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Atay T, Ertürk S, Alkan M, Kordali Ş, Yılmaz F, Barış A, Ghanbari S, Doğan C, Toprak U. Boron compounds are effective on Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): Reduced lipogenesis and induced body weight loss. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 115:e22098. [PMID: 38500442 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
In the current study, we investigated the insecticidal efficacy of two borates, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (Etidot-67) and calcium metaborate (CMB) via surface application or diet delivery on the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst, 1797) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The application method did not change the boron-related mortality, but CMB was more effective than Etidot-67. At the highest dose, it took around 13 days to reach the highest mortality (≥98.1%) for CMB, while it was 19 days for Etidot-67 (≥95.8%). Both boron compounds led to a significant reduction in triglyceride levels in parallel to the downregulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and fatty acid synthase (FAS), the two primary genes involved in de novo lipogenesis, while they also induced body weight loss. In conclusion, the current study indicated the insecticidal potential of boron compounds but CMB is more promising and more effective in controlling T. castaneum, while lipogenesis is inhibited and weight loss is induced by boron compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Turgut Atay
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University, Taşlıçiftlik, Tokat, Türkiye
| | - Sait Ertürk
- Department of Plant Pests, Plant Protection Central Research Institute, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Mustafa Alkan
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Yozgat Bozok University, Yozgat, Türkiye
| | - Şaban Kordali
- Department of Plant Protection Fethiye, Fethiye Faculty of Agriculture, Muğla Sıtkı Koçma University, Muğla, Türkiye
| | - Ferah Yılmaz
- Department of Plant Protection Fethiye, Fethiye Faculty of Agriculture, Muğla Sıtkı Koçma University, Muğla, Türkiye
| | - Aydemir Barış
- Department of Plant Pests, Plant Protection Central Research Institute, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Solmaz Ghanbari
- Department of Plant Protection, Molecular Entomology Lab., Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Dışkapı, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Cansu Doğan
- Department of Plant Protection, Molecular Entomology Lab., Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Dışkapı, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Umut Toprak
- Department of Plant Protection, Molecular Entomology Lab., Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Dışkapı, Ankara, Türkiye
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Güney G, Cedden D, Hänniger S, Hegedus DD, Heckel DG, Toprak U. Peritrophins are involved in the defense against Bacillus thuringiensis and nucleopolyhedrovirus formulations in Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 166:104073. [PMID: 38215915 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2024.104073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
The peritrophic matrix (or peritrophic membrane, PM) is present in most insects where it acts as a barrier to mechanical insults and pathogens, as well as a facilitator of digestive processes. The PM is formed by the binding of structural PM proteins, referred to as peritrophins, to chitin fibrils and spans the entire midgut in lepidopterans. To investigate the role of peritrophins in a highly polyphagous lepidopteran pest, namely the cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis), we generated Insect Intestinal Mucin (IIM-) and non-mucin Peritrophin (PER-) mutant strains via CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis. Both strains exhibited deformed PMs and retarded developmental rates. Bioassays conducted with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpliNPV) formulations showed that both the IIM- and PER- mutant larvae were more susceptible to these bioinsecticides compared to the wild-type (WT) larvae with intact PM. Interestingly, the provision of chitin-binding agent Calcofluor (CF) in the diet lowered the toxicity of Bt formulations in both WT and IIM- larvae and the protective effect of CF was significantly lower in PER- larvae. This suggested that the interaction of CF with PER is responsible for Bt resistance mediated by CF. In contrast, the provision of CF caused increased susceptibility to SpliNPV in both mutants and WT larvae. The study showed the importance of peritrophins in the defense against pathogens in S. littoralis and revealed novel insights into CF-mediated resistance to Cry toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gözde Güney
- Agricultural Entomology, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Entomology, Jena, Germany; Ankara University, Molecular Entomology Lab., Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Doga Cedden
- Department of Evolutionary Developmental Genetics, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute, GZMB, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; Ankara University, Molecular Entomology Lab., Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sabine Hänniger
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Entomology, Jena, Germany
| | - Dwayne D Hegedus
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; University of Saskatchewan, Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - David G Heckel
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Entomology, Jena, Germany.
| | - Umut Toprak
- Ankara University, Molecular Entomology Lab., Dept. of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara, Turkey.
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Wu H, Zhao D, Guo XC, Liu ZR, Li RJ, Lu XJ, Guo W. Group V Chitin Deacetylases Influence the Structure and Composition of the Midgut of Beet Armyworm, Spodoptera exigua. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043076. [PMID: 36834492 PMCID: PMC9961250 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitin deacetylase (CDA) can accelerate the conversion of chitin to chitosan, influencing the mechanical properties and permeability of the cuticle structures and the peritrophic membrane (PM) in insects. Putative Group V CDAs SeCDA6/7/8/9 (SeCDAs) were identified and characterized from beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua larvae. The cDNAs of SeCDAs contained open reading frames of 1164 bp, 1137 bp, 1158 bp and 1152 bp, respectively. The deduced protein sequences showed that SeCDAs are synthesized as preproteins of 387, 378, 385 and 383 amino acid residues, respectively. It was revealed via spatiotemporal expression analysis that SeCDAs were more abundant in the anterior region of the midgut. The SeCDAs were down-regulated after treatment with 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). After treatment with a juvenile hormone analog (JHA), the expression of SeCDA6 and SeCDA8 was down-regulated; in contrast, the expression of SeCDA7 and SeCDA9 was up-regulated. After silencing SeCDAV (the conserved sequences of Group V CDAs) via RNA interference (RNAi), the layer of intestinal wall cells in the midgut became more compact and more evenly distributed. The vesicles in the midgut were small and more fragmented or disappeared after SeCDAs were silenced. Additionally, the PM structure was scarce, and the chitin microfilament structure was loose and chaotic. It was indicated in all of the above results that Group V CDAs are essential for the growth and structuring of the intestinal wall cell layer in the midgut of S. exigua. Additionally, the midgut tissue and the PM structure and composition were affected by Group V CDAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Wu
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Dan Zhao
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Xiao-Chang Guo
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Zhao-Rui Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Rui-Jun Li
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Xiu-Jun Lu
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Wei Guo
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
- Correspondence:
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Characteristics of the Peritrophic Matrix of the Silkworm, Bombyx mori and Factors Influencing Its Formation. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12060516. [PMID: 34199436 PMCID: PMC8227122 DOI: 10.3390/insects12060516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary The insect midgut is an important digestive organ with the peritrophic matrix (PM) being a semi-permeable membrane secreted by the midgut cells. The PM plays an important role in improving midgut digestion efficiency and protecting the midgut from food particles and exogenous pathogens. The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is an economically important insect. Understanding the structure of the PM is necessary for studying its function, but characteristics of PM in B. mori have been rarely reported. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive study on the PM structure of the PM in silkworms and found its thickness increased gradually during growth, but there was no difference in the thickness comparing the anterior, middle, and posterior regions. Permeability of the PM gradually decreased from the anterior to posterior regions. In addition, we found the formation of the PM was influenced by food ingestion and the gut microbiota. Abstract The peritrophic matrix (PM) secreted by the midgut cells of insects is formed by the binding of PM proteins to chitin fibrils. The PM envelops the food bolus, serving as a barrier between the content of the midgut lumen and its epithelium, and plays a protective role for epithelial cells against mechanical damage, pathogens, toxins, and other harmful substances. However, few studies have investigated the characteristics and synthesis factors of the PM in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Here, we examined the characteristics of the PM in the silkworms. The PM thickness of the silkworms increased gradually during growth, while there was no significant difference in thickness along the entire PM region. Permeability of the PM decreased gradually from the anterior to posterior PM. We also found that PM synthesis was affected by food ingestion and the gut microbiota. Our results are beneficial for future studies regarding the function of the PM in silkworms.
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Zha XL, Yu XB, Zhang HY, Wang H, Huang XZ, Shen YH, Lu C. Identification of Peritrophins and Antiviral Effect of Bm01504 against BmNPV in the Silkworm, Bombyx mori. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21217973. [PMID: 33121000 PMCID: PMC7663561 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21217973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The insect midgut secretes a semi-permeable, acellular peritrophic membrane (PM) that maintains intestinal structure, promotes digestion, and protects the midgut from food particles and pathogenic microorganisms. Peritrophin is an important PM protein (PMP) in the PM. Here, we identified 11 peritrophins with 1–16 chitin binding domains (CBDs) comprising 50–56 amino acid residues. Multiple CBDs in the same peritrophin clustered together, rather than by species. The CBD contained six highly conserved cysteine residues, with the key feature of amino acids between them being CX11-15CX5CX9-14CX11-12CX6-7C. Peritrophins with 2 and 4 CBDs (Bm09641 and Bm01504, respectively), and with 1, 8, and 16 CBDs (Bm11851, Bm00185, and Bm01491, respectively) were mainly expressed in the anterior midgut, and throughout the midgut, respectively. Survival rates of transgenic silkworms with Bm01504 overexpression (Bm01504-OE) and knockout (Bm01504-KO) infected with B. morinucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) were significantly higher and lower, whereas expression of the key viral gene, p10, were lower and higher, respectively, compared with wild type (WT). Therefore, Bm01504-OE and Bm01504-KO transgenic silkworms were more and less resistant, respectively, to BmNPV. Bm01504 plays important roles in resisting BmNPV invasion. We provide a new perspective for studying PM function, and reveal how the silkworm midgut resists invasive exogenous pathogenic microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu-Le Zha
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
| | - Xin-Bo Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
| | - Hong-Yan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
| | - Han Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
| | - Xian-Zhi Huang
- Science and Technology Department, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China;
| | - Yi-Hong Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.S.); (C.L.); Tel.: +86-138-8360-7000 (Y.-H.S.); +86-23-6825-0346 (C.L.)
| | - Cheng Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; (X.-L.Z.); (X.-B.Y.); (H.-Y.Z.); (H.W.)
- Correspondence: (Y.-H.S.); (C.L.); Tel.: +86-138-8360-7000 (Y.-H.S.); +86-23-6825-0346 (C.L.)
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Nunes C, Sucena É, Koyama T. Endocrine regulation of immunity in insects. FEBS J 2020; 288:3928-3947. [PMID: 33021015 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Organisms have constant contact with potentially harmful agents that can compromise their fitness. However, most of the times these agents fail to cause serious disease by virtue of the rapid and efficient immune responses elicited in the host that can range from behavioural adaptations to immune system triggering. The immune system of insects does not comprise the adaptive arm, making it less complex than that of vertebrates, but key aspects of the activation and regulation of innate immunity are conserved across different phyla. This is the case for the hormonal regulation of immunity as a part of the broad organismal responses to external conditions under different internal states. In insects, depending on the physiological circumstances, distinct hormones either enhance or suppress the immune response integrating individual (and often collective) responses physiologically and behaviourally. In this review, we provide an overview of our current knowledge on the endocrine regulation of immunity in insects, its mechanisms and implications on metabolic adaptation and behaviour. We highlight the importance of this multilayered regulation of immunity in survival and reproduction (fitness) and its dependence on the hormonal integration with other mechanisms and life-history traits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Élio Sucena
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Takashi Koyama
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Shao ZM, Li YJ, Zhang XR, Chu J, Ma JH, Liu ZX, Wang J, Sheng S, Wu FA. Identification and Functional Study of Chitin Metabolism and Detoxification-Related Genes in Glyphodes pyloalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Based on Transcriptome Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051904. [PMID: 32164390 PMCID: PMC7084822 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glyphodes pyloalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralididae) is a serious pest in the sericulture industry, which has caused damage and losses in recent years. With the widespread use of insecticides, the insecticide resistance of G. pyloalis has becomes increasingly apparent. In order to find other effective methods to control G. pyloalis, this study performed a transcriptome analysis of the midgut, integument, and whole larvae. Transcriptome data were annotated with KEGG and GO, and they have been shown to be of high quality by RT-qPCR. The different significant categories of differentially expressed genes between the midgut and the integument suggested that the transcriptome data could be used for next analysis. With the exception of Dda9 (GpCDA5), 19 genes were involved in chitin metabolism, most of which had close protein–protein interactions. Among them, the expression levels of 11 genes, including GpCHSA, GpCDA1, GpCDA2, GpCDA4, GPCHT1, GPCHT2a, GPCHT3a, GPCHT7, GpTre1, GpTre2, and GpRtv were higher in the integument than in the midgut, while the expression levels of the last eight genes, including GpCHSB, GpCDA5, GpCHT2b, GpCHT3b, GpCHT-h, GpPAGM, GpNAGK, and GpUAP, were higher in the midgut than in the integument. Moreover, 282 detoxification-related genes were identified and can be divided into 10 categories, including cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferase, carboxylesterase, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, aquaporin, chloride channel, methoprene-tolerant, serine protease inhibitor, sodium channel, and calcium channel. In order to further study the function of chitin metabolism-related genes, dsRNA injection knocked down the expression of GpCDA1 and GpCHT3a, resulting in the significant downregulation of its downstream genes. These results provide an overview of chitin metabolism and detoxification of G. pyloalis and lay the foundation for the effective control of this pest in the sericulture industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuo-min Shao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
| | - Yi-jiangcheng Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
| | - Xiao-rui Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
| | - Jie Chu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
| | - Jia-hui Ma
- Zhenjiang Runshen Sericulture Development Co., Ltd, Zhenjiang 212001, China;
| | - Zhi-xiang Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
| | - Jun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
- The Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
| | - Sheng Sheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
- The Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (F.-a.W.)
| | - Fu-an Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212018, China; (Z.-m.S.); (Y.-j.L.); (X.-r.Z.); (J.C.); (Z.-x.L.); (J.W.)
- The Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhenjiang 212018, China
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (F.-a.W.)
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Oliveira AH, Fernandes KM, Gonçalves WG, Zanuncio JC, Serrão JE. A peritrophin mediates the peritrophic matrix permeability in the workers of the bees Melipona quadrifasciata and Apis mellifera. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2019; 53:100885. [PMID: 31614307 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2019.100885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The permeability of the peritrophic matrix, essential for its function, depends on its chemical composition. The objective was to determine if the permeability of the peritrophic matrix varies along the midgut and in the presence of anti-peritrophin-55 antibody in Melipona quadrifasciata and Apis mellifera bees. The thickness of the peritrophic matrix in both species varies between the anterior and posterior midgut regions in workers. In A. mellifera dextran molecules with 40 kDa cross the peritrophic matrix, whereas those ≥70 kDa are retained in the endoperitrophic space. In M. quadrifasciata the peritrophic matrix permeability was for molecules <40 kDa. Bees fed on anti-peritrophin-55 antibody showed an increase in peritrophic matrix permeability, but survival was not affected. In the bees studied, the peritrophic matrices have morphological differences between midgut regions, but there is no difference in their permeability along the midgut, which is affected by peritrophin 55.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Henrique Oliveira
- Department of General Biology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
| | - Kenner Morais Fernandes
- Department of General Biology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
| | | | - José Cola Zanuncio
- Department of Entomology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
| | - José Eduardo Serrão
- Department of General Biology, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
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Hegedus DD, Toprak U, Erlandson M. Peritrophic matrix formation. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 117:103898. [PMID: 31211963 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dwayne D Hegedus
- Molecular Genetics Section, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Umut Toprak
- Molecular Genetics Section, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Molecular Entomology Laboratory, College of Agriculture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Martin Erlandson
- Molecular Genetics Section, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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10
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Erlandson MA, Toprak U, Hegedus DD. Role of the peritrophic matrix in insect-pathogen interactions. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 117:103894. [PMID: 31175854 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The peritrophic matrix (PM) is an acellular chitin and glycoprotein layer that lines the invertebrate midgut. The PM has long been considered a physical as well as a biochemical barrier, protecting the midgut epithelium from abrasive food particles, digestive enzymes and pathogens infectious per os. This short review will focus on the latter function, as a barrier to pathogens infectious per os. We focus on the evidence confirming the role of the PM as protective barrier against pathogenic microorganisms of insects, mainly bacteria and viruses, as well as the evolution of a variety of mechanisms used by pathogens to overcome the PM barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Erlandson
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
| | - Umut Toprak
- Molecular Entomology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Dwayne D Hegedus
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada; Department of Food and Bioproduct Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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11
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Liu X, Cooper AMW, Zhang J, Zhu KY. Biosynthesis, modifications and degradation of chitin in the formation and turnover of peritrophic matrix in insects. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 114:109-115. [PMID: 30902530 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The peritrophic matrix (PM) is an extracellular, semi-permeable biocomposite that lines the midgut of most insects. The PM serves as the first defense in the midgut to resist microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and other pathogens, and to protect epithelial cells from mechanical damage. The PM also separates the midgut lumen into different compartments, which play important roles in nutrient ingestion and digestion. The PM is a highly dynamic structure that consists mainly of chitin fibers cross-linked by proteins, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. The PM is continuously biosynthesized, assembled, and degraded in response to feeding and development. Chitin chains are synthesized by several enzymes and organized in several hierarchical levels, in which various PM-associated proteins appear to be essential for maintaining the structural integrity and physiological function of the PM. This review summarizes research advances on molecular components of the PM and their functions, as well as related proteins and enzymes that contribute to PM formation and modification. Crucial gaps in our current understanding of the PM are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojian Liu
- Research Institute of Applied Biology, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | | | - Jianzhen Zhang
- Research Institute of Applied Biology, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China.
| | - Kun Yan Zhu
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
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Jin M, Liao C, Chakrabarty S, Wu K, Xiao Y. Comparative Proteomics of Peritrophic Matrix Provides an Insight into its Role in Cry1Ac Resistance of Cotton Bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020092. [PMID: 30717423 PMCID: PMC6409725 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Crystalline (Cry) proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are widely used in sprays and transgenic crops to control insect pests, but the evolution of insect resistance threatens their long-term use. Different resistance mechanisms have been identified, but some have not been completely elucidated. Here, the transcriptome of the midgut and proteome of the peritrophic matrix (PM) were comparatively analyzed to identify potential mechanism of resistance to Cry1Ac in laboratory-selected strain XJ10 of Helicoverpa armigera. This strain had a 146-fold resistance to Cry1Ac protoxin and 45-fold resistance to Cry1Ac activated toxin compared with XJ strain. The mRNA and protein levels for several trypsin genes were downregulated in XJ10 compared to the susceptible strain XJ. Furthermore, 215 proteins of the PM were identified, and nearly all had corresponding mRNAs in the midgut. These results provide new insights that the PM may participate in Bt resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Jin
- Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China.
- The State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, West Yuanmingyuan Road, Beijing, 100193, China.
| | - Chongyu Liao
- Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China.
| | - Swapan Chakrabarty
- Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China.
| | - Kongming Wu
- The State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, West Yuanmingyuan Road, Beijing, 100193, China.
| | - Yutao Xiao
- Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China.
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Liu L, Qu M, Liu T, Chen Q, Guo X, Yang J, Yang Q. Biochemical characterization of three midgut chitin deacetylases of the Lepidopteran insect Bombyx mori. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 113:42-48. [PMID: 30682338 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Peritrophic membrane (PM) is a chitin and protein-containing extracellular matrix that lines the midgut in most insect species, functioning as a barrier to exogenous toxins and pathogens. Midgut chitin deacetylases (CDAs) are chitin-modifying enzymes known to alter the mechanical property and permeability of PM. However, biochemical properties and specific roles of these enzymes remain elusive. In this study, the midgut-expressed CDAs (BmCDA6, BmCDA7 and BmCDA8) from Bombyx mori were cloned, recombinantly expressed and purified and their enzymatic activities toward PM chitin were determined. Of the three enzymes, BmCDA7 exhibited the highest activity (0.284 μmol/min/μmol), while BmCDA8 showed lower activity of 0.061 μmol/min/μmol. BmCDA6 was inactive towards PM chitin. Gene expression patterns indicated that although all three CDA genes were specifically expressed in the anterior midgut, they differed in their temporal expression patterns. BmCDA6 was expressed almost exclusively at the mid-molt stage, the stage when the PM was thick and with multiple chitin layers. Unlike BmCDA6, high expression levels of BmCDA7 and BmCDA8 were observed only at the feeding stage, the stage when the PM is thin and with fewer chitin layers. The different gene expression patterns and biochemical characteristics provide new information about the functional specialization among BmCDA6, BmCDA7 and BmCDA8 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Mingbo Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Tian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Qi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Xingming Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Jun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Qing Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2, Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China.
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Chen E, Kolosov D, O'Donnell MJ, Erlandson MA, McNeil JN, Donly C. The Effect of Diet on Midgut and Resulting Changes in Infectiousness of AcMNPV Baculovirus in the Cabbage Looper, Trichoplusia ni. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1348. [PMID: 30337878 PMCID: PMC6180168 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Insecticide resistance has been reported in many important agricultural pests, and alternative management methods are required. Baculoviruses qualify as an effective, yet environmentally benign, biocontrol agent but their efficacy against generalist herbivores may be influenced by diet. However, few studies have investigated the tritrophic interactions of plant, pest, and pathogen from both a gene expression and physiological perspective. Here we use microscopy and transcriptomics to examine how diet affects the structure of peritrophic matrix (PM) in Trichoplusia ni larvae and consequently their susceptibility to the baculovirus, AcMNPV. Larvae raised on potato leaves had lower transcript levels for chitinase and chitin deacetylase genes, and possessed a thicker and more multi-layered PM than those raised on cabbage or artificial diet, which could contribute to their significantly lower susceptibility to the baculovirus. The consequences of these changes underline the importance of considering dietary influences on pathogen susceptibility in pest management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Chen
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Dennis Kolosov
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | | - Martin A Erlandson
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Jeremy N McNeil
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Cam Donly
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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Liu L, Qu M, Yang J, Yang Q. The physiological differentiation along the midgut of Bombyx mori - inspirations from proteomics and gene expression patterns of the secreted proteins in the ectoperitrophic space. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 27:247-259. [PMID: 29251378 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The ectoperitrophic space (EcPS) between the insect midgut epithelial cells and the peritrophic matrix is an unexplored, clean resource for concentrated proteins secreted by the midgut epithelial cells, which offers an ideal opportunity to uncover the midgut functions. In this study, we used Bombyx mori as a model organism and performed comparative proteomic analyses of the secreted proteins in the EcPS at the feeding and wandering stages. A total of 372 proteins were identified from both stages and 70 proteins were predicted to be secreted. Amongst these proteins, 17 secreted digestive proteins were identified and their temporal and spatial transcriptional expression patterns demonstrated that all these proteins were up-regulated at the feeding stage and differentially expressed in different parts of the midgut. Proteins with nutrient reservoir activity and defence activity were found to be up-regulated at the wandering stage. This work is the first to show the presence of digestive enzymes in the EcPS of the insect midgut using a proteomic approach, which provides evidence that suggests a physiological functional differentiation of the insect midgut. It is very clear that the EcPS undergoes dynamic changes in its composition of proteins in response to the changing needs of the insect at different developmental stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - M Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - J Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Q Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemical Engineering and School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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16
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Toprak U, Erlandson M, Baldwin D, Karcz S, Wan L, Coutu C, Gillott C, Hegedus DD. Identification of the Mamestra configurata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) peritrophic matrix proteins and enzymes involved in peritrophic matrix chitin metabolism. INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 23:656-674. [PMID: 25846407 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The peritrophic matrix (PM) is essential for insect digestive system physiology as it protects the midgut epithelium from damage by food particles, pathogens, and toxins. The PM is also an attractive target for development of new pest control strategies due to its per os accessibility. To understand how the PM performs these functions, the molecular architecture of the PM was examined using genomic and proteomic approaches in Mamestra configurata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a major pest of cruciferous oilseed crops in North America. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analyses of the PM identified 82 proteins classified as: (i) peritrophins, including a new class with a CBDIII domain; (ii) enzymes involved in chitin modification (chitin deacetylases), digestion (serine proteases, aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases, lipases and α-amylase) or other reactions (β-1,3-glucanase, alkaline phosphatase, dsRNase, astacin, pantetheinase); (iii) a heterogenous group consisting of polycalin, REPATs, serpin, C-Type lectin and Lsti99/Lsti201 and 3 novel proteins without known orthologs. The genes encoding PM proteins were expressed predominantly in the midgut. cDNAs encoding chitin synthase-2 (McCHS-2), chitinase (McCHI), and β-N-acetylglucosaminidase (McNAG) enzymes, involved in PM chitin metabolism, were also identified. McCHS-2 expression was specific to the midgut indicating that it is responsible for chitin synthesis in the PM, the only chitinous material in the midgut. In contrast, the genes encoding the chitinolytic enzymes were expressed in multiple tissues. McCHS-2, McCHI, and McNAG were expressed in the midgut of feeding larvae, and NAG activity was present in the PM. This information was used to generate an updated model of the lepidopteran PM architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umut Toprak
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ankara, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Martin Erlandson
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Doug Baldwin
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Steve Karcz
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Lianglu Wan
- Plant Biotechnology Institute, National Research Council of Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Cathy Coutu
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Cedric Gillott
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Dwayne D Hegedus
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
- Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
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Yu R, Liu W, Li D, Zhao X, Ding G, Zhang M, Ma E, Zhu K, Li S, Moussian B, Zhang J. Helicoidal Organization of Chitin in the Cuticle of the Migratory Locust Requires the Function of the Chitin Deacetylase2 Enzyme (LmCDA2). J Biol Chem 2016; 291:24352-24363. [PMID: 27637332 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.720581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In the three-dimensional extracellular matrix of the insect cuticle, horizontally aligned microfibrils composed of the polysaccharide chitin and associated proteins are stacked either parallel to each other or helicoidally. The underlying molecular mechanisms that implement differential chitin organization are largely unknown. To learn more about cuticle organization, we sought to study the role of chitin deacetylases (CDA) in this process. In the body cuticle of nymphs of the migratory locust Locusta migratoria, helicoidal chitin organization is changed to an organization with unidirectional microfibril orientation when LmCDA2 expression is knocked down by RNA interference. In addition, the LmCDA2-deficient cuticle is less compact suggesting that LmCDA2 is needed for chitin packaging. Animals with reduced LmCDA2 activity die at molting, underlining that correct chitin organization is essential for survival. Interestingly, we find that LmCDA2 localizes only to the initially produced chitin microfibrils that constitute the apical site of the chitin stack. Based on our data, we hypothesize that LmCDA2-mediated chitin deacetylation at the beginning of chitin production is a decisive reaction that triggers helicoidal arrangement of subsequently assembled chitin-protein microfibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong Yu
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Weimin Liu
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Daqi Li
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Xiaoming Zhao
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Guowei Ding
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Min Zhang
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Enbo Ma
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - KunYan Zhu
- the Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506
| | - Sheng Li
- the Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Bernard Moussian
- the Chair of Applied Zoology, Institute of Zoology, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden 01217, Germany.
| | - Jianzhen Zhang
- From the Research Institute of Applied Biology and College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China,.
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Zhu KY, Merzendorfer H, Zhang W, Zhang J, Muthukrishnan S. Biosynthesis, Turnover, and Functions of Chitin in Insects. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 61:177-96. [PMID: 26982439 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-010715-023933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Chitin is a major component of the exoskeleton and the peritrophic matrix of insects. It forms complex structures in association with different assortments of cuticle and peritrophic matrix proteins to yield biocomposites with a wide range of physicochemical and mechanical properties. The growth and development of insects are intimately coupled with the biosynthesis, turnover, and modification of chitin. The genes encoding numerous enzymes of chitin metabolism and proteins that associate with and organize chitin have been uncovered by bioinformatics analyses. Many of these proteins are encoded by sets of large gene families. There is specialization among members within each family, which function in particular tissues or developmental stages. Chitin-containing matrices are dynamically modified at every developmental stage and are under developmental and/or physiological control. A thorough understanding of the diverse processes associated with the assembly and turnover of these chitinous matrices offers many strategies to achieve selective pest control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Wenqing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China;
| | - Jianzhen Zhang
- Research Institute of Applied Biology, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China;
| | - Subbaratnam Muthukrishnan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506; ,
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