where the models defined explained 35.1 and 75.1% of the mutual variability of performance, for male and female swimmers, respectively. This data clearly demonstrate the importance of body composition control in sprint swimmers as a valuable method for monitoring the efficiency of body adaptation to training process in order to optimize competitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milivoj Dopsaj
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Blagoja Parovića ul. 156, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +381-63-846-1174
| | - Ilona Judita Zuoziene
- Faculty of Sports Biomedicine, Lithuanian Sports University, Sporto str. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; (I.J.Z.); (N.M.)
| | - Radoje Milić
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (R.M.); (J.V.)
| | - Evgeni Cherepov
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
| | - Vadim Erlikh
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
| | - Nerijus Masiulis
- Faculty of Sports Biomedicine, Lithuanian Sports University, Sporto str. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; (I.J.Z.); (N.M.)
| | | | - Janez Vodičar
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (R.M.); (J.V.)
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13
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SwimOne. New Device for Determining Instantaneous Power and Propulsive Forces in Swimming. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20247169. [PMID: 33327553 PMCID: PMC7765058 DOI: 10.3390/s20247169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The propulsive forces and instantaneous power that are generated by a swimmer have a great influence on the swimming performance. This works presents a new device, called SwimOne, for measuring propulsive force and estimating the instantaneous power of the swimmer. In addition, the detailed prototype is able to exert a customizable opposition force to the swimmer for training purpose. The conceptual idea is presented by describing the differential equation of the swimmer and the protocol for a factible estimation of the instantaneous power. The variables that are to be measured and estimated are identified and, consequently, the sensor and actuator systems can be selected. The high-level and detailed designs of the prototype are presented together with the protocol that is carried out in order to validate the sensor and actuation systems. The device is able to monitor the variables of interest of the swimmer together with the propulsive force and instant power. Finally, some experiments are carried out providing the results of several participants swimming in crawl, backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke styles in the presence of different opposition force. The preliminary results show that SwimOne is valid for measuring instantaneous force and power with different loads in swimming.
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14
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Gonjo T, Narita K, McCabe C, Fernandes RJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Takagi H, Sanders R. Front Crawl Is More Efficient and Has Smaller Active Drag Than Backstroke Swimming: Kinematic and Kinetic Comparison Between the Two Techniques at the Same Swimming Speeds. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:570657. [PMID: 33072727 PMCID: PMC7543982 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.570657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in Froude efficiency (η F ) and active drag (D A ) between front crawl and backstroke at the same speed. η F was investigated by the three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis using 10 male swimmers. The swimmers performed 50 m swims at four swimming speeds in each technique, and their whole body motion during one upper-limb cycle was quantified by a 3D direct linear transformation algorithm with manually digitized video footage. Stroke length (SL), stroke frequency (SF), the index of coordination (IdC), η F , and the underwater body volume (UWV body ) were obtained. D A was assessed by the measuring residual thrust method (MRT method) using a different group of swimmers (six males) due to a sufficient experience and familiarization required for the method. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (trials and techniques as the factors) and a paired t-test were used for the outcomes from the 3D motion analysis and the MRT method, respectively. Swimmers had 8.3% longer SL, 5.4% lower SF, 14.3% smaller IdC, and 30.8% higher η F in front crawl than backstroke in the 3D motion analysis (all p < 0.01), which suggest that front crawl is more efficient than backstroke. Backstroke had 25% larger D A at 1.2 m⋅s-1 than front crawl (p < 0.01) in the MRT trial. A 4% difference in UWV body (p < 0.001) between the two techniques in the 3D motion analysis also indirectly showed that the pressure drag and friction drag were probably larger in backstroke than in front crawl. In conclusion, front crawl is more efficient and has a smaller D A than backstroke at the same swimming speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway.,Institute for Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kenzo Narita
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Coaching of Sports and Budo, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | - Carla McCabe
- Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Antrim, United Kingdom
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport at Faculty of Sport, Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport at Faculty of Sport, Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Hideki Takagi
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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15
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Morais JE, Forte P, Nevill AM, Barbosa TM, Marinho DA. Upper-limb kinematics and kinetics imbalances in the determinants of front-crawl swimming at maximal speed in young international level swimmers. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11683. [PMID: 32669605 PMCID: PMC7363921 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68581-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Short-distance swimmers may exhibit imbalances in their upper-limbs’ thrust (differences between the thrust produced by each upper-limb). At maximal speed, higher imbalances are related to poorer performances. Additionally, little is known about the relationship between thrust and swim speed, and whether hypothetical imbalances exist in the speed achieved while performing each upper-limb arm-pull. This could be a major issue at least while swimming at maximal speed. This study aimed to: (1) verify a hypothetical inter-upper limb difference in the determinants related to front-crawl at maximal swim speed, and; (2) identify the main predictors responsible for the swim speed achieved during each upper-limb arm-pull. Twenty-two male swimmers of a national junior swim team (15.92 ± 0.75 years) were recruited. A set of anthropometric, dry-land strength, thrust and speed variables were assessed. Anthropometrics identified a significant difference between dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs (except for the hand surface area). Dry-land strength presented non-significant difference (p < 0.05) between the dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs. Overall, thrust and speed variables revealed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs over a 25 m time-trial in a short-course pool. Swimmers were not prone to maintaining the thrust and speed along the trial where a significant variation was noted (p < 0.05). Using multilevel regression, the speed achieved by each upper-limb identified a set of variables, with the peak speed being the strongest predictor (dominant: estimate = 0.522, p < 0.001; non-dominant: estimate = 0.756, p < 0.001). Overall, swimmers exhibit significant differences between upper-limbs determinants. The upper-limb noting a higher dry-land strength also presented a higher thrust, and consequently higher speed. Coaches should be aware that sprint swimmers produce significant differences in the speed achieved by each one of their upper-limbs arm-pull.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge E Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Sta. Apolónia, Apartado 1101, 5301-856, Bragança, Portugal. .,Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Pedro Forte
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Sta. Apolónia, Apartado 1101, 5301-856, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Higher Institute of Educational Sciences of the Douro, Penafiel, Portugal
| | - Alan M Nevill
- Faculty of Education, Health, and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, UK
| | - Tiago M Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Sta. Apolónia, Apartado 1101, 5301-856, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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16
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Papic C, McCabe C, Gonjo T, Sanders R. Effect of torso morphology on maximum hydrodynamic resistance in front crawl swimming. Sports Biomech 2020:1-15. [DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2020.1773915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Papic
- Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Carla McCabe
- School of Sport, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Jordanstown, Northern Ireland
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ross Sanders
- Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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17
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MORAIS JORGEE, SANDERS ROSSH, PAPIC CHRISTOPHER, BARBOSA TIAGOM, MARINHO DANIELA. The Influence of the Frontal Surface Area and Swim Velocity Variation in Front Crawl Active Drag. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:2357-2364. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Passive Drag in Young Swimmers: Effects of Body Composition, Morphology and Gliding Position. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17062002. [PMID: 32197399 PMCID: PMC7142561 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17062002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The passive drag (Dp) during swimming is affected by the swimmer’s morphology, body density and body position. We evaluated the relative contribution of morphology, body composition, and body position adjustments in the prediction of a swimmer’s Dp. This observational study examined a sample of 60 competitive swimmers (31 male and 29 female) with a mean (±SD) age of 15.4 ± 3.1 years. The swimmer’s Dp was measured using an electro-mechanical towing device and the body composition was assessed using a bioelectrical impedance analyser. Body lengths and circumferences were measured in both the standing position and the simulated streamlined position. Partial correlation analysis with age as a control variable showed that Dp was largely correlated (p < 0.05) with body mass, biacromial- and bi-iliac-breadth, streamline chest circumference and breadth. Body mass, Body Mass Index, chest circumference and streamline chest circumference showed a significant and moderate to strong effect (η2 > 0.55) on Dp. Body mass was the best predictor of Dp explaining 69% of the variability. These results indicate that swimmers with lower Dp values were: (i) slimmer, with lower fat and fat-free mass, (ii) thinner, with lower shoulder breadth, chest circumference, and streamline trunk diameters (iii), shorter, with lower streamline height. These findings can be used for talent identification in swimming, with particular reference to the gliding performance.
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19
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Mezêncio B, Pinho JP, Huebner R, Vilas-Boas JP, Amadio AC, Serrão JC. Overall indexes of coordination in front crawl swimming. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:910-917. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1737349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Mezêncio
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Pedro Pinho
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rudolf Huebner
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Alberto Carlos Amadio
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julio Cerca Serrão
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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20
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Zamparo P, Cortesi M, Gatta G. The energy cost of swimming and its determinants. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 120:41-66. [PMID: 31807901 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The energy expended to transport the body over a given distance (C, the energy cost) increases with speed both on land and in water. At any given speed, C is lower on land (e.g., running or cycling) than in water (e.g., swimming or kayaking) and this difference can be easily understood when one considers that energy should be expended (among the others) to overcome resistive forces since these, at any given speed, are far larger in water (hydrodynamic resistance, drag) than on land (aerodynamic resistance). Another reason for the differences in C between water and land locomotion is the lower capability to exert useful forces in water than on land (e.g., a lower propelling efficiency in the former case). These two parameters (drag and efficiency) not only can explain the differences in C between land and water locomotion but can also explain the differences in C within a given form of locomotion (swimming at the surface, which is the topic of this review): e.g., differences between strokes or between swimmers of different age, sex, and technical level. In this review, the determinants of C (drag and efficiency, as well as energy expenditure in its aerobic and anaerobic components) will, thus, be described and discussed. In aquatic locomotion it is difficult to obtain quantitative measures of drag and efficiency and only a comprehensive (biophysical) approach could allow to understand which estimates are "reasonable" and which are not. Examples of these calculations are also reported and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Via Felice Casorati 43, 37131, Verona, Italy.
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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21
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Washino S, Mayfield DL, Lichtwark GA, Mankyu H, Yoshitake Y. Swimming performance is reduced by reflective markers intended for the analysis of swimming kinematics. J Biomech 2019; 91:109-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2019.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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22
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Piras A, Cortesi M, Campa F, Perazzolo M, Gatta G. Recovery Time Profiling After Short-, Middle- and Long-Distance Swimming Performance. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33:1408-1415. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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23
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Scurati R, Gatta G, Michielon G, Cortesi M. Techniques and considerations for monitoring swimmers’ passive drag. J Sports Sci 2018; 37:1168-1180. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1547099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Scurati
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanni Michielon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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24
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Narita K, Nakashima M, Takagi H. Effect of leg kick on active drag in front-crawl swimming: Comparison of whole stroke and arms-only stroke during front-crawl and the streamlined position. J Biomech 2018; 76:197-203. [PMID: 29921521 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of leg kick on the resistance force in front-crawl swimming. The active drag in front-crawl swimming with and without leg motion was evaluated using measured values of residual thrust (MRT method) and compared with the passive drag of the streamlined position (SP) for the same swimmers. Seven male competitive swimmers participated in this study, and the testing was conducted in a swimming flume. Each swimmer performed front-crawl under two conditions: using arms and legs (whole stroke: WS) and using arms only (arms-only stroke: AS). Active drag and passive drag were measured at swimming velocities of 1.1 and 1.3 m s-1 using load cells connected to the swimmer via wires. We calculated a drag coefficient to compare the resistances of the WS, AS and SP at each velocity. For both the WS and AS at both swimming velocities, active drag coefficient was found to be about 1.6-1.9 times larger than that in passive conditions. In contrast, although leg movement did not cause a difference in drag coefficient for front-crawl swimming, there was a large effect size (d = 1.43) at 1.3 m s-1. Therefore, although upper and lower limb movements increase resistance compared to the passive condition, the effect of leg kick on drag may depend on swimming velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenzo Narita
- Doctoral Program in Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Motomu Nakashima
- Department of Systems and Control Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
| | - Hideki Takagi
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan.
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25
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Differences in kinematics and energy cost between front crawl and backstroke below the anaerobic threshold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:1107-1118. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3841-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Performance Trends in Master Butterfly Swimmers Competing in the FINA World Championships. J Hum Kinet 2017; 57:199-211. [PMID: 28713472 PMCID: PMC5504592 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Performance trends in elite butterfly swimmers are well known, but less information is available regarding master butterfly swimmers. We investigated trends in participation, performance and sex differences in 9,606 female and 13,250 male butterfly race times classified into five-year master groups, from 25-29 to 90-94 years, competing in the FINA World Masters Championships between 1986 and 2014. Trends in participation were analyzed using linear regression analysis. Trends in performance changes were investigated using mixed-effects regression analyses with sex, distance and a calendar year as fixed variables. We also considered interaction effects between sex and distance. Participation increased in master swimmers older than ~30-40 years. The men-to-women ratio remained unchanged across calendar years and master groups, but was lower in 200 m compared to 50 m and 100 m. Men were faster than women from 25-29 to 85-89 years (p < 0.05), although not for 90-94 years. Sex and distance showed a significant interaction in all master groups from 25-29 to 90-94 years for 200m (p < 0.05). For 50 m and 100 m, a significant sex × distance interaction was observed from 25-29 to 75-79 years (p < 0.05), but not in the older groups. In 50 m, women reduced the sex difference in master groups 30-34 to 60-64 years (p < 0.05). In 100 m, women decreased the gap to men in master groups 35-39 to 55-59 years (p < 0.05). In 200 m, the sex difference was reduced in master groups 30-34 to 40-44 years (p < 0.05). In summary, women and men improved performance at all distances, women were not slower compared to men in the master group 90-94 years; moreover, women reduced the gap to men between ~30 and ~60 years, although not in younger or older master groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pantelis T Nikolaidis
- Department of Physical and Cultural Education, Hellenic Army Academy, Athens, Greece
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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27
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Gatta G, Cortesi M, Swaine I, Zamparo P. Mechanical power, thrust power and propelling efficiency: relationships with elite sprint swimming performance. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:506-512. [PMID: 28471718 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1322214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Ian Swaine
- Department of Life & Sports Sciences, University of Greenwich, London, UK
| | - Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurological, Biomedical and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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28
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Barbosa TM, Ramos R, Silva AJ, Marinho DA. Assessment of passive drag in swimming by numerical simulation and analytical procedure. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:492-498. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1321774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M. Barbosa
- Physical Education & Sports Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Rui Ramos
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
| | - António J. Silva
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
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29
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Narita K, Nakashima M, Takagi H. Developing a methodology for estimating the drag in front-crawl swimming at various velocities. J Biomech 2017; 54:123-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Gatta G, Cortesi M, Zamparo P. The Relationship between Power Generated by Thrust and Power to Overcome Drag in Elite Short Distance Swimmers. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162387. [PMID: 27654992 PMCID: PMC5031421 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
At constant average speed (v), a balance between thrust force (Ft) and drag force (Fd) should occur: Ft−Fd = 0; hence the power generated by thrust forces (Pt = Ft·v) should be equal to the power needed to overcome drag forces at that speed (Pd = Fd·v); the aim of this study was to measure Pt (tethered swims), to estimate Pd in active conditions (at sprint speed) and to compare these values. 10 front crawl male elite swimmers (expertise: 93.1 ± 2.4% of 50 m world record) participated to the study; their sprint speed was measured during a 30 m maximal trial. Ft was assessed during a 15 s tethered effort; passive towing measurement were performed to determine speed specific drag in passive conditions (kP = passive drag force/v2); drag force in active conditions (Fd = kA·v2) was calculated assuming that kA = 1.5·kP. Average sprint speed was 2.20 ± 0.07 m·s-1; kA, at this speed, was 37.2 ± 2.7 N·s2·m-2. No significant differences (paired t-test: p > 0.8) were observed between Pt (399 ± 56 W) and Pd (400 ± 57 W) and a strong correlation (R = 0.95, p < 0.001) was observed between these two parameters. The Bland-Altman plot indicated a good agreement and a small, acceptable, error (bias: -0.89 W, limits of agreement: -25.5 and 23.7 W). Power thrust experiments can thus be suggested as a valid tool for estimating a swimmer’s power propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurological, Biomedical and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Varveri D, Flouris AD, Smirnios N, Pollatou E, Karatzaferi C, Sakkas GK. Developing and testing an instrument to assess aquaticity in humans. J Bodyw Mov Ther 2016; 20:497-503. [PMID: 27634070 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2015.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 12/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We developed and validated an aquaticity assessment test (AAT) for the evaluation of human physical adequacy in the water. Forty-six volunteers (25M/21F; 20 ± 8 years) participated and performed 10 easy-to-administer and practical aquatic tasks. Group A was formed by 36 elite athletes (M/F 20/16, 24.7 ± 10yrs) from two sports categories depending on their affinity to the water environment: terrestrial (wrestling, cycling, dancing) and aquatic (swimming, synchronized swimming, free diving) sports. Group B was formed by 10 non-athlete participants (5M/5F, 14.4 ± 1.4yrs) and was assessed by two independent evaluators. Participants in Group A performed the aquatic tasks once to develop the final AAT items and cutoffs. Participants in Group B performed the aquatic tasks twice on different days to assess repeatability. Factor analysis recommended all 10 aquatic tasks to be included in the final AAT, resulting in scores ranging from 9.5 to 49.5. The AAT scores were statistically different between the terrestrial and the aquatic sports' participants (p < 0.001). The duration of the test was 25 min from the time of water entry. Receiver operating characteristics curve analyses demonstrated that the cutoffs for low and high aquaticity levels in this sample were ≤23.7 and ≥43.3, respectively. Reliability analyses demonstrated that the aquaticity scores obtained on different days and by different examiners highly correlated (p < 0.001) and were not significantly different (p > 0.05). The AAT appears to be a valid and reliable tool for the evaluation of human physical adequacy in the water. It is an easy and user-friendly test which can be performed in any swimming pool without a need for highly trained staff and specialized equipment, however more research needs to be done in order to be applied in other population group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danae Varveri
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Andreas D Flouris
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Nikitas Smirnios
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Elizana Pollatou
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Christina Karatzaferi
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Giorgos K Sakkas
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece.
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Winter EM, Abt G, Brookes FBC, Challis JH, Fowler NE, Knudson DV, Knuttgen HG, Kraemer WJ, Lane AM, van Mechelen W, Morton RH, Newton RU, Williams C, Yeadon MR. Misuse of "Power" and Other Mechanical Terms in Sport and Exercise Science Research. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:292-300. [PMID: 26529527 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite the Système International d'Unitès (SI) that was published in 1960, there continues to be widespread misuse of the terms and nomenclature of mechanics in descriptions of exercise performance. Misuse applies principally to failure to distinguish between mass and weight, velocity and speed, and especially the terms "work" and "power." These terms are incorrectly applied across the spectrum from high-intensity short-duration to long-duration endurance exercise. This review identifies these misapplications and proposes solutions. Solutions include adoption of the term "intensity" in descriptions and categorizations of challenge imposed on an individual as they perform exercise, followed by correct use of SI terms and units appropriate to the specific kind of exercise performed. Such adoption must occur by authors and reviewers of sport and exercise research reports to satisfy the principles and practices of science and for the field to advance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Winter
- 1The Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom; 2Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom; 3Department of Sports Science and Physical Activity, University of Bedfordshire, United Kingdom; 4Biomechanics Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania; 5Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Crewe, United Kingdom; 6Department of Health and Human Performance, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas; 7Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts; 8Department of Human Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; 9Institute of Sport, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom; 10Department of Public & Occupational Health and EMGO+ Institute, VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 11School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; 12Department of Human Biology, Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; 13School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand; 14Edith Cowan University Health and Wellness Institute, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia; 15School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom; and 16School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the head position on passive drag with a towing-line experiment in a swimming pool. The tests were performed on ten male swimmers with regional level swimming skills and at least 10 years of competitive swimming experience. They were towed underwater (at a depth of 60 cm) at three speeds (1.5, 1.7 and 1.9 m/s) and in two body positions (arms above the swimmer's head and arms alongside the body). These two body positions were repeated while the swimmer's head was positioned in three different ways: head-up, head-middle and head-down in relation to the body's horizontal alignment. The results showed a reduction of 4-5.2% in the average passive drag at all speeds when the head was down or aligned to the swimmer's arms alongside the body, in comparison to the head-up position. A major significant decrease of 10.4-10.9% (p < 0.05) was shown when the head was down or aligned at the swimmer's arms above the swimmer's head. The passive drag tended to decrease significantly by a mean of 17.6% (p < 0.001) for all speeds examined with the arms alongside the body position rather than with the arms above the head position. The swimmer's head location may play an important role in reducing hydrodynamic resistance during passive underwater gliding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Rimini, School of Pharmacy, Biotechnology and Sport Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Gatta G, Cortesi M, Zamparo P. Effect of Swim Cap Surface Roughness on Passive Drag. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29:3253-9. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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