Goats’ milk as a natural source of lactose-derived oligosaccharides: Isolation by membrane technology

Genetic and environmental factors shaping goat milk oligosaccharide composition

Oligosaccharides (OS) in milk have been suggested to influence the health and development of the newborn by promoting growth of beneficial gut bacteria, stimulating brain development, and enhancing immune functions. Goat milk is a natural source of specific OS, which could be a potential beneficial ingredient for infant formula. In this study, goat milk oligosaccharide (gMOS) content from approximately 1,000 dairy goats across 18 commercial farms was studied. A genomic relationship matrix was used to unravel genetic and environmental factors shaping gMOS content. The most abundant gMOS identified was 3'-NGL, with a concentration of 32.05 mg/kg, while 3-FL exhibited the lowest concentration at 1.85 mg/kg. Acidic OS had a notably higher content (81.67 mg/kg) than neutral OS (24.88 mg/kg). High variability in gMOS content was observed among individual goats, which could for a large extent be attributed to genetic differences. Heritability estimates ranged from 31% for 3'-GL to 85% for 3-FL. High positive genetic correlations (>0.57) were estimated between 3'-SL and 6'-SL, and between 6'-GL and 3'-GL. The contribution of differences between farms to variation in milk OS content varied from 3% for 3'-NGL to 45% for 6'-SL. While gMOS like 3'-GL, 6'-GL, and 6'-NGL, were significantly influenced by systematic environmental factors such as the lactation stage, the impact of these factors was relatively minor compared with the importance of genetic and farm effects. This research, which stands out due to its relatively large sample size, underscores the pivotal role of genetics, and to a smaller extent farm practices like feed ration, in determining gMOS composition.

Comparative Analysis of Free and Glycoconjugates Oligosaccharide Content in Milk from Different Species

Human milk is important for infant growth, and oligosaccharides are one of its main functional nutrients. To enable a systematic comparison of free oligosaccharide and glycoconjugate content in milk from different species, the phenol-sulfuric acid and resorcinol assays were combined to determine the content. Using real samples, the method revealed that human milk contained the highest amount of total, neutral (9.84 ± 0.31 g/L), and sialylated (3.21 ± 0.11 g/L) free oligosaccharides, followed by goat milk, with neutral (0.135 ± 0.015 g/L) and sialylated (0.192 ± 0.016 g/L) free oligosaccharides and at a distance by bovine and yak milk. The highest total glycoconjugate content was detected in yak milk (0.798 ± 0.011 g/L), followed by human, bovine, and goat milk. These findings suggest that goat milk is the best source of free oligosaccharides in infant formula and functional dairy products and yak milk is the best source of glycoconjugates.

Comprehensive investigation of milk oligosaccharides in different mammalian species and the effect of breed and lactation period on sheep milk oligosaccharides

Milk oligosaccharides (MOs) have unique health benefits for newborns, and MOs are important components in mammalian milk. The present study was conducted to provide a comprehensive analysis of MOs in important domestic animals, including goats, cows, camels and sheep. The comparison with human MOs was conducted simultaneously. Furthermore, analysis of the relative abundance of sheep MOs among different breeds (Hu sheep, East Friesen sheep, East Friesen-Hu crossbred sheep) and lactation periods (colostrum, mature milk) was performed. In general, 35, 24 19, 26, and 16 MOs were identified in human, goat, bovine, camel and sheep milk, respectively. The type of sheep MOs was not greatly influenced by the breeds and lactation period. Hu sheep colostrum had the highest abundance of MOs among six sheep milks, followed by East Friesen sheep colostrum, while East Friesen-Hu crossbred sheep mature milk had the lowest abundance of MOs. These findings provide evidence for the potential value of MOs from domestic animal milk for the commercial applications.

Exploring the health benefits and functional properties of goat milk proteins

Goat milk proteins are unique in their nutritional and functional properties and have become increasingly popular in recent years. A variety of methods have been studied for extracting and isolating these proteins, with coprecipitation being a particularly effective approach. Compared to cow milk proteins, goat milk proteins contain higher levels of certain amino acids such as tryptophan and cysteine, while maintaining similar nutritional properties. Additionally, they have superior functional properties, including better emulsifying and foaming properties, which make them an attractive option for developing new food products. Research has shown that goat milk proteins have several health benefits, including immunomodulatory effects, allergy management, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, as well as antimicrobial and anticancer properties. They have the potential to be used as a treatment for autoimmune diseases, allergies, and other immune system disorders due to their ability to modulate the production of cytokines and other immune system components. Furthermore, their antimicrobial properties can help prevent the growth of harmful bacteria and reduce the risk of infection. Future research will focus on the potential of goat milk proteins as a functional food ingredient, their effects on gut health and microbiota, and their therapeutic potential for various health conditions. This research may lead to the development of new functional foods that promote health and prevent disease, and potentially pave the way for the use of goat milk proteins as a therapeutic agent for various health conditions.

Biological Relevance of Goat Milk Oligosaccharides to Infant Health

Milk is often regarded as the gold standard for the nourishment of all mammalian offspring. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of the life of the infant, followed by a slow introduction of complementary foods to the breastfeeding routine for a period of approximately 2 years, whenever this is possible ( Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding; WHO, 2003). One of the most abundant components in all mammals' milk, which is associated with important health benefits, is the oligosaccharides. The milk oligosaccharides (MOS) of humans and other mammals differ in terms of their concentration and diversity. Among those, goat milk contains more oligosaccharides (gMOS) than other domesticated dairy animals, as well as a greater range of structures. This review summarizes the biological functions of MOS found in both human and goat milk to identify the possible biological relevance of gMOS in human health and development. Based on the existing literature, seven biological functions of gMOS were identified, namely, MOS action as prebiotics, immune modulators, and pathogen traps; their modulation of intestinal cells; protective effect against necrotizing enterocolitis; improved brain development; and positive effects on stressor exposure. Overall, goat milk is a viable alternate supply of functional MOS that could be employed in a newborn formula.

Metabolite profiling of peripheral blood plasma in pigs in early postnatal life fed whole bovine, caprine or ovine milk

Ruminants' milk is commonly used for supplying nutrients to infants when breast milk is unavailable or limited. Previous studies have highlighted the differences between ruminants' milk composition, digestion, absorption, and fermentation. However, whether consuming different ruminants' milk impact the appearance of the circulatory blood metabolites in the early postnatal life is not well understood. The analysis conducted here aimed to determine the effect of feeding exclusively whole milk from bovine, caprine or ovine species to pigs, approximately 7 days-old for 15 days, on circulatory blood plasma metabolites. Relative intensities of plasma metabolites were detected using a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry based metabolomic approach. Seven polar and 83 non-polar (lipids) metabolites in plasma were significantly different (false discovery rate < 0.05) between milk treatments. These included polar metabolites involved in amino acid metabolism and lipids belonging to phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, and triglycerides. Compared to the caprine or bovine milk group, the relative intensities of polar metabolites and unsaturated triglycerides were higher in the peripheral circulation of the ovine milk group. In contrast, relative intensities of saturated triglycerides and phosphatidylcholine were higher in the bovine milk group compared to the ovine or caprine milk group. In addition, correlations were identified between amino acid and lipid intake and their appearance in peripheral blood circulation. The results highlighted that consuming different ruminants' milk influences the plasma appearance of metabolites, especially lipids, that may contribute to early postnatal life development in pigs.

Gluco-oligosaccharides as potential prebiotics: Synthesis, purification, structural characterization, and evaluation of prebiotic effect

Prebiotics have long been used to modulate the gut microbiota and improve host health. Most established prebiotics are nondigestible carbohydrates, especially short-chain oligosaccharides. Recently, gluco-oligosaccharides (GlcOS) with 2-10 glucose residues and one or more O-glycosidic linkage(s) have been found to exert prebiotic potentials (not fully established prebiotics) because of their selective fermentation by beneficial gut bacteria. However, the prebiotic effects (non-digestibility, selective fermentability, and potential health effects) of GlcOS are highly variable due to their complex structure originating from different synthesis processes. The relationship between GlcOS structure and their potential prebiotic effects has not been fully understood. To date, a comprehensive summary of the knowledge of GlcOS is still missing. Therefore, this review provides an overview of GlcOS as potential prebiotics, covering their synthesis, purification, structural characterization, and prebiotic effect evaluation. First, GlcOS with different structures are introduced. Then, the enzymatic and chemical processes for GlcOS synthesis are critically reviewed, including reaction mechanisms, substrates, catalysts, the structures of resultant GlcOS, and the synthetic performance (yield and selectivity). Industrial separation techniques for GlcOS purification and structural characterization methods are discussed in detail. Finally, in vitro and in vivo studies to evaluate the non-digestibility, selective fermentability, and associated health effects of different GlcOS are extensively reviewed with a special focus on the GlcOS structure-function relationship.

Creation of a milk oligosaccharide database, MilkOligoDB, reveals common structural motifs and extensive diversity across mammals

The carbohydrate fraction of most mammalian milks contains a variety of oligosaccharides that encompass a range of structures and monosaccharide compositions. Human milk oligosaccharides have received considerable attention due to their biological roles in neonatal gut microbiota, immunomodulation, and brain development. However, a major challenge in understanding the biology of milk oligosaccharides across other mammals is that reports span more than 5 decades of publications with varying data reporting methods. In the present study, publications on milk oligosaccharide profiles were identified and harmonized into a standardized format to create a comprehensive, machine-readable database of milk oligosaccharides across mammalian species. The resulting database, MilkOligoDB, includes 3193 entries for 783 unique oligosaccharide structures from the milk of 77 different species harvested from 113 publications. Cross-species and cross-publication comparisons of milk oligosaccharide profiles reveal common structural motifs within mammalian orders. Of the species studied, only chimpanzees, bonobos, and Asian elephants share the specific combination of fucosylation, sialylation, and core structures that are characteristic of human milk oligosaccharides. However, agriculturally important species do produce diverse oligosaccharides that may be valuable for human supplementation. Overall, MilkOligoDB facilitates cross-species and cross-publication comparisons of milk oligosaccharide profiles and the generation of new data-driven hypotheses for future research.

Preventative and therapeutic potential of animal milk components against COVID-19: A comprehensive review

The global pandemic of COVID-19 is considered one of the most catastrophic events on earth. During the pandemic, food ingredients may play crucial roles in preventing infectious diseases and sustaining people's general health and well-being. Animal milk acts as a super food since it has the capacity to minimize the occurrence of viral infections due to inherent antiviral properties of its ingredients. SARS-CoV-2 virus infection can be prevented by immune-enhancing and antiviral properties of caseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, mucin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, oligosaccharides, glycosaminoglycans, and glycerol monolaurate. Some of the milk proteins (i.e., lactoferrin) may work synergistically with antiviral medications (e.g., remdesivir), and enhance the effectiveness of treatment in this disease. Cytokine storm during COVID-19 can be managed by casein hydrolyzates, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and lactoperoxidase. Thrombus formation can be prevented by casoplatelins as these can inhibit human platelet aggregation. Milk vitamins (i.e., A, D, E, and B complexes) and minerals (i.e., Ca, P, Mg, Zn, and Se) can have significantly positive effects on boosting the immunity and health status of individuals. In addition, certain vitamins and minerals can also act as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and antivirals. Thus, the overall effect of milk might be a result of synergistic antiviral effects and host immunomodulator activities from multiple components. Due to multiple overlapping functions of milk ingredients, they can play vital and synergistic roles in prevention as well as supportive agents during principle therapy of COVID-19.

The Choice of Product for Mixed or Formula Feeding of Infant: Beneficial Properties of Goat’s Milk Formula

This review summarizes the benefits of goat’s milk as the basis to produce adapted milk formulas according to relevant infants feeding issues. The characteristics of main nutrients of modern goat’s milk formulas are presented. A balanced protein composition enriched with β-palmitate, presence of prebiotics-oligosaccharides, natural nucleotides and probiotics advances these formulas closer to breast milk and provide their multipotent sanogenetic effects. The unique composition of goat’s milk formulas allows to ensure normal physical growth of a baby, induces tissue and systemic immunity via adequate intestinal microbiota formation, maintains normal functioning of gut-brain axis, that promotes vegetative and visceral disorders (due to functional digestive disorders) correction. Thus, it is possible to recommend goat’s milk formulas in cases of forced mixed or formula feeding of healthy infants and children with functional digestive disorders.

Nutritional Profile, Processing and Potential Products: A Comparative Review of Goat Milk

Goat milk contains an abundance of different macro and micro-nutrients. Compared with other milk, goat milk is a viable option due to its low allergy levels and is preferred for infants with cow milk allergies. A wide variety of goat milk-based products, including yoghurt, ice cream, fermented milk, and cheese, are available on the market. They are produced using effective processing technology and are known to exhibit numerous health benefits after consumption. However, goat milk consumption is limited in many nations (compared with cow, buffalo, camel, and sheep milk) due to a lack of awareness of its nutritional composition and the significance of its different byproducts. This review provides a detailed explanation of the various macronutrients that may be present, with special attention paid to each component, its purpose, and the health benefits it offers. It also compares goat milk with milk from other species in terms of its superiority and nutritional content, as well as the types, production methods, health advantages, and other beneficial properties of the various goat milk products that are currently available on the market.

The effects of ruminant milk treatments on hippocampal, striatal, and prefrontal cortex gene expression in pigs as a model for the human infant

While infant formula is usually bovine milk-based, interest in other ruminant milk-based formulas is growing. However, whether different ruminant milk treatments with varying nutrient compositions influence the infant’s brain development remains unknown. The aim was to determine the effects of consuming bovine, caprine, or ovine milk on brain gene expression in the early postnatal period using a pig model of the human infant. Starting at postnatal day 7 or 8, pigs were exclusively fed bovine, ovine, or caprine milk for 15 days. The mRNA abundance of 77 genes in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum regions was measured at postnatal day 21 or 22 using NanoString. The expression level of two hippocampal and nine striatal genes was most affected by milk treatments, particularly ovine milk. These modulatory genes are involved in glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid, serotonin, adrenaline and neurotrophin signaling and the synaptic vesicle cycle. The expression level of genes involved in gamma-aminobutyric acid signaling was associated with pigs’ lactose intake. In contrast, milk treatments did not affect the mRNA abundance of the genes in the prefrontal cortex. This study provides the first evidence of the association of different ruminant milk treatments with brain gene expression related to cognitive function in the first 3 months of postnatal life.

Characterization of Bioactive Sialyl Oligosaccharides Separated from Colostrum of Indonesia Dairy Goat

The bioactive functions of oligosaccharides from human milk have been reported by many studies. Many of oligosaccharides isolated from colostrum and/or milk of dairy animals have been reported to have similar chemical structures with those in human colostrum and/or milk. It has been proved by several studies that the oligosaccharides with similar chemical structure shared common bioactivities. Among domesticated dairy animals, bovine/cattle, caprine/goat, and ovine/sheep are the most commonly used species to isolate oligosaccharides from their colostrum and/or milk. Several studies on the oligosaccharides from goat colostrum and milk have revealed similar properties to that of human milk and possess the highest content of sialyl oligosaccharides (SOS) as compared to other ruminants. Indonesia ranks first in Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) for goat milk production. Therefore, goat milk is the second most consumed milk in the country. The most reared dairy goat breed in Indonesia is Etawah Grade. However, oligosaccharides from Indonesia dairy animals including goat, have not been characterized. This is the first study to characterize oligosaccharides from Indonesia dairy animals. The present study was aimed to isolate and characterize oligosaccharides, specifically SOS from the colostrum of Etawah Grade goats by using proton/1H-nuclear magnetic resonance. The SOS successfully characterized in this study were: Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3'-N-acetylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-N-acetylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Gc(α2-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3'-N-glycolylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Gc(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-N-glycolylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(β1-4) GlcNAc (6'-N-acetylneuraminyllactosamine) and Neu5Gc(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc (6'-N-glycolylneuraminyllactosamine). This finding shows that Etawah Grade, as a local dairy goat breed in Indonesia, is having significant potential to be natural source of oligosaccharides that can be utilized in the future food and pharmaceutical industries.

A live yeast supplementation to gestating ewes improves bioactive molecule composition in colostrum with no impact on its bacterial composition and beneficially affects immune status of the offspring

Colostrum quality is of paramount importance in the management of optimal ruminant growth and infectious disease prevention in early life. Live yeast supplementation effect during the last month of gestation was evaluated on ewes’ colostrum composition. Two groups of ewes (n = 14) carrying twin lambs were constituted and twins were separated into groups (mothered or artificially fed) 12 h after birth. Nutrient, oligosaccharides (OS), IgG and lactoferrin concentrations were measured over 72 h after lambing, and bacterial community was described in colostrum collected at parturition (T0). Immune passive transfer was evaluated through IgG measurement in lamb serum. In both groups, colostral nutrient, OS concentrations and IgG concentrations in colostrum and lamb serum decreased over time (P < 0⋅01), except for lactose, which slightly increased (P < 0⋅001), and lactoferrin, which remained stable. Bacterial population was stable over time with high relative abundances of Aerococcaceae, Corynebacteriaceae, Moraxellaceae and Staphylococcaceae in T0 colostrum. No effect of supplementation was observed in nutrient and lactoferrin concentrations. In supplemented ewes, the level of colostral IgG was higher at T0 and a higher level of serum IgG was observed in lambs born from supplemented mothers and artificially fed, while no effect of supplementation was observed in the mothered lamb groups. Using a metabolomic approach, we showed that supplementation affected OS composition with significantly higher levels of colostral Neu-5Gc compounds up to 5 h after birth. No effect of supplementation was observed on bacterial composition. Our data suggest that live yeast supplementation offsets the negative impact of early separation and incomplete colostrum feeding in neonate lambs.

The Role of Bovine and Non-Bovine Milk in Cardiometabolic Health: Should We Raise the "Baa"?

Although causality is yet to be confirmed, a considerable volume of research has explored the relationships between cow milk consumption, type II diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Contrastingly, it has not been comprehensively examined whether milk of non-bovine origin can provide cardiometabolic protection. This narrative review outlines the marked differences in macronutrient composition, particularly protein and lipid content, and discusses how whole milk product (and individual milk ingredients) from different species could impact cardiometabolic health. There is some data, although primarily from compositional analyses, animal studies, and acute clinical trials, that non-bovine milk (notably sheep and goat milk) could be a viable substitute to cow milk for the maintenance, or enhancement, of cardiometabolic health. With a high content of medium-chain triglycerides, conjugated linoleic acid, leucine, and essential minerals, sheep milk could assist in the prevention of metabolic-related disorders. Similarly, albeit with a lower content of such functional compounds relative to sheep milk, goat and buffalo milk could be plausible counterparts to cow milk. However, the evidence required to generate nutritional recommendations for ‘non-bovine milk’ is currently lacking. Longer-term randomised controlled trials must assess how the bioactive ingredients of different species’ milks collectively influence biomarkers of, and subsequently incidence of, cardiometabolic health.

Comprehensive Identification and Absolute Quantification of Milk Oligosaccharides in Different Species

Human and animal milk contains a rich variety of oligosaccharides (OSs), which are of great interest due to a similar biological efficacy. In this study, the OSs were identified and the concentrations of eight specific OSs in human and four animal milk (cow, goat, sheep, and camel) were analyzed. In general, 30, 42, 32, 34, and 35 OSs were identified in bovine, caprine, ovine, camel, and human milk, respectively. Camel milk was the most similar in type to human milk than other four animal milk. The concentration of eight OSs in human milk was approximately six times higher than that in camel milk, 20 times higher than that in bovine and caprine milk, and 75 times higher than that in ovine milk. Collectively, these findings revealed the characteristics and concentrations of OSs in the milk of different species, providing insights into the potential application of OSs in medical and functional foods.

Marine-Derived Biowaste Conversion into Bioceramic Membrane Materials: Contrasting of Hydroxyapatite Synthesis Methods

Marine-derived biowaste increment is enormous, yet could be converted into valuable biomaterial, e.g., hydroxyapatite-based bioceramic. Bioceramic material possesses superiority in terms of thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties. Bioceramic material also has a high level of biocompatibility when projected into biological tissues. Tuning the porosity of bioceramic material could also provide benefits for bioseparation application, i.e., ultrafiltration ceramic membrane filtration for food and dairy separation processes. This work presents the investigation of hydroxyapatite conversion from crab-shells marine-based biowaste, by comparing three different methods, i.e., microwave, coprecipitation, and sol-gel. The dried crab-shells were milled and calcinated as calcium precursor, then synthesized into hydroxyapatite with the addition of phosphates precursors via microwave, coprecipitation, or sol-gel. The compound and elemental analysis, degree of crystallinity, and particle shape were compared. The chemical compounds and elements from three different methods were similar, yet the degree of crystallinity was different. Higher Ca/P ratio offer benefit in producing a bioceramic ultrafiltration membrane, due to low sintering temperature. The hydroxyapatite from coprecipitation and sol-gel methods showed a significant degree of crystallinity compared with that of the microwave route. However, due to the presence of Fe and Sr impurities, the secondary phase of Ca9FeH(PO4)7 was found in the sol-gel method. The secondary phase compound has high absorbance capacity, an advantage for bioceramic ultrafiltration membranes. Furthermore, the sol-gel method could produce a snake-like shape, compared to the oval shape of the coprecipitation route, another benefit to fabricate porous bioceramic for a membrane filter.

The Effect of Infant Formulas With 4 or 8 g/L GOS/FOS on Growth, Gastrointestinal Symptoms, and Behavioral Patterns: A Prospective Cohort Study

There is a lack of studies investigating the clinical benefits of prebiotic-supplemented infant formula. In this study, healthy infants that started, on medical recommendation, artificial feeding with one of 2 infant formulas containing 4 g/L of GOS/FOS (9:1) (IF4 group; n = 60) or 8 g/L of GOS/FOS (9:1) (IF8 group; n = 60) were followed for 30 days to the evaluation of growth and gastrointestinal symptoms. Exclusively breastfed infants (EBF; n = 60) were followed up as a reference. Both infant formulas supported adequate weight gain, however, IF4 formula promotes growth more similar to breastfed infants. There was no additional benefit of a dose higher than 4 g/L of GOS/FOS on gastrointestinal symptoms.

Synthesis as an Expanding Resource in Human Milk Science

Few classes of natural products rival the structural audacity of oligosaccharides. Their complexity, however, has stood as an immense roadblock to translational research, as access to homogeneous material from nature is challenging. Thus, while carbohydrates are critical to the myriad functional and structural aspects of the biological sciences, their behavior is largely descriptive. This challenge presents an attractive opportunity for synthetic chemistry, particularly in the area of human milk science. First, there is an inordinate need for synthesizing homogeneous human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). Superimposed on this goal is the mission of conducting syntheses at scale to enable animal studies. Herein, we present a personalized rumination of our involvement, and that of our colleagues, which has led to the synthesis and characterization of HMOs and mechanistic probes. Along the way, we highlight chemical, chemoenzymatic, and synthetic biology based approaches. We close with a discussion on emergent challenges and opportunities for synthesis, broadly defined, in human milk science.

Extraction and Quantitative Analysis of Goat Milk Oligosaccharides: Composition, Variation, Associations, and 2'-FL Variability

Human milk oligosaccharides (hMOS) are associated with health benefits for newborns. We studied the composition of goat MOS (gMOS) from colostrum up to the 9th month of lactation to conceive an overview of the structures present and their fate. Potential correlations with factors such as age, parity, and lifetime milk production were examined. An effective method for gMOS extraction and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection (UPLC-FLD) analysis was established, following 2-aminobenzamide gMOS labeling. Considerable biological variability was highlighted among the 12 quantified gMOS and the 9 non-quantified structures in the individual milk samples. Most characteristic, 2'-fucosyllactose was present in 73.7% of the milk samples analyzed, suggesting the possibility of a secretor/non-secretor goat genotype, similar to humans. Contributing factors to the observed biological variability were goat age, parity, lifetime milk production, and the kids' sex. The results significantly contribute to the current understanding of (variations in) gMOS composition.

Detection of bovine milk adulteration in caprine milk with N-acetyl carbohydrate biomarkers by using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

In a return to tradition, the popularity of caprine milk is on the rise. However, particularly in countries with developed dairy industries based on bovine milk, there is the risk of adulteration with bovine milk, which is a cheaper alternative. Thus, a rapid, robust, and simple method for the detection of bovine milk added to caprine milk is necessary, and ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy appears to provide a solution. A matrix of 115 pure and artificially adulterated pasteurized milk samples was prepared and used to discover biomarkers of bovine milk that are independent of chemical and biological variation caused by factors such as genetics, diet, or seasonality. Principal component analysis and orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis of pure bovine milk and pure caprine milk revealed spectral features that were assigned to the resonances of 4 molecules. Of these, the peaks corresponding to protons in the N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylgalactosamine acetyl moieties showed significant applicability for our method. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was used to evaluate the performance of the peak integrals as biomarkers of adulteration. This approach was able to distinguish caprine milk adulterated with 5% of bovine milk with 84.78% accuracy and with 10% of bovine milk an excellent 95.65% accuracy. This study demonstrates that N-acetyl carbohydrates could be used as biomarkers for the detection of bovine milk in caprine milk and could help in protecting caprine milk authenticity.

Membrane separation processes for enrichment of bovine and caprine milk oligosaccharides from dairy byproducts

Breast milk is an ideal source of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) for isolation and purification. However, breast milk is not for sale and at most is distributed to neonatal intensive care units as donor milk. To overcome this limitation, isolating HMOs analogs including bovine milk oligosaccharides (BMOs) and caprine milk oligosaccharides (CMOs) from other sources is timely and significant. Advances in the development of equipment and analytical methods have revealed that dairy processing byproducts are good sources of BMOs and CMOs. Enrichment of these oligosaccharides from dairy byproducts, such as whey, permeate, and mother liquor, is of increasing academic and economic value. The commonly employed approach for oligosaccharides purification is chromatographic technique, but it is only used at lab scale. In the dairy industry, chromatographic methods (large-scale ion exchange, 10,000 L size) are currently routinely used for the isolation/purification of milk proteins (e.g., lactoferrin). In contrast, membrane technology has been proven to be a suitable approach for the isolation and purification of BMOs and CMOs from dairy byproducts. Therefore, this review simply introduces BMOs and CMOs in dairy processing byproducts. This review also summarizes membrane separation processes for isolating and purifying BMOs and CMOs from different dairy byproducts. Finally, the technological challenges and solutions of each processing strategy are discussed in detail.

Goat and cow milk differ in altering microbiota composition and fermentation products in rats with gut dysbiosis induced by amoxicillin

Antibiotics are effective treatments for bacterial infections, however, their oral administration can have unintended consequences and may alter the gut microbiota composition. In this study, we examined the influence of antibiotics on the induction of gut dysbiosis and then evaluated the potential of cow and goat milk to restore the microbiota composition and metabolism in newly weaned rats. In the first study (gut dysbiosis model), rats were treated with amoxicillin, a mixture of antibiotics (ampicillin, gentamicin and metronidazole) or no antibiotics (control). Antibiotics reduced the rat body weights, food intakes and faecal outputs compared to the control group. Gut length was significantly decreased after the antibiotic intake. The bacterial populations (Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and total bacteria) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetic, butyric and propionic) concentrations in rat caecum, colon and faeces were significantly altered by the antibiotic treatments. In the second study, we examined the effects of cow and goat milk in restoring bacterial populations and metabolism in rats with gut dysbiosis induced by amoxicillin. Goat milk significantly increased the numbers of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. and decreased the numbers of Clostridium perfringens in the caecum and colon of rats treated with amoxicillin. Whereas, rats fed cow milk had higher Lactobacillus spp. and lower C. perfringens in the gut. Caecal and colonic SCFAs (acetic, butyric and propionic) concentrations differed significantly between rats fed cow and goat milk diets. Overall, goat and cow milk varied in their effects on the immature gut following antibiotic-induced dysbiosis in a rat model.

Current Perspective of Sialylated Milk Oligosaccharides in Mammalian Milk: Implications for Brain and Gut Health of Newborns

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are the third most abundant solid component after lactose and lipids of breast milk. All mammal milk contains soluble oligosaccharides, including neutral milk oligosaccharides (NMOs) without sialic acid (Sia) moieties and acidic oligosaccharides or sialylated milk oligosaccharides (SMOs) with Sia residues at the end of sugar chains. The structural, biological diversity, and concentration of milk oligosaccharides in mammalian milk are significantly different among species. HMOs have multiple health benefits for newborns, including development of immune system, modification of the intestinal microbiota, anti-adhesive effect against pathogens, and brain development. Most infant formulas lack oligosaccharides which resemble HMOs. Formula-fed infants perform poorly across physical and psychological wellbeing measures and suffer health disadvantages compared to breast-fed infants due to the differences in the nutritional composition of breast milk and infant formula. Of these milk oligosaccharides, SMOs are coming to the forefront of research due to the beneficial nature of Sia. This review aims to critically discuss the current state of knowledge of the biology and role of SMOs in human milk, infant formula milks, and milk from several other species on gut and brain health of human and animal offspring.

Comparison of the Bifidogenic Effects of Goat and Cow Milk-Based Infant Formulas to Human Breast Milk in an in vitro Gut Model for 3-Month-Old Infants

Human milk contains prebiotic components, such as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), which stimulate the growth of specific members of the infant gut microbiota (e.g., Bifidobacteria). Plant-based or synthetic oligosaccharides are often added to infant formulas to simulate the bifidogenic effect of HMOs. Cow milk, the most common source of protein in infant formula, and goat milk, used increasingly in the manufacture of infant formula, contain naturally-occurring prebiotics. This study compared the upper gastrointestinal digestion and subsequent colonic fermentation of human milk vs. goat and cow milk-based infant formulas (goat IF and cow IF, respectively), without additional oligosaccharides using an in vitro model for 3-month-old infants based on the Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME®). First, a dialysis approach using 3.5 kDa membranes was demonstrated to simulate small intestinal absorption of carbohydrates in conditions similar to those in vivo. During the in vitro digestion experiment, oligosaccharides were detected in human milk and goat IF but barely detected in the cow IF. Further, all three milk matrices decreased colonic pH by boosting acetate, lactate, and propionate production, which related to increased abundances of acetate/lactate-producing Bifidobacteriaceae for human milk (+25.7%) and especially goat IF (33.8%) and cow IF (37.7%). Only cow IF stimulated butyrate production which correlated with an increase in Lachnospiraceae and Clostridiaceae. Finally, Enterobacteriaceae and Acidaminococcaceae also increased with all three milk matrices, while production of proteolytic metabolites (branched-chain fatty acids) was only detected for the cow IF. Overall, goat and cow milk-based formulas without added oligosaccharides impacted gut microbial activity and composition similarly to human milk. This suggests that even without supplementation of formula with oligosaccharides, whole goat milk, whole cow milk and cow milk ingredients already supply compounds in formulas that exert beneficial bifidogenic effects. Further clinical research is warranted to elucidate the effect of whole goat milk-based formulas on the infant gut microbiome.

Goat Milk Oligosaccharides: Their Diversity, Quantity, and Functional Properties in Comparison to Human Milk Oligosaccharides

Human milk is considered the golden standard in infant nutrition. Free oligosaccharides in human milk provide important health benefits. These oligosaccharides function as prebiotics, immune modulators, and pathogen inhibitors and were found to improve barrier function in the gut. Infant formulas nowadays often contain prebiotics but lack the specific functions of human milk oligosaccharides (hMOS). Milk from domesticated animals also contains milk oligosaccharides but at much lower levels and with less diversity. Goat milk contains significantly more oligosaccharides (gMOS) than bovine (bMOS) or sheep (sMOS) milk and also has a larger diversity of structures. This review summarizes structural studies, revealing a diversity of up to 77 annotated gMOS structures with almost 40 structures fully characterized. Quantitative studies of goat milk oligosaccharides range from 60 to 350 mg/L in mature milk and from 200 to 650 mg/L in colostrum. These levels are clearly lower than in human milk (5-20 g/L) but higher than in other domesticated dairy animals, e.g., bovine (30-60 mg/L) and sheep (20-40 mg/L). Finally, the review focuses on demonstrated and potential functionalities of gMOS. Some studies have shown anti-inflammatory effects of mixtures enriched in gMOS. Goat MOS also display prebiotic potential, particularly in stimulating growth of bifidobacteria preferentially. Although functional studies of gMOS are still limited, several structures are also found in human milk and have known functions as immune modulators and pathogen inhibitors. In conclusion, goat milk constitutes a promising alternative source for milk oligosaccharides, which can be used in infant formula.

Composition, Structure, and Digestive Dynamics of Milk From Different Species-A Review

Background: The traditional dairy-cattle-based industry is becoming increasingly diversified with milk and milk products from non-cattle dairy species. The interest in non-cattle milks has increased because there have been several anecdotal reports about the nutritional benefits of these milks and reports both of individuals tolerating and digesting some non-cattle milks better than cattle milk and of certain characteristics that non-cattle milks are thought to share in common with human milk. Thus, non-cattle milks are considered to have potential applications in infant, children, and elderly nutrition for the development of specialized products with better nutritional profiles. However, there is very little scientific information and understanding about the digestion behavior of non-cattle milks. Scope and Approach: The general properties of some non-cattle milks, in comparison with human and cattle milks, particularly focusing on their protein profile, fat composition, hypoallergenic potential, and digestibility, are reviewed. The coagulation behaviors of different milks in the stomach and their impact on the rates of protein and fat digestion are reviewed in detail. Key findings and Conclusions: Milk from different species vary in composition, structure, and physicochemical properties. This may be a key factor in their different digestion behaviors. The curds formed in the stomach during the gastric digestion of some non-cattle milks are considered to be relatively softer than those formed from cattle milk, which is thought to contribute to the degree to which non-cattle milks can be easily digested or tolerated. The rates of protein and fat delivery to the small intestine are likely to be a function of the macro- and micro-structure of the curd formed in the stomach, which in turn is affected by factors such as casein composition, fat globule and casein micelle size distribution, and protein-to-fat ratio. However, as no information on the coagulation behavior of non-cattle milks in the human stomach is available, in-depth scientific studies are needed in order to understand the impact of compositional and structural differences on the digestive dynamics of milk from different species.

Oligosaccharides in goats' milk-based infant formula and their prebiotic and anti-infection properties

Human milk contains an abundant supply and diverse array of oligosaccharides that are known to impart significant health benefits to the nursing infant including establishment and maintenance of a healthy gut microflora, immune development and protection against gastrointestinal infections. When breastfeeding is not possible or insufficient, infant formulas are commonly used as an alternative. However, limited information is available about the presence of naturally occurring oligosaccharides in these infant formulas and their likely health benefits. The present study examined the presence of naturally occurring oligosaccharides in commercial goats' milk-based stage 1 and stage 2 infant formulas and their prebiotic and anti-infection properties. LC/MS was used to detect and quantify oligosaccharides and their prebiotic potential was assessed by their ability, at concentrations present in reconstituted ready-to-use infant formula, to promote the growth of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB12, B. longum BB536, Lactobacillus acidophilus 4461 and L. casei 2607 in vitro. For anti-infection properties, the ability of goat milk oligosaccharides to prevent the adhesion of Escherichia coli NCTC 10418 and a Salmonella typhimurium isolate to Caco-2 cells was investigated. The results showed the presence of fourteen quantifiable oligosaccharides in stage 1 and stage 2 goats' milk-based infant formula. This was similar to the number of oligosaccharides detected in the fresh goats' milk. Of these, five were structurally similar to those found in human milk. These oligosaccharides were shown to significantly enhance the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli and reduce the adhesion of E. coli NCTC 10418 and S. typhimurium to Caco-2 cells. Together, these results suggest that oligosaccharides naturally present in goats' milk-based infant formula exhibit strong prebiotic and anti-pathogen adhesion properties and may confer gut health benefits to infants.

Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis ATCC 15697 and Goat Milk Oligosaccharides Show Synergism In Vitro as Anti-Infectives against Campylobacter jejuni

Bifidobacteria are known to inhibit, compete with and displace the adhesion of pathogens to human intestinal cells. Previously, we demonstrated that goat milk oligosaccharides (GMO) increased the attachment of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis ATCC 15697 to intestinal cells in vitro. In this study, we aimed to exploit this effect as a mechanism for inhibiting pathogen association with intestinal cells. We examined the synergistic effect of GMO-treated B. infantis on preventing the attachment of a highly invasive strain of Campylobacter jejuni to intestinal HT-29 cells. The combination decreased the adherence of C. jejuni to the HT-29 cells by an average of 42% compared to the control (non-GMO treated B. infantis). Increasing the incubation time of the GMO with the Bifidobacterium strain resulted in the strain metabolizing the GMO, correlating with a subsequent 104% increase in growth over a 24 h period when compared to the control. Metabolite analysis in the 24 h period also revealed increased production of acetate, lactate, formate and ethanol by GMO-treated B. infantis. Statistically significant changes in the GMO profile were also demonstrated over the 24 h period, indicating that the strain was digesting certain structures within the pool such as lactose, lacto-N-neotetraose, lacto-N-neohexaose 3′-sialyllactose, 6′-sialyllactose, sialyllacto-N-neotetraose c and disialyllactose. It may be that early exposure to GMO modulates the adhesion of B. infantis while carbohydrate utilisation becomes more important after the bacteria have transiently colonised the host cells in adequate numbers. This study builds a strong case for the use of synbiotics that incorporate oligosaccharides sourced from goat′s milk and probiotic bifidobacteria in functional foods, particularly considering the growing popularity of formulas based on goat milk.

Symposium review: Dairy-derived oligosaccharides-Their influence on host-microbe interactions in the gastrointestinal tract of infants

Oligosaccharides are the third most abundant component in human milk. It is widely accepted that they play several important protective, physiological, and biological roles, including selective growth stimulation of beneficial gut microbiota, inhibition of pathogen adhesion, and immune modulation. However, until recently, very few commercial products on the market have capitalized on these functions. This is mainly because the quantities of human milk oligosaccharides required for clinical trials have been unavailable. Recently, clinical studies have tested the potential beneficial effects of feeding infants formula containing 2'-fucosyllactose, which is the most abundant oligosaccharide in human milk. These studies have opened this field for further well-designed studies, which are required to fully understand the role of human milk oligosaccharides. However, one of the most striking features of human milk is its diversity of oligosaccharides, with over 200 identified to date. It may be that a mixture of oligosaccharides is even more beneficial to infants than a single structure. For this reason, the milk of domestic animals has become a focal point in recent years as an alternative source of complex oligosaccharides with associated biological activity. This review will focus specifically on free oligosaccharides found in bovine and caprine milk and the biological roles associated with such structures. These dairy streams are ideal sources of oligosaccharides, given their wide availability and use in so many regularly consumed dairy products. The aim of this review was to provide an overview of research into the functional role of bovine and caprine milk oligosaccharides in host-microbial interactions in the gut and provide current knowledge related to the isolation of oligosaccharides as ingredients for incorporation in functional or medical foods.

Online LC-UV-ESI-MS/MS Comparative Analysis of Changes in Goat Colostrum N/O-Glycopatterns at Different Parities

Goat milk oligosaccharides are complex carbohydrates with a variety of biological functions. Free oligosaccharides from goat milk show more similarity to human milk than cow milk. At present, changes in goat milk glycoconjugates at different parities remain poorly studied. Herein, we qualitatively and quantitatively compared the goat milk glycoprotein N/O-glycome at different parities using a stable isotope labeling followed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and online hydrophilic interaction chromatography. N-Glycans were mainly fucosylated and nonfucosylated nonsialylated, and both fucosylation and sialylation gradually increased with parity, amounting (at the third parity) to 1.25 times and 3.3 times those of the first parity, respectively. O-Glycans were mostly nonfucosylated and nonsialylated, and sialylation increased with increasing parity, and Neu5Ac-sialylated was up to 9 times higher in the third parity than in the first parity, whereas Neu5Gc-sialylated was 5.5 times higher. This study provides a reference for exploring an alternative milk source closest to human milk and for the development of humanized formula milk.

Identification of the complete coding cDNAs and expression analysis of B4GALT1, LALBA, ST3GAL5, ST6GAL1 in the colostrum and milk of the Garganica and Maltese goat breeds to reveal possible implications for oligosaccharide biosynthesis

Background

Milk sialylated oligosaccharides (SOS) play crucial roles in many biological processes. The most abundant free SOS in goat’s milk are 3’sialyllactose (3′-SL), 6’sialyllactose (6′-SL) and disialyllactose (DSL). The production of these molecules is determined genetically by the expression of glycosyltransferases and by the availability of nucleotide sugar substrates, but the precise mechanisms regulating the differential patterns of milk oligosaccharides are not known. We aimed to identify the complete cDNAs of candidate genes implicated in SOS biosynthesis (B4GALT1, LALBA, ST3GAL5, ST6GAL1) and to analyse their expression during lactation in the Garganica and Maltese goat breeds. Moreover, we analysed the colostrum and milk contents of 3′-SL, 6′-SL and disialyllactose (DSL) and the possible correlations between expressed genes and SOS.

Results

We identified the complete coding cDNAs of B4GALT1 (HQ700335.1), ST3GAL5 (KF055858.2), and ST6GAL1 (HQ709167.1), the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) of these genes and 2 splicing variants of the ST6GAL1 cDNA. RT-qPCR analysis showed that LALBA and ST6GAL1 were the genes with the highest and lowest expression in both breeds, respectively. The interaction effects of the breeds and sampling times were associated with higher levels of B4GALT1 and ST3GAL5 gene expression in Garganica than in Maltese goats at kidding. B4GALT1, LALBA, and ST3GAL5 gene expression changed from kidding to 60 and 120 days in Maltese goats, while in Garganica goats, a difference was observed only for the LALBA gene. Breed and lactation effects were also found for SOS contents. Positive correlations of B4GALT1, LALBA, ST3GAL5, and ST6GAL1 with 3′-SL/6′SL and DSL were found.

Conclusions

The genetic effect on the oligosaccharide content of milk was previously highlighted in bovines, and this study is the first to investigate this effect in two goat breeds (Garganica and Maltese) during lactation. The genetic variability of candidate genes involved in SOS biosynthesis highlights their potential role in affecting gene expression and ultimately biological function. The investigation of gene regulatory regions as well as the examination of other sialyltransferase genes will be needed to identify the genetic pattern leading to a higher SOS content in the autochtonous Garganica breed and to protect it using a focused breeding strategy.

Milk Glycans and Their Interaction with the Infant-Gut Microbiota

Human milk is a unique and complex fluid that provides infant nutrition and delivers an array of bioactive molecules that serve various functions. Glycans, abundant in milk, can be found as free oligosaccharides or as glycoconjugates. Milk glycans are increasingly linked to beneficial outcomes in neonates through protection from pathogens and modulation of the immune system. Indeed, these glycans influence the development of the infant and the infant-gut microbiota. Bifidobacterium species commonly are enriched in breastfed infants and are among a limited group of bacteria that readily consume human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and milk glycoconjugates. Given the importance of bifidobacteria in infant health, numerous studies have examined the molecular mechanisms they employ to consume HMOs and milk glycans, thus providing insight into this unique enrichment and shedding light on a range of translational opportunities to benefit at-risk infants.

Modulation of Intestinal Epithelial Glycocalyx Development by Human Milk Oligosaccharides and Non-Digestible Carbohydrates

SCOPE

The epithelial glycocalyx development is of great importance for microbial colonization. Human milk oligosaccharides (hMOs) and non-digestible carbohydrates (NDCs) may modulate glycocalyx development.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The effects of hMOs and NDCs on human gut epithelial cells (Caco2) are investigated by quantifying thickness and area coverage of adsorbed albumin, heparan sulfate (HS), and hyaluronic acid (HA) in the glycocalyx. Effects of hMOs (2'-FL and 3-FL) and NDCs [inulins with degrees of polymerization (DP) (DP3-DP10, DP10-DP60, DP30-DP60) and pectins with degrees of methylation (DM) (DM7, DM55, DM69)] are tested using immunofluorescence staining at 1 and 5 days stimulation. HMOs show a significant enhancing effect on glycocalyx development but effects are structure-dependent. 3-FL induces a stronger albumin adsorption and increases HS and HA stronger than 2'-FL. The DP3-DP10, DP30-60 inulins also increase glycocalyx development in a structure-dependent manner as DP3-DP10 selectively increases HS, while DP30-DP60 specifically increases HA. Pectins have less effects, and only increase albumin adsorption.

CONCLUSION

Here, it is shown that 2'-FL and 3-FL and inulins stimulate glycocalyx development in a structure-dependent fashion. This may contribute to formulation of effective hMO and NDC formulations in infant formulas to support microbial colonization and gut barrier function.

Glycan Utilisation and Function in the Microbiome of Weaning Infants

Glycans are present exogenously in the diet, expressed and secreted endogenously by host cells, and produced by microbes. All of these processes result in them being available to the gut microbiome, firmly placing glycans at the interface of diet–microbe–host interactions. The most dramatic shift in dietary sources of glycans occurs during the transition from the milk-based neonatal diet to the diverse omnivorous adult diet, and this has profound effects on the composition of the gut microbiome, gene expression by microbes and host cells, mucin composition, and immune development from innate towards adaptive responses. Understanding the glycan-mediated interactions occurring during this transitional window may inform dietary recommendations to support gut and immune development during a vulnerable age. This review aims to summarise the current state of knowledge on dietary glycan mediated changes that may occur in the infant gut microbiome and immune system during weaning.