The relationship between motor performance and parent-rated executive functioning in 3- to 5-year-old children: What is the role of confounding variables?

Association between motor skills and executive function of children with autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan and the United States

Objective

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent ratings of motor skills and executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the United States and Taiwan.

Materials and method

One hundred and seventy-two parents/legal guardians of children (4-6 years and 11 months old) with ASD were recruited from two countries, Taiwan (n = 100) and the United States (n = 72). The parents or guardians of the child with ASD completed a questionnaire including demographic information, child's motor skills (using Children Activity Scale - Parents, ChAS-P), and child's EF (using Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory, CHEXI). A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether ChAS-P (total motor score, fine motor skills, and gross motor skill) was associated with CHEXI (total EF score, working memory, and inhibition), after controlling for covariates (i.e., age, gender, race, body mass index, whether children received physical activity or cognitive training, parental education level).

Results

Total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills were significantly associated with EF in both working memory and inhibition as rated by parents in both countries (β = 0.21-0.57, p < 0.01), with the exception of a non-significant association between parent-rated total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills, and inhibition among Taiwanese children with ASD. In addition, the associations between parent ratings of motor skills (i.e., fine motor and gross motor skills) and EF (i.e., working memory and inhibition) were similar between the two countries.

Conclusion

Positive associations with specific aspects of parent ratings of fine motor and gross motor skills and working memory and inhibition were found in children with ASD from both countries. These findings have implications for future interventions and programs focused on improving early motor skills and EF development for young children with ASD from Taiwan and the United States.

The relationship between motor performance and executive functioning in early childhood: A systematic review on motor demands embedded within executive function tasks

This systematic review examined to what extent response demands of executive functioning (EF) tasks influence the relationship between motor performance and EF in 2- to 6-year-old typically developing (TD) children and children with motor coordination difficulties (MCD). Eighteen of the included articles focused on TD children only and three also on children with MCD. EF tasks were subdivided based on the type of responses (i.e., motor or verbal). EF tasks requiring a motor response were subdivided into two levels (i.e., complex or simple). Results showed that the relationship between motor performance and EF in 2- to 6-year-old TD children and children with MCD was inconclusive with the strength of correlation coefficients for the most part varying from very weak to moderate. The type of EF task response did not influence the relationship between motor performance and EF. The review thus implies that other task demands than the type of EF task response need to be investigated to explain the inconsistent relationship between motor performance and EF, such as the complexity of the motor response of EF tasks, the complexity of the actual motor tasks, and additional processes (e.g., memory, intelligence, language comprehension).

Cognitive Orientation to Daily Occupational Performance: A Randomized Controlled Trial Examining Intervention Effects on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder Traits

Children with traits of developmental coordination disorder (DCD-t) may experience occupational performance problems that go unrecognized and therefore may not be adequately supported. The cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance (CO-OP) approach has been effective in interventions for developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Based on an open-label, randomized controlled trial design, this study evaluated the effects of CO-OP on the occupational performance and motor skills of older kindergarten children with DCD-t using the School Assessment of Motor and Process Skills (S-AMPS) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition. Children with a total DCDQ score of less than 40 or M-ABC2 scores in the 5th to 16th percentile were considered to have DCD-t. Furthermore, children with DCD-t and S-AMPS process skills less than 0.7 were considered to have DAMP (Deficits in Attention, Motor control and Perception)-t. After 3 months of CO-OP intervention, the performance and motor skills of children with DCD-t improved significantly. However, there were no significant changes noted in the motor skills of children with DAMP-t, although their occupational performance improved. These results suggest that CO-OP is effective even for older kindergarten children with DCD-t. However, further improvement of the CO-OP approach or a different strategy is required for children with ADHD comorbidity.

Efficacy of a Task-Oriented Intervention for Children with a Dual Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Pilot Study

Background: Task-oriented approaches are recommended for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) to address deficits in motor performance and reduce activity limitations. Although this approach is used in several settings, the efficacy of these approaches in children with in dual-diagnosis of specific learning disabilities (SLD) and DCD is less widely known. This study aims to determine the effect of a group-based intervention based on neuromotor task training (NTT) principles on the motor performance of children aged 6–10 years with SLD/DCD. Methods: A pre-post-test controlled study design was conducted in children with a primary diagnosis of specific learning disabilities (SLD). DCD status was confirmed based on clinical assessment. Children scoring ≤16th percentile on the Motor Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2), who also presented with a functional motor problem, according to the MABC checklist were considered as having DCD. Children were allocated to the NTT intervention group based on teachers’ perceived notion of need and received two 45–60 min training sessions per week for nine weeks. Children allocated to the usual care (UC) group, received their planned occupational therapy and physical education. The MABC-2 was used to assess changes in motor performance. Outcome and Results: Our numbers confirm that it is crucial to identify the presence of motor coordination difficulties in children who have been diagnosed with SLD. A task-oriented training program based on NTT principles, presented in small groups, has a positive effect on the motor performance in learners with neurodevelopmental disorders and this effect was larger than in the usual care group. Conclusion and Implications: Although using a small group format in children with multiple neurodevelopmental disorders may be challenging for the therapists, it may be a way of delivering services to children in schools for special education. What this paper adds: Children with DCD plus LSD show improvement in their motor skills by performing group-based NTT in the school environment. Group-based NTT shows a significant improvement in the TSS score of the MABC-2 compared to usual care. Children with DCD plus SLD show equal effect sizes after NTT intervention as DCD without SLD.

Aerobic fitness and fine motor skills are related to switching and updating in typically developing children

Movement is essential for everyday life and closely related to cognitive skills. The aim of the current research was to investigate whether different aspects of physical activity, i.e., aerobic fitness and motor skills, contribute above and beyond each other to the variance in children's executive functioning. Children aged 8-13 years (N = 129, 58 females, M_age = 10.7 years, SD_age = 1.6 years) participated in the current cross-sectional study. Aerobic fitness was assessed by the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Motor skills were assessed using the standardized Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd edition (M-ABC-2), including fine motor skills, balance skills, and object control. Components of executive functions (inhibition, switching, updating) were assessed using the following tasks: an animal Stroop task, a local-global task, and a 2n-back task. Hierarchical regressions were conducted to analyze the relative importance of aerobic fitness and motor skills for children's executive functions. Results indicated that aerobic fitness and fine motor skills were significantly related to switching and updating, whereas relations to inhibition were non-significant. Furthermore, it was found that fine motor skills explained additional variance above aerobic fitness in switching and updating whereas aerobic fitness did not add additional variance above fine motor skills in switching and updating. Balance and object control skills were not related to the three core executive functions. Results support the notion that aerobic fitness and fine motor skills are differently related to executive functions and highlight the importance of considering multiple components of constructs in future research.

Association between fundamental motor skills and executive function in preschool children: A cross-sectional study

Objective

The main purpose of this study was to explore the association between early fundamental motor skills (FMS) and executive function (EF) in preschool children.

Methods

A total of 394 young children (4.07 ± 0.76 years) were evaluated. The FMS and EF were evaluated using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NTCB), respectively.

Results

Total FMS score was moderately and positively correlated with total EF score (r = 0.33, p < 0.001) and was a significant predictor of total EF score (β = 0.37, p < 0.001). Specifically, locomotor skills were significant predictors of inhibition control (β = 0.21, p < 0.001), working memory (β = 0.18, p < 0.01), and cognitive flexibility (β = 0.24, p < 0.001), while object control skills were only significant predictors of inhibition control (β = 0.17, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

FMS were significantly and positively correlated with EF and were significant predictors of EF. Early childhood policymakers, preschool teachers, and researchers should take these connections seriously and implement appropriate complex motor intervention programs in future teaching to stimulate the development of both motor and higher-order cognitive skills in preschool children.

Association between executive functions and gross motor skills in overweight/obese and eutrophic preschoolers: cross-sectional study

Background

Preschool age (3–5 years old) is a crucial period for children to acquire gross motor skills and develop executive functions (EFs). However, the association between the qualitative gross motor skills and EFs remains unknown in preschoolers, especially among overweight and obese children.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional, exploratory, and quantitative study carried out on 49 preschool children, divided into two subgroups according to their body mass index (overweight/obese: 24; eutrophic [normal weight]: 25). The mean age was 4.59 years. More than half of the sample were boys (55%) and most of the mothers had completed high school (67%) and were class C socioeconomic level (63%). Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, while EFs were evaluated using Semantic verbal fluency (SVF), Tower of Hanoi (TH), Day/Night Stroop, and Delayed Gratification tests. Multiple linear regression models adjusted for sex, age, maternal education, socioeconomic status, quality of the home environment, and quality of the school environment using the stepwise method were executed, considering the cognitive tasks as independent variables and gross motor skills as dependent variable.

Results

The overweight/obese preschoolers showed worse locomotor skills than their eutrophic peers and below average gross motor quotient (GMQ). Overweight/obese girls performed worse in OC skills than boys with excess weight. SVF (number of errors) and TH (rule breaks) explained 57.8% of the variance in object control (OC) skills and 40.5% of the variance in GMQ (p < .05) in the overweight/obese children. Surprisingly, there was no significant association between any of the EF tasks and gross motor skills in the eutrophic children.

Conclusion

A relationship between EF tasks (number of errors in SVF and rule breaks in TH) and gross motor skills (OC and GMQ) was demonstrated in the overweight/obese preschoolers, indicating that worse cognitive flexibility, working memory, planning, and problem solving are associated with worse gross motor skills in this population when compared to eutrophic children.

Teacher-Rated Executive Functions, Gender and Relative Age: Independent and Interactive Effects on Observed Fundamental Motor Skills in Kindergarteners

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) of children can be affected by different variables, such as executive functions (EF), gender and relative age. However, the effects of these variables on FMS have been scarce studied, especially in early childhood, and show inconsistent results. To clarify these relationships, this study was carried out. Its aim was to analyze whether EF, gender and relative age influenced FMS in 43 Spanish kindergarteners. A multimethod and mixed methods approach was used. Kindergarteners' teachers completed the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory to know the children level of EF (working memory and inhibition control). Kindergarteners' parents complimented ad hoc questionnaire reporting the children gender and birth data (to know their relative age). A Nomothetic/Punctual/Multidimensional observational design was used to observe children FMS in their habitual motor sessions at school. Two-way ANOVAs were performed to know the independent and interactive effects of working memory level (lower/higher), inhibition control level (lower/higher), gender (boys/girls) and relative age (according to the birth semester in the year) on FMS. Results showed these variables have independent and interactive effects on some FMS, but not on others. FMS influenced by these variables vary depending what independent variable(s) is/are considered. Therefore, it can be concluded that the influences of teacher-rated EF, gender and relative age on observed FMS in kindergarteners are complex and specific. Results obtained must be taken into to design and implement instructional and intervention strategies, as well as educational and sport policy changes, especially in early childhood, when FMS are more malleable.

Assessment of Preschool-age Executive Functions: A Systematic Review

Executive functions (EF) are higher-order cognitive processes present in the prefrontal cortex, and are fundamental in planning, executing, and monitoring goal-oriented behaviors. Evaluating EF in early stages of child development is essential for identifying any cognitive alterations in young children, given that it allows for early intervention and minimizes future complications. Additionally, it contributes to a better understanding of this construct in this age bracket, as well as its operational model. Study of EF has recently been the focus of multiple researcher; however, there is still a serious lack of instruments and measurements validated towards children's age bracket. This systematic review's main goal is to evaluate instruments and/or tasks that serve to evaluate and analyze EF and/or their components between the ages of 36 and 72 months. Forty-nine studies were analyzed, containing multiple tasks and tools oriented towards EF and their constituent components. Results indicate the existence of various tasks that grade the different components independently from one another; nevertheless, they also confirm the lack of any global measurement instrument or method. Therefore, this systematic review presents itself as an important contribution in the study of EF, not only stressing the importance of further investing into constructing and validating new and better tools for evaluating the construct, but also the study of operating models of executive functioning, especially in an age bracket where comprehending it is notoriously difficult.

Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: The Science of Early-Life Precursors and Interventions for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate which early neurocognitive and behavioral precursors are associated with the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and whether these are currently targeted in early interventions.

METHOD

We conducted 2 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of empirical studies to examine the following: (1) early-life (0-5 years) neurocognitive and behavioral precursors associated with familial likelihood for ADHD, an early ADHD diagnosis/elevated ADHD symptoms, and/or the presence of later-childhood ADHD; and (2) interventions delivered to children aged 0 to 5 years targeting the identified precursors or measuring these as outcomes. Standardized mean differences (Hedges' g) and pre-post-treatment change scores (SMD) were computed.

RESULTS

A total of 149 studies (165,095 participants) investigating 8 neurocognitive and behavioral domains met inclusion criteria for part 1. Multi-level random-effects meta-analyses on 136 studies revealed significant associations between ADHD and poorer cognitive (g = -0.46 [95% CIs: -0.59, -0.33]), motor (g = -0.35 [CIs: -0.48, -0.21]) and language (g = -0.43 [CIs: -0.66, -0.19]) development, social (g = 0.23 [CIs: 0.03, 0.43]) and emotional (g = 0.46 [CIs: 0.33, 0.58]) difficulties, early regulatory (g = 0.30 [CIs: 0.18, 0.43]) and sleep (g = 0.29 [CIs: 0.14, 0.44]) problems, sensory atypicalities (g = 0.52 [CIs: 0.16, 0.88]), elevated activity levels (g = 0.54 [CIs: 0.37, 0.72]), and executive function difficulties (g = 0.34 [CIs: 0.05, 0.64] to -0.87 [CIs: -1.35, -0.40]). A total of 32 trials (28 randomized, 4 nonrandomized, 3,848 participants) testing early interventions that targeted the identified precursors met inclusion criteria for part 2. Multi-level random-effects meta-analyses on 22 studies revealed significant intervention-related improvements in ADHD symptoms (SMD = 0.43 [CIs: 0.22, 0.64]) and working memory (SMD = 0.37 [CIs: 0.06, 0.69]).

CONCLUSION

Children aged 0 to 5 years with current or later-emerging ADHD are likely to experience difficulties in multiple neurocognitive/behavioral functions. Early interventions show some effectiveness in reducing ADHD symptoms, but their effects on neurocognitive/behavioral difficulties require further study.

Associations between device-measured physical activity and balance performance in children: Mediating role of motor self-efficacy

Study aim: To examine the association between accelerometer-measured physical activity (PA) and balance performance among children with considering motor self-efficacy as a mediator.

Material and methods: The present study employed a correlational-comparative approach. The present study applied a correlational-comparative approach. Eighty-two children (40 girls) of Tehran city, Iran in 2020 participated in this study (mean age of 9.82 ± 1.64 years). Physical activity was measured using the ActiGraph wGT3X-BT accelerometer. Dynamic balance test was used to collect balance performance. Motor self-efficacy was measured using a standard questionnaire.

Results: On average, boys had higher moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) than girls (47.28 vs. 36.74 minutes per day, respectively). MVPA was significantly and directly associated with children’s balance performance, and here, motor self-efficacy acted as a significant mediator.

Conclusions: These findings underscore the need for targeted strategies and interventions for children, especially girls, to develop adequate levels of PA.

Modeling the influence of motor skills on literacy in third grade: Contributions of executive functions and handwriting

Several nonlanguage factors influence literacy development, and motor skills are among those most studied. Despite the publication of several studies that have supported the existence of this relationship, the type of influence and underlying mechanisms have been little explored. Herein, we propose modeling the relationship between motor skills and literacy through structural equation modeling, testing the contribution of executive functions and handwriting skills as the possible mediators of this relationship. In a study of 278 third-grade children, we used a wide range of measures related to written language (reading, spelling, reading comprehension, and written production), fine motor skills (dominant hand, nondominant hand, and bimanual dexterity), executive functions (verbal and visuospatial working memory, inhibition, and shifting), and handwriting. Structural equation modeling of the relationship between these different variables indicated that in the third grade, the influence of fine motor skills on literacy is fully mediated by both executive functions and handwriting skills. These motor skills effects are observed for both low levels of processing (reading, spelling) and high levels of processing (reading comprehension, written production). The results are discussed in terms of the potential mechanisms underlying different literacy skills and their implications for pedagogical programs.

Do executive functions and gross motor skills predict writing and mathematical performance in children with developmental coordination disorder?

Aim: To examine whether executive functions, and gross motor skills were predictors for school performance in children with DCD, with risk for DCD (r-DCD), and with typical development (TD).Methods: Participants were 63 children with DCD (M_age = 8.70, SD_age = .64), 31 children with r-DCD (M_age = 8.90, SD_age = 0.74), and 63 typical development children (M_age = 8.74, SD_age = .63). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, Test of Gross Motor Development-3, Oral Word Span in Sentences, Odd-One-Out, Go/No-Go, Hayling Test, Trail Making Test, Five Digits Test, and the Test of School Performance-II were utilized.Results: In DCD, processing speed (β = -.42, p = .005), and auditory-motor inhibition (β = -.36, p = .009), and auditory-verbal inhibition (β = -.38, p = .023) predicted math performance; and auditory-motor (β = -.40, p = .38) and visuospatial working memory (β = -.33 p = .011) predicted writing performance. In r-DCD, auditory-motor (β = - .67; p = .002) and visual-motor (β = -.40; p = .040) inhibition predicted math performance; visual-motor inhibition predicted writing performance (β = -.47; p = .015).Conclusion: Lower inhibitory control and visuospatial working memory scores affect children with DCD and r-DCD' school performance.

Assessing Motor Performance in Preschool Children: The Zurich Neuromotor Assessment-2 and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2

Comparing motor assessment tools that are available for young children is important in order to select the most appropriate clinical and research tools. Hence, this study compared motor performance assessed with the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment-2 (ZNA-2) to the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2). The sample consisted of 169 children, aged 3-5 years (87 boys; 51%). We used Pearson correlations to examine relationships between the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 component and total scores. In addition, Pearson correlations were performed between individual fine motor and balance items of the ZNA-2 and MABC-2. Results were that the total scores of the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 correlated moderately (r = .40, p < .001). Non-significant to moderate correlations were found between components (r = -.00 to .47) and between individual items of fine motor skills (r = .04 to .38) and balance (r = -.12 to .38). Thus, the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 measure partly similar and partly different aspects of motor performance.

Parental Distress and Perception of Children's Executive Functioning after the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy

The spread of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), and the consequential first italian lockdown to minimize viral transmission, have resulted in many significant changes in the every-day lives of families, with an increased risk of parental burnout. This study explores the impact of the first COVID-19 lockdown in Italy on parental distress and parental perceptions of children’s executive functions (EFs). Participants were 308 Italian parents with children between 4 and 17 years of age; they were recruited through online advertisements on websites and social media, and they were given an online survey. The measures were: the balance between risks and resources (BR2) and the executive functioning self-report (EF). Findings of the study suggest that the most distressed parents perceived their children as less competent in EF, highlighting a cognitive fragility on attention, memory, and self-regulation (Pearson correlation coefficient, p < 0.05); significant differences were found between parents of children exhibiting typical and atypical patterns of development (ANOVA, p < 0.05). The study reinforces the need to provide families with psychological aid to support parental competence in restrictive lockdown conditions.

Associations Between Executive Functions and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children

Considering the current agreement on the significance of executive functions, there is growing interest in determining factors that contribute to the development of these skills, especially during the preschool period. Although multiple studies have been focusing on links between physical activity, physical fitness and executive functions, this topic was more investigated in schoolchildren and adults than in preschoolers. The aim of the current study was to identify different levels of physical fitness among pre-schoolers, followed by an analysis of differences in their executive functions. Participants were 261 5–6-years old children. Inhibitory control and working memory were positively linked with physical fitness. Cognitive flexibility was not associated with physical fitness. The research findings are considered from neuropsychological grounds, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and the cultural-historical approach.

A comparison of characteristics, developmental disorders and motor progression between children with and without developmental coordination disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have difficulty in the development of motor coordination and with learning new motor skills. Studies demonstrate that children with DCD differ in terms of the nature and severity of their motor difficulties, the incidence of co occurring conditions and family background. However, little is known whether these profiles may relate to motor progression over time. The aim of this study was to describe the profiles of children with and without DCD and track motor progression over time.

METHOD

The characteristics of thirty-four 7-14 year old children (M = 10.07, 85.3% boys) with and without DCD were compared and their motor progression monitored over a two academic years. DCD was identified using DSM5 criteria. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to classify children as TD (≥25th percentile), having moderate motor coordination difficulties (6-16th percentile) or severe motor coordination difficulties (≤ 5th percentile). The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test - 2 (KBIT-2) was used to measure full scale IQ. Parent questionnaires were used to gather information on socio economic status and co occurrence of other developmental disorders. We used ANOVA to assess whether there were differences in characteristics between the TD children, children with severe motor coordination difficulties and children with moderate motor coordination difficulties. Linear mixed effect modelling was used to estimate any change in motor performance over time and whether this differed between the three groups of children.

RESULTS

Children with severe motor coordination difficulties had distinct profiles in motor and non-motor domains, lower IQ and a greater likelihood of having associated characteristics of 2 or more developmental disorders. We found significant differences between the poor motor performance of the severe group compared to the other two groups. Longitudinal analyses revealed stable, persistent and lower motor competence for the severe group. The rate of change in motor proficiency for the typical and severe groups was similar. However, the group with moderate motor difficulties gained on average more points per week compared to the typical group and achieved motor scores in the typically developing range over time.

CONCLUSIONS

This is one of the first studies to compare the characteristics and rate of motor progression of children with and without DCD using different motor proficiency cut off scores. The children with severe motor coordination difficulties progressed at the same rate as typically developing peers but remained in the severe group over time, whereas the children with moderate motor coordination difficulties caught up to TDC. The results indicate that different intervention may be required according to the nature and severity of the characteristics in both the motor and non-motor domains of children with DCD.

Acute Effect of Cognitive Compromise during Physical Exercise on Self-Regulation in Early Childhood Education

Self-regulation (SR) in pre-schoolers is a strong predictor of different aspects of mental health and wellbeing. However, SR only recently has been examined concerning physical activity and its effects on cognitive performance. In the present study, 49 preschool children aged 4-5 years were submitted to classroom movement breaks (CMBs) of 15-min with different degrees of difficulty. Before beginning the intervention, SR (i.e., head, toes, knees and shoulders test, HTKS) and skill levels were assessed for tasks demand adjustment to individual resources and the counterbalanced assignment of the participants to the groups. Similarly, after the intervention, the performance on the HTKS was re-evaluated. There was a general intervention effect on the SR of pre-schoolers, regardless of the difficulty level of the task [F (3) = 11.683, p-value < 0.001, η2p = 0.438]. Nevertheless, it seems that only when CMBs stimulate the children cognitively with optimal difficulty, is it possible to obtain benefits. We recommend providing teachers with professional support when implementing physical activity breaks in their daily program to generate an individualized level of cognitive load that would allow children to reach the optimal challenge point.

Task-Specific and Latent Relationships Between Motor Skills and Executive Functions in Preschool Children

There has been an increasing interest in the relationship between motor skills and executive functions (EFs) in young children over the years. However, no clear picture on the relationship between both domains has emerged from these studies. We have extended previous findings by conducting a comprehensive examination of task-specific and latent relationships between a range of motor skills and EFs in preschool children. The sample consisted of 198 3- to 5-year-old children (102 boys; 51.5%). Motor skills were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children Second Edition. EFs were assessed with the performance-based tasks ‘Day/Night,’ ‘Hand Tapping,’ ‘Forward Corsi Block,’ ‘Forward Digit Recall,’ and ‘Conflict Task,’ and a rating-based EF measure (i.e., the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning - Preschool version). Task-specific relationships were examined using zero-order Pearson correlations. Latent factors of motor skills and EFs were examined using confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine latent relationships. The results of the Pearson correlation analyses showed statistically significant albeit weak correlations between specific motor and EF items (r = 0.15 to r = 0.23). SEM showed non-significant weak relationships between a general motor factor (as a unitary latent construct) on the one hand, and performance-based EFs and rating-based EFs (as latent EF components) on the other hand. In conclusion, this study suggested only weak relationships between motor skills and EFs in preschool children with no clear differences between their task-specific and latent relationships.

Executive function in children with and without developmental coordination disorder: A comparative study

BACKGROUND

Children with motor impairments also show poor performance in some executive functions' components. However, there is no consensus on which specific executive subdomain is more impacted.

AIM

The objective of this study was to compare executive functions in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), at risk for DCD (r-DCD), and in typically developing (TD) children.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A sample of 397 children was assessed using the MABC-2. Two groups of children were identified; DCD (n = 63) and at r-DCD (n = 31). A third matched group of children with TD (n = 63) was formed. The MABC-2 checklist and the WASI tests were used as screening tools. Measures of executive function including verbal and nonverbal tasks for working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility were tested. Multivariate analysis of variance followed by analyses of variance and Bonferroni tests were used to verify group effects on executive functions.

RESULTS

A significant group effects were found for Working Memory, Λ = .78, F(4, 360) = 10.12, p ≤ .001, η_p² = .12; Inhibitory Control, Λ = .59, F(16, 294) = 5.48, p ≤ .001, η_p² = .23; and Cognitive Flexibility and Inhibitory Control, Λ = .60, F(22, 288) = 3.74, p ≤ .001, η_p² = .22, with moderate effect sizes. The DCD group showed lower scores compared with the TD group on the visuospatial and verbal working memory; inhibitory control and in tasks of cognitive flexibility; the r-DCD group showed lower scores compared with the TD group for visuospatial working memory and for cognitive flexibility.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Poor performance in several measures of executive functions in children with DCD emphasized the need of motor/executive task-specific interventions. Furthermore, children at r-DCD showed low scores in several executive functions; therefore, preventive services should also be provided for this subclinical group.

Individual, Family, and Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Young Children: Regression Model Analysis of Data Obtained from Two Motor Tests

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents' education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children's temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.

Towards a better understanding of the association between motor skills and executive functions in 5- to 6-year-olds: The impact of motor task difficulty

Different lines of evidence suggest an association between motor skills and executive functions (EFs) in kindergarten children. Comparatively little is known about the specific nature of this relationship. In the present study, using a within-subjects design, a sample of 124 five- to six-year-old children completed 12 fine and gross motor tasks of varying nominal difficulty and three EFs tasks. We assumed that difficult motor tasks are less automated than easy motor tasks. Therefore, EFs should be involved more strongly in difficult compared to easy motor tasks. Firstly, results replicated the association between motor skills and EFs. Secondly, results provided a new and differentiated perspective on the evidence of this link. Performance on both easy and difficult fine motor tasks was significantly related to EFs. However, only performance on the difficult, but not on the easy gross motor tasks was significantly correlated with EFs. The findings demonstrate that the challenges and demands inherent in any motor task influence the magnitude of the motor-EFs link. That is, difficult (i.e., less automated) motor tasks require EFs more substantially than easy (i.e., more automated) motor tasks. Results will be discussed with regard to further candidate processes underlying the motor-EFs link.

Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children-The Skilled Kids Study

Environment, physical activity (PA) and motor development are tightly interwoven during childhood. We examined the associations of environmental factors with motor competence (MC) in children. Children (N = 945, 50.1% boys, age = 3-7 years, mean = 5.4 years) from 37 childcare centres in the Southern (n = 17), Central (n = 13) and Northern Finland (n = 7) participated. The environmental factors comprised the geographical location (Southern, Central and Northern Finland) and residential density (metropolitan area, city, rural area and countryside) of the childcare centres' based on postal codes and the national population density registry. MC was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD)-3, as well as by quantifying time spent outdoors and participation in organised sports via parental questionnaire. It was found that children from the countryside had better MC and spent most time outdoors, while children from the metropolitan area most frequently engaged in organised sports. Gender comparisons revealed that girls outperformed boys in locomotor skills, while boys were better in object control skills, had higher TGMD-3 score and spent more time outdoors. Time spent outdoors and participation in organised sports were associated positively with MC, but not in children from the countryside. In conclusion, higher population density was associated with lower MC and less time spent outdoors. The findings suggest that versatile outdoor environments may support motor development through PA.

Associations between gross motor skills and cognitive development in toddlers

BACKGROUND

The early years of life are critical for motor and cognitive development. A better understanding is needed on the associations between the control and development of motor and cognitive tasks.

AIM

This study aimed to examine the association between gross motor skills and cognitive development in toddlers.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SUBJECTS

This study included 335 toddlers (aged 19.80 ± 4.08 months, 53.7% boys) from 30 childcare services in Australia.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Children were assessed on gross motor skills (Peabody Developmental Motor Scales 2nd Edition; PDMS-2) and cognitive development (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler development 3rd edition; Bayley-III).

DATA ANALYSIS

A one-way ANCOVA was conducted to assess associations between gross motor skills and cognitive development controlling for childcare center, sex, age, body mass index and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

The average scores were 96.41 ± 9.84 for gross motor skills (range gross motor quotient 35-165) and 11.45 ± 3.03 for cognitive development (range standard score 1-19). There was a significant positive association between gross motor skills and cognition, F_(2,260) = 12.245, p < 0.001. Both locomotion and object manipulation were significantly positively associated with cognition, F_(2,266) = 14.607, p < 0.001 and F_(2,265) = 9.039, p < 0.001 respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Levels of gross motor skills are positively associated with cognitive development in this sample of Australian toddlers. Results reinforce the need for early commencement of gross motor skill promotion as this might be important for cognitive development in the early years.

Fine motor deficits and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary school children

Background

Many children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) display motor deficiencies during their daily routine, which may have impact on their developmental course. Children with ADHD who experience motor deficiencies often display deficits in tasks requiring movements, such as handwriting.

Aim

This study investigated deficiencies in fine motor skills in primary school children with ADHD. The study further sought to establish whether ADHD subtypes differ in deficiencies of fine motor performance, recorded for both the dominant and non-dominant hands.

Methods

The Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale, completed by educators and parents, was used to screen for ADHD symptoms. Researchers confirmed the diagnosis of ADHD. Motor functioning was assessed using the Grooved Pegboard and Maze Coordination. The children diagnosed with ADHD were matched for age and gender with controls without ADHD. The sample consisted of an ADHD group (160) and control group (160) of primary school children from the Moletjie area.

Results

Children with ADHD (predominantly inattentive subtype) and ADHD (combined subtype) performed significantly more poorly than the control group on the Grooved Pegboard (p < 0.05) with both the dominant and non-dominant hand. No significant difference between the hyperactivity and impulsiveness subtype and the controls were found. There was no difference on the Maze Coordination Task (p > 0.05) between the ADHD subtypes and the controls.

Conclusion

Difficulties in fine motor skills are prevalent in children with ADHD, particularly in the ADHD-PI and ADHD-C. Problems are encountered in distal, complex, speeded tasks. The effect may lead to poor handwriting and academic performance.

An evaluation of the Movement ABC-2 Test for use in Italy: A comparison of data from Italy and the UK

BACKGROUND

The standardized test within the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) is used worldwide to assess motor problems in children. Ideally, any country using a test developed in another country should produce national norms to ensure that it functions effectively in the new context.

AIM

The first objective of this study was to explore the differences in motor performance between Italian and British children. The second was to examine the structural validity of the test for the Italian sample.

METHOD

A total of 718 Italian (IT) and 765 British (UK) children, aged 3-10 years, were individually tested on the age-appropriate items of the MABC-2 Test.

RESULTS

Developmental trends emerged on every task and differences between IT and UK children were obtained on 11 of 27 task comparisons. Interactions between age and country indicated that differences were not consistently in favor of one culture. Confirmatory factor analysis generally supported the proposed structure of the MABC-2 Test.

CONCLUSION

Although the differences between the IT and the UK children were relatively few, those that did emerge emphasize the need for population specific norms and suggest that cultural diversity in motor experiences should be considered when evaluating motor abilities in children.

Identifying patterns of motor performance, executive functioning, and verbal ability in preschool children: A latent profile analysis

BACKGROUND

A relationship between motor performance and cognitive functioning is increasingly being recognized. Yet, little is known about the precise nature of the relationship between both domains, especially in early childhood.

AIMS

To identify distinct constellations of motor performance, executive functioning (EF), and verbal ability in preschool aged children; and to explore how individual and contextual variables are related to profile membership.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The sample consisted of 119 3- to 4-year old children (62 boys; 52%). The home based assessments consisted of a standardized motor test (Movement Assessment Battery for Children - 2), five performance-based EF tasks measuring inhibition and working memory, and the Receptive Vocabulary subtest from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Third Edition. Parents filled out the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Preschool version. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to delineate profiles of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Chi-square statistics and multinomial logistic regression analysis were used to examine whether profile membership was predicted by age, gender, risk of motor coordination difficulties, ADHD symptomatology, language problems, and socioeconomic status (SES).

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

LPA yielded three profiles with qualitatively distinct response patterns of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Quantitatively, the profiles showed most pronounced differences with regard to parent ratings and performance-based tests of EF, as well as verbal ability. Risk of motor coordination difficulties and ADHD symptomatology were associated with profile membership, whereas age, gender, language problems, and SES were not.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results indicate that there are distinct subpopulations of children who show differential relations with regard to motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. The fact that we found both quantitative as well as qualitative differences between the three patterns of profiles underscores the need for a person-centered approach with a focus on patterns of individual characteristics.

Age-related validity and reliability of the Dutch Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ-NL)

BACKGROUND

Early recognition of children at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is important, but variability in motor development in preschool children affects the validity of instruments to reliably detect children at risk of DCD.

AIMS

To investigate the age-related validity and reliability of the Dutch version of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ-NL).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Two hundred and sixty 3- to 5-year old children were recruited in the Netherlands. Parents filled out the LDCDQ-NL and children were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 Test (MABC-2 Test). Internal consistency of the LDCDQ-NL was determined by Cronbach's alpha. Construct validity was investigated using factor analysis. Concurrent validity was measured by calculating correlations between the LDCDQ-NL and MABC-2. Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) were calculated to assess discriminant validity.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Internal consistency of the LDCDQ-NL was 0.91. Factor analysis resulted in three factors (Fine motor skills, Locomotor skills, Ball skills). Correlation between the LDCDQ-NL and MABC-2 Test increased with increasing age. With a sensitivity of 80%, specificity increased with age.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The LDCDQ-NL is a reliable and valid screening instrument for 4- and 5-year old Dutch children; concurrent and discriminant validity are low for 3-year olds.

Visual Motor Integration in Children With Sickle Cell Disease

BACKGROUND

Children with sickle cell disease (SCD) demonstrate deficits in cognitive and academic functioning. This study compared the visual motor integration (VMI) skills of children with SCD to non-SCD sibling controls.

PROCEDURE

In total, 105 participants (67 patients with SCD, 38 controls) were recruited during a routine clinic visit. Each participant was administered the Grooved Pegboard Test, a test of manual dexterity and the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of VMI, a measure of graphomotor skills.

RESULTS

Children with SCD demonstrated average (M=89.61, SE=3.08) fine manual dexterity and speed, but more complex fine motor functioning (graphomotor skills) (M=77.61, SE=1.65) was impaired. Relative to healthy siblings, children with SCD were not found to have different fine manual dexterity and speed (P=0.617). Patients with SCD were found to have significantly worse graphomotor skills (P=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Children with SCD were found to have average basic fine motor dexterity and speed, but impaired VMI, a more complex fine motor skill. This finding is significant given the functional importance of complex fine motor skills in early academic activities.