Validation study of the Esohisto consensus guidelines for the recognition of microscopic esophagitis (histoGERD Trial)

Latin American consensus on diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease

BACKGROUND

Diagnosing gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) can be challenging given varying symptom presentations, and complex multifactorial pathophysiology. The gold standard for GERD diagnosis is esophageal acid exposure time (AET) measured by pH-metry. A variety of additional diagnostic tools are available. The goal of this consensus was to assess the individual merits of GERD diagnostic tools based on current evidence, and provide consensus recommendations following discussion and voting by experts.

METHODS

This consensus was developed by 15 experts from nine countries, based on a systematic search of the literature, using GRADE (grading of recommendations, assessment, development and evaluation) methodology to assess the quality and strength of the evidence, and provide recommendations regarding the diagnostic utility of different GERD diagnosis tools, using AET as the reference standard.

KEY RESULTS

A proton pump inhibitor (PPI) trial is appropriate for patients with heartburn and no alarm symptoms, but nor for patients with regurgitation, chest pain, or extraesophageal presentations. Severe erosive esophagitis and abnormal reflux monitoring off PPI are clearly indicative of GERD. Esophagram, esophageal biopsies, laryngoscopy, and pharyngeal pH monitoring are not recommended to diagnose GERD. Patients with PPI-refractory symptoms and normal endoscopy require reflux monitoring by pH or pH-impedance to confirm or exclude GERD, and identify treatment failure mechanisms. GERD confounders need to be considered in some patients, pH-impedance can identify supragrastric belching, impedance-manometry can diagnose rumination.

CONCLUSIONS

Erosive esophagitis on endoscopy and abnormal pH or pH-impedance monitoring are the most appropriate methods to establish a diagnosis of GERD. Other tools may add useful complementary information.

The role of histology in the diagnosis of non-erosive reflux disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) accounts for over half of all gastroesophageal reflux cases and is characterized by reflux symptoms with pathologic acid exposure on pH monitoring but no evidence of erosions on upper endoscopy. Ambulatory pH monitoring is limited by availability and patient tolerance. The utility of performing esophageal mucosal biopsies in diagnosing NERD is unclear. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the sensitivity of esophageal mucosal biopsies in diagnosing NERD.

METHODS

Data were obtained from Embase and Ovid MEDLINE from inception to April 2021. Studies were included if esophageal mucosal biopsies were taken and analyzed using conventional histopathologic analysis in symptomatic NERD patients. Relevant data was including histologic abnormalities and location of the biopsy. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated against healthy controls or those with functional heartburn.

RESULTS

The search yielded 2871 studies, of which 10 studies met our inclusion criteria and contained raw data. Histological abnormalities included histologic sum scores, papillary elongation, basal cell hyperplasia, and dilated intraepithelial spaces. When assessing for the presence of any abnormality, biopsies taken <3 cm from the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) had a pooled sensitivity of 0.71 (95% CI 0.64-0.77) and specificity of 0.64 (95% 0.54-0.73); however, analysis of individual histologic features such as the presence of eosinophils improved the sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Although esophageal mucosal biopsies had poor sensitivity at diagnosing NERD, biopsies taken within 3 cm of the LES had higher sensitivity when pathologists reported upon eosinophils and dilated intraepithelial spaces.

Prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children with extraesophageal manifestations using combined-video, multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH study

BACKGROUND

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) might be either a cause or comorbidity in children with extraesophageal problems especially as refractory respiratory symptoms, without any best methods or criterion for diagnosing it in children.

AIM

To evaluate the prevalence of extraesophageal GERD using conventional and combined-video, multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH (MII-pH), and to propose novel diagnostic parameters.

METHODS

The study was conducted among children suspected of extraesophageal GERD at King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital between 2019 and 2022. The children underwent conventional and/or combined-video MII-pH. The potential parameters were assessed and receiver operating characteristic was used for the significant parameters.

RESULTS

Of 51 patients (52.9% males), aged 2.24 years were recruited. The common problems were cough, recurrent pneumonia, and hypersecretion. Using MII-pH, 35.3% of the children were diagnosed with GERD by reflux index (31.4%), total reflux events (3.9%), and symptom indices (9.8%) with higher symptom recorded in the GERD group (94 vs 171, P = 0.033). In the video monitoring group (n = 17), there were more symptoms recorded (120 vs 220, P = 0.062) and more GERD (11.8% vs 29.4%, P = 0.398) by symptom indices. Longest reflux time and mean nocturnal baseline impedance were significant parameters for diagnosis with receiver operating characteristic areas of 0.907 (P = 0.001) and 0.726 (P = 0.014).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of extraesophageal GERD in children was not high as expected. The diagnostic yield of symptom indices increased using video monitoring. Long reflux time and mean nocturnal baseline impedance are novel parameters that should be integrated into the GERD diagnostic criteria in children.

Novel histologic score predicts recurrent intestinal metaplasia after successful endoscopic eradication therapy

Endoscopic eradication therapy (EET) is an effective treatment for Barrett's esophagus (BE); however, disease recurrence remains problematic requiring surveillance post-treatment. While data regarding predictors of recurrence are limited, uncontrolled reflux may play a significant role. Our aim was to develop a scoring system based on histopathologic reflux in surveillance biopsies following EET to identify patients at high risk for recurrence of BE. Patients were identified from two centers in the treatment with resection and endoscopic ablation techniques for BE consortium. Hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides of surveillance biopsies post-EET were assessed for histologic changes associated with reflux from a cohort of patients who also underwent pH-metry (derivation cohort). We developed a novel scoring system (Recurrent Epithelial Changes from Uncontrolled Reflux [RECUR]) composed of dilated intercellular spaces, epithelial ballooning, basal cell hyperplasia, and parakeratosis, to identify patients with abnormal esophageal acid exposure. This scoring system was then used to grade surveillance biopsies from patients with or without recurrence of BE following EET (validation cohort). Of 41 patients in the derivation cohort, 19.5% had abnormal acid exposure times (AET) while on proton pump inhibitor therapy. The mean (SD) RECUR score for patients with AET <4% was 4.0 (1.6), compared with 5.5 (0.9) for AET ≥4% (P = 0.015). In the validation cohort consisting of 72 patients without recurrence and 64 patients with recurrence following EET, the RECUR score was the only significant predictor of recurrence (odds ratio: 1.36, 95% confidence interval: 1.10-1.69, P = 0.005). Histologic grading of surveillance biopsies using the RECUR scoring system correlates with BE recurrence following EET.

Experimental study of the antiulcer effect of cryopreserved placenta extract on a model of acetylsalicylic acid-induced ulcerogenesis

Introduction. The gastrotoxicity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is a leading side effect that significantly limits their clinical use, among other types of their toxicity (nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, etc.). Cryopreserved placenta extract has drawn our attention as a potential modifier of the ulcerogenic action of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Aim. To characterize the cytoprotective properties of cryopreserved placenta extract by the condition of the mucous membrane of the proximal (esophagus and stomach) and distal (small and large intestine) parts of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract on the model of ASA-induced ulcerogenesis.

Material and methods. The study was performed using 28 male rats weighing 200-220 g. Subchronic ASA-induced ulcerogenesis of the digestive tract was reproduced by intragastrically administration to rats of ASA in a dose of 150 mg/kg. The effect of the studied drugs on the condition of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract was assessed macroscopically by the following criteria: edema, redness and hemorrhage on the surface of the mucous membrane. The ulcer index for each group of animals was calculated.

Results and discussion. Five doses of ASA 150 mg/kg cause damage to the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines in all of the rats. The use of the proton pump inhibitor esomeprazole has pronounced gastrocytoprotective properties, but does not affect the ulcerogenic effect in the small intestine, and in the colon, it enhances it. This is indicated by ulcerative lesions of the colon in 57.1% of all rats administered ASA and esomeprazole, as well as in the folding of the gastric mucosa. In contrast, mild hyperemia of the gastric mucosa was seen in 28.6% of all rats and moderate hemorrhage in 57.1% of all rats due to the combined use of ASA and cryoextract placenta.

Conclusions. The use of cryopreserved placenta extract is statistically significantly (p <0.05) inferior to the antiulcer activity of esomeprazole in the stomach. Thus, the ulcer index on the background of the use of ASA and cryopreserved placenta extract was 0.97, and on the background of the use of ASA and esomeprazole – 0.39. In the distal parts of the GI tract cryoextract placenta showed cytoprotective properties against the background of induced ASA ulcerogenesis, in contrast to esomeprazole.

A Clinical Severity Index for Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Development, Consensus, and Future Directions

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Disease activity and severity of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) dictate therapeutic options and management, but the decision-making process for determining severity varies among practitioners. To reduce variability in practice patterns and help clinicians monitor the clinical course of the disease in an office setting, we aimed to create an international consensus severity scoring index for EoE.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary international group of adult and pediatric EoE researchers and clinicians, as well as non-EoE allergy immunology and gastroenterology experts, formed 3 teams to review the existing literature on histology, endoscopy, and symptoms of EoE in the context of progression and severity. A steering committee convened a 1-day virtual meeting to reach consensus on each team's opinion on salient features of severity across key clinicopathologic domains and distill features that would allow providers to categorize disease severity.

RESULTS

Symptom features and complications and inflammatory and fibrostenotic features on both endoscopic and histologic examination were collated into a simplified scoring system-the Index of Severity for Eosinophilic Esophagitis (I-SEE)-that can be completed at routine clinic visits to assess disease severity using a point scale of 0-6 for mild, 7-14 for moderate, and ≥15 for severe EoE.

CONCLUSIONS

A multidisciplinary team of experts iteratively created a clinically usable EoE severity scoring system denominated "I-SEE" to guide practitioners in EoE management by standardizing disease components reflecting disease severity beyond eosinophil counts. I-SEE should be validated and refined using data from future clinical trials and routine clinical practice to increase its utilization and functionality.

A Clinical Severity Index for Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Development, Consensus, and Future Directions

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Disease activity and severity of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) dictate therapeutic options and management, but the decision-making process for determining severity varies among practitioners. To reduce variability in practice patterns and help clinicians monitor the clinical course of the disease in an office setting, we aimed to create an international consensus severity scoring index for EoE.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary international group of adult and pediatric EoE researchers and clinicians, as well as non-EoE allergy immunology and gastroenterology experts, formed 3 teams to review the existing literature on histology, endoscopy, and symptoms of EoE in the context of progression and severity. A steering committee convened a 1-day virtual meeting to reach consensus on each team's opinion on salient features of severity across key clinicopathologic domains and distill features that would allow providers to categorize disease severity.

RESULTS

Symptom features and complications and inflammatory and fibrostenotic features on both endoscopic and histologic examination were collated into a simplified scoring system-the Index of Severity for Eosinophilic Esophagitis (I-SEE)-that can be completed at routine clinic visits to assess disease severity using a point scale of 0-6 for mild, 7-14 for moderate, and ≥15 for severe EoE.

CONCLUSIONS

A multidisciplinary team of experts iteratively created a clinically usable EoE severity scoring system denominated "I-SEE" to guide practitioners in EoE management by standardizing disease components reflecting disease severity beyond eosinophil counts. I-SEE should be validated and refined using data from future clinical trials and routine clinical practice to increase its utilization and functionality.

A Comparative Assessment of the Diagnosis of Swallowing Impairment and Gastroesophageal Reflux in Canines and Humans

Swallowing impairment is a highly prevalent and clinically significant problem affecting people and dogs. There are myriad causes of swallowing impairment of which gastroesophageal reflux is the most common in both species. Similarities in anatomy and physiology between humans and canines results in analogous swallowing disorders including cricopharyngeus muscle achalasia, esophageal achalasia, hiatal herniation, and gastroesophageal reflux with secondary esophagitis and esophageal dysmotility. Accordingly, the diagnostic approach to human and canine patients with swallowing impairment is similar. Diagnostic procedures such as swallowing fluoroscopy, high-resolution manometry, pH/impedance monitoring, and endolumenal functional luminal imaging probe can be performed in both species; however, nasofacial conformation, increased esophageal length, and the difficulty of completing several of these procedures in awake dogs are inherent challenges that need to be considered. Human patients can convey their symptoms and respond to verbal cues, whereas veterinarians must rely on clinical histories narrated by pet owners followed by comprehensive physical examination and observation of the animal eating different food consistencies and drinking water. Dogs may also be unwilling to drink or eat in the hospital setting and may be resistant to physical restraint during diagnostic procedures. Despite the species differences and diagnostic challenges, dogs are a natural animal model for many oropharyngeal and esophageal disorders affecting people, which presents a tremendous opportunity for shared learnings. This manuscript reviews the comparative aspects of esophageal anatomy and physiology between humans and canines, summarizes the diagnostic assessment of swallowing impairment in both species, and discusses future considerations for collaborative medicine and translational research.

The role of endoscopy in the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common disease that may cause a huge economic burden. Endoscopy is performed not only to rule out other organic diseases but also to diagnose reflux esophagitis or Barrett's esophagus. Non‐erosive GERD (non‐erosive reflux disease [NERD]) is called endoscopy‐negative GERD; however, GERD‐related findings could be obtained through histological assessment, image‐enhanced endoscopy, and new endoscopic modalities in patients with NERD. Moreover, endoscopy is useful to stratify the risk for the development of GERD. In addition, endoscopic treatments have been developed. These techniques could significantly improve patients’ quality of life as well as symptoms.

Pathophysiology of Pediatric Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: Similarities and Differences With Adults

Gastroesophageal reflux (GOR) is defined as "the passage of gastric contents into the esophagus with or without regurgitation and vomiting" and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is defined "when GOR leads to troublesome symptoms affecting the daily functioning and/or complications." This definition was first developed in 2006 by the Montreal consensus group (1) and later on adopted by pediatric gastroenterology societies such as ESPGHAN and NASPGHAN in 2009 (2). The definition of gastroesophageal reflux reveals little about its pathophysiology and is focused on symptomatology. In this way, it acts as an umbrella term for the multifactorial causes of the disease and the various phenotypes encountered; from functional heartburn to hypersensitive esophagus and nonerosive reflux disease, to erosive esophagitis and Barrett's esophagus. This article is devoted to the pathophysiology of pediatric GORD in comparison to adult GORD and is divided in 2 parts. In the first part, we will systematically describe the different mechanisms for the generation and clearance of reflux events, while on the second part we will discuss the mechanisms involved in symptoms generation. Finally, we will discuss the similarities and differences between pediatric and adult GORD.

Carbonic Anhydrases II, IX, and XII in Reflux Esophagitis

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) has not been resolved in detail. Esophageal epithelial cells provide resistance to acidic reflux via several mechanisms, many of which involve buffering acid with bicarbonate and transporting protons. Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are enzymes that control the acid-base balance by catalyzing the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide to produce bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

AIMS

We aimed to determine the immunohistochemical expression patterns of CAII, CAIX, and CAXII in the normal esophageal squamous epithelium and in patients with GERD.

METHODS

We evaluated 82 biopsy samples, including 26 with a histologically normal esophagus, 26 with histologically mild esophagitis, and 30 with severe esophagitis. Expression patterns of CAII, CAIX, and CAXII in the esophageal squamous epithelium were determined by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

Cytoplasmic CAII expression was predominantly detected in the upper luminal part of the squamous epithelium and was significantly (p < 0.01) increased in GERD. Expression of CAIX was essentially membranous. The isozyme was constantly present in the peripapillary cells. In the interpapillary areas, clustered expression was observed to emerge and increase significantly (p < 0.01) in esophagitis. CAXII expression was the most abundant of the isozymes and was mainly membranous. In the normal squamous epithelium, CAXII expression was confined to the basal layer; in severe esophagitis, CAXII expression increased significantly in both basal (p < 0.05) and superficial (p < 0.01) halves of the epithelium.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate upregulated expression of CAII, CAIX, and CAXII in GERD. The increase in expression likely contributes to esophageal epithelial resistance to acidic reflux.

Endoscopic tissue sampling - Part 1: Upper gastrointestinal and hepatopancreatobiliary tracts. European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline

1: ESGE recommends that, where there is a suspicion of eosinophilic esophagitis, at least six biopsies should be taken, two to four biopsies from the distal esophagus and two to four biopsies from the proximal esophagus, targeting areas with endoscopic mucosal abnormalities. Distal and proximal biopsies should be placed in separate containers.Strong recommendation, low quality of evidence. 2: ESGE recommends obtaining six biopsies, including from the base and edge of the esophageal ulcers, for histologic analysis in patients with suspected viral esophagitis.Strong recommendation, low quality of evidence. 3: ESGE recommends at least six biopsies are taken in cases of suspected advanced esophageal cancer and suspected advanced gastric cancer.Strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence. 4: ESGE recommends taking only one to two targeted biopsies for lesions in the esophagus or stomach that are potentially amenable to endoscopic resection (Paris classification 0-I, 0-II) in order to confirm the diagnosis and not compromise subsequent endoscopic resection.Strong recommendation, low quality of evidence. 5: ESGE recommends obtaining two biopsies from the antrum and two from the corpus in patients with suspected Helicobacter pylori infection and for gastritis staging.Strong recommendation, low quality of evidence. 6: ESGE recommends biopsies from or, if endoscopically resectable, resection of gastric adenomas.Strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence. 7: ESGE recommends fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and fine-needle biopsy (FNB) needles equally for sampling of solid pancreatic masses.Strong recommendation, high quality evidence. 8: ESGE suggests performing peroral cholangioscopy (POC) and/or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided tissue acquisition in indeterminate biliary strictures. For proximal and intrinsic strictures, POC is preferred. For distal and extrinsic strictures, EUS-guided sampling is preferred, with POC where this is not diagnostic.Weak recommendation, low quality evidence. 9: ESGE suggests obtaining possible non-neoplastic biopsies before sampling suspected malignant lesions to prevent intraluminal spread of malignant disease.Weak recommendation, low quality of evidence. 10: ESGE suggests dividing EUS-FNA material into smears (two per pass) and liquid-based cytology (LBC), or the whole of the EUS-FNA material can be processed as LBC, depending on local experience.Weak recommendation, low quality evidence.

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease and Barrett's esophagus: an overview with an histologic diagnostic approach

The first part of this overview on non-neoplastic esophagus is focused on gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) and Barrett’s esophagus. In the last 20 years much has changed in histological approach to biopsies of patients with gastro-esophageal reflux disease. In particular, elementary histologic lesions have been well defined and modality of evaluation and grade are detailed, their sensitivity and specificity has been evaluated and their use has been validated by several authors. Also if there is not a clinical indication to perform biopsies in patient with GERD, the diagnosis of microscopic esophagitis, when biopsies are provided, can be performed by following simple rules for evaluation which allow pathologists to make the diagnosis with confidence. On the other hand, biopsies are required for the diagnosis of Barrett’s esophagus. This diagnosis is the synthesis of endoscopic picture (which has to be provided with the proper description on extent and with adequate biopsies number) and histologic pattern. The current guidelines and expert opinions for the correct management of these diagnosis are detailed.

Pathophysiology of reflux oesophagitis: role of Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 and Farnesoid X receptor

The pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is not fully understood. It involves the activation of mucosal immune-mediated and inflammatory responses. Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and TLR4 are pattern-recognition receptors of the innate immune system; they recognize microbial and endogenous ligands. Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a bile acid receptor that regulates the inflammatory response. We aimed to evaluate TLR2, TLR4 and FXR expression patterns in GERD. We re-evaluated 84 oesophageal biopsy samples according to the global severity (GS) score, including 26 cases with histologically normal oesophagus, 28 with histologically mild oesophagitis and 30 with severe oesophagitis. We used immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization to assess the expression patterns of TLR2, TLR4 and FXR in oesophageal squamous cells. Immunohistochemistry showed that nuclear and cytoplasmic TLR2 was expressed predominantly in the basal layer of normal oesophageal epithelium. In oesophagitis, TLR2 expression increased throughout the epithelium, and the superficial expression was significantly more intensive compared to normal epithelium, p <0.01. Nuclear and cytoplasmic TLR4 was expressed throughout the thickness of squamous epithelium, with no change in oesophagitis. FXR was expressed in the nuclei of squamous cells, and the intensity of the expression increased significantly in oesophagitis (p <0.05). FXR expression correlated with basal TLR2. In situ hybridization confirmed the immunohistochemical expression patterns of TLR2 and TLR4. In GERD, TLR2, but not TLR4, expression was upregulated which indicates that innate immunity is activated according to a specific pattern in GERD. FXR expression was increased in GERD and might have a regulatory connection to TLR2.

Multichannel impedance monitoring for distinguishing nonerosive reflux esophagitis with minor changes on endoscopy in children

Objectives:

There are reports describing the relationship between baseline impedance level and esophageal mucosal integrity at endoscopy, such as erosive and nonerosive reflux esophagitis. However, many children with symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease have normal findings or minor changes on esophagogastroduodenoscopy. We aimed to examine whether modest changes at esophagogastroduodenoscopy can be evaluated and correlated with esophageal multichannel intraluminal impedance monitoring.

Methods:

Patients (ages 0–17 years) with upper gastrointestinal symptoms who underwent combined esophagogastroduodenoscopy and multichannel intraluminal impedance monitoring at the Women’s and Children’s Hospital, Adelaide, Australia, between 2014 and 2016 were retrospectively studied and the following data were collected and used for analysis: demographics, multichannel intraluminal impedance data, included baseline impedance. Endoscopic findings were classified by modified Los Angeles grading, Los Angeles N as normal, Los Angeles M as with minimal change such as the erythema, pale mucosa, or friability of the mucosa following biopsy. Patients on proton pump inhibitor were excluded.

Results:

Seventy patients (43 boys; 61%) were enrolled with a mean age of 7.9 years (range 10 months to 17 years). Fifty-one patients (72.9%) were allocated to Los Angeles N, while Los Angeles M was evident in 19 patients (27.1%). Statistically significant differences were observed in the following parameters: frequency of acid and nonacid reflux and baseline impedance in channels 5 and 6. The median values of the data were 18.3 episodes, 16.0 episodes, 2461.0 Ω, 2446.0 Ω in Los Angeles N, 36.0 episodes, 31.0 episodes, 2033.0 Ω, 2009.0 Ω in Los Angeles M, respectively.

Conclusion:

Lower baseline impedance is helpful in predicting minimal endoscopic changes in the lower esophagus. A higher frequency of acid and nonacid reflux episodes was also predictive of minimal endoscopic change in the lower esophagus.

Neutrophils, eosinophils, and intraepithelial lymphocytes in the squamous esophagus in subjects with and without gastroesophageal reflux symptoms

Whilst intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are considered normal within the distal esophageal mucosa, they have an increasingly recognised role in the pathogenesis of reflux esophagitis, and IEL quantification establishes the diagnosis of lymphocytic esophagitis. Knowledge regarding the upper limit of a normal IEL count in health is lacking. We studied 117 non-healthcare seeking adult volunteers from a random community sample (the Kalixanda study) with esophageal biopsies 2 cm above the gastroesophageal junction. Subjects were divided into four groups based on the presence or absence of gastro-esophageal reflux symptoms and/or esophagitis on endoscopy. Asymptomatic subjects with no endoscopic esophagitis were selected as controls, and the cell counts in this group were used to define the upper limit of normal of IELs, eosinophils and neutrophils. The entire sample was used to identify independent predictors of increased cellular counts by logistic regression analysis. None of the healthy controls had an IEL count of more than three per five high power fields (HPF), and therefore this was considered as the upper limit of normal; no controls had eosinophils or neutrophils in esophageal biopsies. Independent predictors of an elevated IEL count were spongiosis on histology (OR 11.17, 95% CI 3.32-37.58, P < 0.01) and current smoking (OR 4.84, 95% CI 1.13-2.71, P = 0.03). A receiver operating characteristics analysis concluded that a threshold of 3 IELs/5HPFs performs best in predicting reflux symptoms when a normal esophageal mucosa is visualized on endoscopy (sensitivity = 100.0%, specificity = 35.2%). The healthy esophageal mucosa does not contain more than three IELs per five HPF in the distal esophagus.

ESNM/ANMS consensus paper: Diagnosis and management of refractory gastro-esophageal reflux disease

Up to 40% of patients with symptoms suspicious of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) do not respond completely to proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy. The term "refractory GERD" has been used loosely in the literature. A distinction should be made between refractory symptoms (ie, symptoms may or may not be GERD-related), refractory GERD symptoms (ie, persisting symptoms in patients with proven GERD, regardless of relationship to ongoing reflux), and refractory GERD (ie, objective evidence of GERD despite adequate medical management). The present ESNM/ANMS consensus paper proposes use the term "refractory GERD symptoms" only in patients with persisting symptoms and previously proven GERD by either endoscopy or esophageal pH monitoring. Even in this context, symptoms may or may not be reflux related. Objective evaluation, including endoscopy and esophageal physiologic testing, is requisite to provide insights into mechanisms of symptom generation and evidence of true refractory GERD. Some patients may have true ongoing refractory acid or weakly acidic reflux despite PPIs, while others have no evidence of ongoing reflux, and yet others have functional esophageal disorders (overlapping with proven GERD confirmed off therapy). In this context, attention should also be paid to supragastric belching and rumination syndrome, which may be important contributors to refractory symptoms.

Detection of reflux-symptom association in children with esophageal atresia by video-pH-impedance study

BACKGROUND

Children with esophageal atresia (EA) have risk of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), suggesting reflux monitoring for prompt management.

AIM

To evaluate GERD in children with EA and specific symptom association from combined Video with Multichannel Intraluminal Impedance and pH (MII-pH) study.

METHODS

Children diagnosed with EA with suspected GERD and followed up at King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital between January 2000 and December 2018 were prospectively studied. All underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy with esophageal biopsy and Video MII-pH study on the same day. Symptoms of GERD which included both esophageal and extra-esophageal symptom were recorded from video monitoring and abnormal reflux from MII-pH study based on the statement from the European Paediatric Impedance Group. Prevalence of GERD was also reported by using histopathology as a gold standard. Endoscopic appearance was recorded using Los Angeles Classification and esophagitis severity was graded using Esohisto criteria.

RESULTS

Fifteen children were recruited with age of 3.1 (2.2, 9.8) years (40%, male) and the common type was C (93.3%). The symptoms recorded were cough (75.2%), vomiting (15.2%), irritability or unexplained crying (7.6%) and dysphagia (1.9%) with the symptom-reflux association of 45.7%, 89%, 71% and 0%, respectively. There were abnormal endoscopic appearance in 52.9%, esophagitis in 64.7% and high reflux score in 47.1%. Video MII-pH study has high diagnostic value with the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of 72.7%, 100% and 82.4%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of GERD in children with EA was high. Video MII-pH study to detect GERD in children with EA had high diagnostic value with the trend of specific symptom association.

The Evolving Role of Mucosal Histology in the Evaluation of Pediatric Functional Dyspepsia: A Review

Although not required to establish the diagnosis, endoscopy with mucosal biopsy is commonly performed in the evaluation of children with dyspepsia. Traditionally, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) has been performed in children with abdominal pain to identify pathology or conversely, to “rule-out” organic disease in order to establish a diagnosis of FD. In this review, we discuss the current diagnostic yield of endoscopically-obtained biopsies in identifying disease in children and adolescents with dyspepsia including an expanded discussion of common histologic diagnoses where clinical significance has not been definitively established. In turn, we discuss the transition of endoscopy from a search for disease to a search for biologic contributors to symptom generation, while considering the growing evidence linking non-diagnostic mucosal inflammation to FD, specifically mast cells and eosinophils.

Carditis: a relevant marker of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Data from a prospective central European multicenter study on histological and endoscopic diagnosis of esophagitis (histoGERD trial)

The columnar-lined mucosa at the gastroesophageal junction may contain an inflammatory infiltrate, commonly referred to as carditis (or cardia gastritis). The etiology of carditis is not entirely clear since published data are conflicting. Some authors believe it to be secondary to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and others to Helicobacter pylori gastritis. This prospective study aims at clarifying the relationship between carditis and the histological, clinical, and endoscopic findings of GERD, in a large cohort of individuals negative for H. pylori infection. Eight hundred and seventy-three individuals (477 females and 396 males, median age 53 years) participated in this study. Biopsy material was systematically sampled from above and below the gastroesophageal junction. Reflux-associated changes of the esophageal squamous epithelium were assessed according to the Esohisto consensus guidelines. Grading of carditis was performed according to the Updated Sydney System, known from the histological evaluation of gastritis. In total, 590 individuals (67.5%) had chronic carditis. Of these, 468 (53.6%) had mild chronic inflammation, with 321 individuals (68.6%) showing no or minimal changes on endoscopic examination (Los Angeles Categories N and M). The presence of chronic carditis was associated with several GERD-related parameters of the esophageal squamous epithelium (P < 0.0001), and data retained statistical significance even when analysis was restricted to individuals with mild chronic carditis and/or endoscopically normal mucosa. Chronic carditis was also associated with the presence of intestinal metaplasia (P < 0.0001). In addition, chronic carditis had a statistically significant association with patients' symptoms of GERD (P = 0.0107). This observation remained valid for mild chronic carditis in all patients (P = 0.0038) and in those with mild chronic carditis and normal endoscopic mucosa (P = 0.0217). In conclusion, chronic carditis appears to be the immediate consequence of GERD, correlating with patients' symptoms and endoscopic diagnosis. These results are valid in individuals with nonerosive reflux disease, which indicates a higher sensitivity of histological diagnosis. Our findings may impact the routine assessment of reflux patients.

Gastroesophageal reflux symptoms and microscopic esophagitis in a cohort of consecutive patients affected by atrophic body gastritis: a pilot study

AIM

In patients affected by atrophic body gastritis (ABG) gastro-oesophageal reflux (GER) related symptoms have been reported, despite the presence of hypochlorhydria.

OBJECTIVE

Objectives of this single-centre study was to assess in ABG the occurrence of GER-related symptoms and their relationship with histopathologic oesophageal findings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-four consecutive patients (20.4%male, 57.6 ± 14 years) undergoing to follow-up for ABG, underwent assessment of GER-related symptoms and gastroscopy with multiple gastric and oesophageal biopsies to investigate the presence of microscopic esophagitis (ME).

RESULTS

At least one typical GER symptoms were reported in 24.1% with 9.2% of patients complaining of heartburn and 18.5% regurgitation. One or more atypical GERD symptoms were reported in 44.4% of patients. Two symptomatic ABG patients presented oesophageal lesions at endoscopy (one with erosive esophagitis (LA-C) and one with Barrett's oesophagus (C2M2)), 49% reported a mild ME and 24.5% a severe ME. No significant differences regarding GERD prevalence were found among patients with or without ME, but cough was the only symptom significantly more frequent in patients with ME (38.95% vs. 7.7%, p = .042).

CONCLUSIONS

These data showed that GERD is present in a quarter of ABG patients, suggesting that hypochlorhydria not exclude per se arising of oesophageal symptoms. In ABG we found that ME is a frequent finding but its clinical relevance remains to be investigated with further studies.

Relevance of histology in the diagnosis of reflux esophagitis

Reflux esophagitis is an important clinical diagnosis; however, the histologic findings can be nonspecific and overlap with other entities. Various benign changes can produce diagnostic difficulties for pathologists. In this review, the typical histologic findings of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) of the esophagus are discussed, along with the issues relating to clinical correlation and technical aspects of endoscopic biopsies and specimen processing. The literature has been reviewed to discuss histologic definitions of GERD as well as current and developing controversies in the area of GERD. Histologic features are not entirely sensitive or specific for GERD. Awareness of these problems is essential; clinical and endoscopic information can be very useful in distinguishing GERD from other inflammatory lesions.

Comparison of Collagen Cross-Linking and Amniotic Membrane Transplantation in an Experimental Alkali Burn Rabbit Model

PURPOSE

To compare the effects of collagen cross-linking (CXL) and amniotic membrane transplantation (AMT) on acute corneal alkali burns.

METHODS

After establishment of an alkali burn model, 32 rabbits were divided into 4 groups: control group, AMT group, CXL group, and AMT + CXL (combined) group. Clinical parameters, including epithelial wound, opacity, ulceration, and neovascularization, were evaluated on postinjury days 1, 7, 14, and 18. Histological parameters were examined in hematoxylin/eosin (H&E) and Masson trichrome-stained corneal sections. Immunohistochemical analyses, including a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotin-deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling assay and cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68) labeling, were performed to determine the apoptotic index and macrophage activation.

RESULTS

On postinjury day 18, the epithelial wound of AMT {4.08% [interquartile range (IQR), 0.68%-5.22%]}, CXL [1.84% (IQR, 0.01%-3.89%)], and combined [3.44% (IQR, 0.01%-4.36%)] groups were significantly lower than the control [15.23% (IQR, 9.86%-23.06%)] group (P = 0.003). No significant difference was detected between the groups in terms of opacity (P = 0.303). Neovascularization was the least severe in the CXL group [16.18% (IQR, 8.39%-21.28%)] and the most severe in the AMT [34.47% (IQR, 17.71%-62.77%)] and combined [35.12% (IQR, 31.96%-59.98%)] groups on day 18 (P = 0.033). Significant increases in the apoptotic index and CD68 labeling were detected in the CXL and combined groups compared with those in the control group (P = 0.047 and P = 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

CXL treatment is an effective adjuvant treatment for promoting reepithelialization, reducing inflammation and neovascularization, and preventing ulceration in acute alkali burns. Providing AMT after suppressing inflammation may be a more effective treatment.

The Prevalence of Rome IV Nonerosive Esophageal Phenotypes in Children

OBJECTIVES

To assess the prevalence of Rome IV nonerosive esophageal phenotypes in children using multichannel intraluminal impedance testing and to describe the rates of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) responsiveness and the frequency of microscopic esophagitis in these patients.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective review of all children ≥5 years of age who underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy and multichannel intraluminal impedance testing off PPI therapy for evaluation of typical gastroesophageal reflux symptoms. Only children with symptoms during the multichannel intraluminal impedance testing were included. Children were categorized into the following nonerosive esophageal phenotypes using Rome IV criteria: nonerosive reflux disease, reflux hypersensitivity, and functional heartburn. Rates of esophagitis and responsiveness to acid suppression therapy were assessed.

RESULTS

Forty-five children were included: 27% were categorized as having nonerosive reflux disease, 29% with reflux hypersensitivity (27% acid and 2% nonacid), and 44% with functional heartburn. Older children reported significantly more heartburn (P < .001) than younger children, whereas younger children were more likely to report nonspecific pain (P = .047). There were no differences between groups in other reflux symptoms, rates of responsiveness to PPIs, or the presence of microscopic esophagitis on biopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

Functional heartburn is the most common Rome IV nonerosive esophageal phenotype in children. Neither microscopic esophagitis nor PPI responsiveness can predict phenotype in pediatric patients.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is a normal physiologic process. It is important to distinguish GER from GER disease (GERD) since GER does not require treatment. Although a diagnosis of GERD can largely be based on history and physical alone, endoscopy and pH impedance studies can help make the diagnosis when there in atypical presentation. In children and adolescents, lifestyle changes and acid suppression are first-line treatments for GERD. In infants, acid suppression is not effective, but a trial of hydrolyzed formula can be considered, as milk protein sensitivity can be difficult to differentiate from GER symptoms.

The dynamics of the oesophageal squamous epithelium 'normalisation' process in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease treated with long-term acid suppression or anti-reflux surgery

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitors and laparoscopic anti-reflux surgery (LARS) offer long-term symptom control to patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

AIM

To evaluate the process of 'normalisation' of the squamous epithelium morphology of the distal oesophagus on these therapies.

METHODS

In the LOTUS trial, 554 patients with chronic GERD were randomised to receive either esomeprazole (20-40 mg daily) or LARS. After 5 years, 372 patients remained in the study (esomeprazole, 192; LARS, 180). Biopsies were taken at the Z-line and 2 cm above, at baseline, 1, 3 and 5 years. A severity score was calculated based on: papillae elongation, basal cell hyperplasia, intercellular space dilatations and eosinophilic infiltration. The epithelial proliferative activity was assessed by Ki-67 immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

A gradual improvement in all variables over 5 years was noted in both groups, at both the Z-line and 2 cm above. The severity score decreased from baseline at each subsequent time point in both groups (P < 0.001, all comparisons), attaining a normal level by 5 years. Corresponding decreases in Ki-67 expression were observed (P < 0.001, all comparisons). No significant differences were found between esomeprazole treatment and LARS. Neither baseline severity score nor Ki-67 expression predicted the risk of treatment failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Five years of treatment is generally required before squamous epithelial cell morphology and proliferation are 'normalised' in patients with chronic GERD, despite endoscopic and symptomatic disease control. Control of the acid component of the refluxate seems to play the predominant role in restoring tissue morphology.

Adult and paediatric GERD: diagnosis, phenotypes and avoidance of excess treatments

Detailed investigations and objective measurements in patients with symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux should be performed with the intent of making the correct diagnosis, thus enabling choice of appropriate therapy. Establishing the most effective therapy is particularly important in adults who do not respond to standard treatment and in children. The use of PPIs for suspected GERD has increased substantially over the past decade, providing great relief in patients with acid-related symptoms, but also leading to adverse effects and a considerable economic burden. Adults with functional heartburn do not benefit from PPIs, while prolonged PPI use in patients with extraoesophageal symptoms remains a controversial area. Moreover, PPIs are not indicated in infants with GERD unless symptoms are proven to be acid-related. With regard to antireflux surgery, patients must be carefully selected to avoid the need for ongoing PPI treatment postoperatively. Correct diagnosis and phenotyping of patients with symptoms attributed to gastro-oesophageal reflux through detailed investigations is therefore imperative, leading to improved patient outcomes and rationalized use of available treatment options. In this Review, we outline currently available diagnostic tests and discuss approaches to limit any unnecessary medical or surgical interventions.

The combination of pH monitoring in the most distal esophagus and symptom association analysis markedly improves the clinical value of esophageal pH tests

OBJECTIVE

The poor sensitivity of esophageal pH monitoring substantially limits the clinical value of the test. The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic accuracy of esophageal pH monitoring and symptom association analysis performed at the conventional level with that obtained in the most distal esophagus.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eighty-two patients with typical reflux symptoms and 49 asymptomatic subjects underwent dual 48-h pH monitoring with the electrodes positioned immediately above, and 6 cm above the squamo-columnar junction (SCJ). The degree of esophageal acid exposure and the temporal relationship between reflux events and symptoms were evaluated.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of pH recording and the diagnostic yield of Symptom Association Probability (SAP) were significantly higher for pH monitoring performed at the distal compared with the conventional level (82% versus 65%, p<0.001 and 74% versus 62%, p<0.001, respectively). The greatest improvement was observed in patients with non-erosive disease. In this group, the sensitivity increased from 46% at the standard level to 66% immediately above the SCJ, and with the combination of a positive SAP as a marker for a positive pH test, the diagnostic yield further increased to 94%.

CONCLUSION

The diagnostic accuracy of esophageal pH monitoring in the most distal esophagus is superior to that performed at the conventional level and it is further improved with the combination of symptom association analysis. PH monitoring with the pH electrode positioned immediately above the SCJ should be introduced in clinical practice and always combined with symptom association analysis.

Post-ablation lymphocytic esophagitis in Barrett esophagus with high grade dysplasia or intramucosal carcinoma

In patients who have undergone ablation therapy for treatment of Barrett's esophagus with dysplasia, histologic features of eosinophilic esophagitis, but not lymphocytic esophagitis, have been described. We evaluated for histologic evidence of eosinophilic esophagitis and lymphocytic esophagitis and correlated with endoscopic findings in this population. A single-institution Barrett's esophagus registry was searched for patients who had received radiofrequency ablation, cryotherapy, or both for treatment of Barrett's esophagus with dysplasia. Clinical and endoscopic data were collected and biopsies were reviewed for inflammation and reactive changes at three time points: pre-intervention, first surveillance after ablation therapy, and most recent surveillance. Of the 173 patients initially identified, 102 met the inclusion criteria. Intraepithelial eosinophils were increased at first surveillance (60%, P=0.096) and last surveillance (69%, P=0.048) compared with pre-intervention (50%), although histologic evidence of post-ablation eosinophilic esophagitis was not significant. Prevalence of lymphocytic esophagitis was significantly higher at first surveillance (17%, P=0.02) and at last surveillance (43%, P<0.001), compared with pre-intervention (7%). Smoking, hyperlipidemia, and cryotherapy were identified as independent risk factors for developing histologic lymphocytic esophagitis. This is the first report that histologic evidence of lymphocytic esophagitis increased over time in patients undergoing ablation for Barrett's esophagus with dysplasia. Though the pathophysiology of lymphocytic esophagitis remains unknown, patients in our study with a history of smoking, hyperlipidemia, or cryotherapy were more likely to develop post-ablation lymphocytic esophagitis.

Morphological and Functional Assessment of Oesophageal Mucosa Integrity in Children With Cystic Fibrosis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to investigate morphological and functional characteristics of oesophageal epithelial barrier in children with cystic fibrosis (CF) with or without gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) in comparison to healthy controls.

METHODS

Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy with oesophageal biopsies and combined oesophageal multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH monitoring was performed in 17 children with CF (CFtot) with (CFgord) or without GORD (CFnorm). Histological combined severity score was calculated and widths of spaces between epithelial cells were measured. Basal impedance value was used to assess functional integrity of epithelial barrier. Results of each investigation were compared with a group of children without oesophageal disease.

RESULTS

CFtot, but also CFnorm, had more severe pathohistological changes included in the compound severity score than controls (0.75 ± 0.32 and 0.75 ± 0.20 vs 0.27 ± 0.25; P < 0.001 and P = 0.001, respectively). They also had more dilated intercellular spaces (2.6 μm ± 0.6 and 2.7 μm ± 0.5 vs 1.9 μm ± 0.2; P = 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). Baseline impedance values between proximal and distal pairs of electrodes were significantly lower in CFtot (2876 Ω ± 484, 2590 Ω ± 1013) and also in CFnorm (2922 Ω ± 363, 2844 Ω ± 457) than in controls (3703 Ω ± 859, 3753 Ω ± 1070) (P = 0.012 and P = 0.002; and P = 0.027 and P = 0.005, respectively). The treatment of CFgord with proton pump inhibitor increased, but did not normalise the baseline impedance values (2860 Ω ± 560 to 3355 Ω ± 750 and 2178 Ω ± 1564 to 3057 Ω ± 594).

CONCLUSIONS

Children with CF had morphological and functional changes of oesophageal mucosal integrity even in the absence of GORD.

Changes in the esophageal mucosa of patients with non erosive reflux disease: How far have we gone?

The normal esophageal mucosa creates a protective epithelial barrier that constrains the acidic reflux in the esophageal lumen. Microscopic findings and functional studies indicate that this barrier might be impaired in patients with non erosive reflux disease (NERD) but not in patients with functional heartburn (FH). Whereas endoscopy and pH monitoring are the most important diagnostic tools in the diagnosis of NERD, recent studies suggest that esophageal biopsies might have a complementary role. Particularly in the differential diagnosis between NERD and FH, the application of histological severity scores showed very promising results. Further evaluation of the scores could lead to routine application of histology in specific NERD populations.