Structuring food to control its disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract and optimize nutrient bioavailability

Ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of gallstone disease: analysis of 3 prospective cohorts

BACKGROUND

Majority of dietary intake in United States adults comes from ultraprocessed foods (UPFs), which have been linked to several adverse health outcomes. Gallstone disease is highly prevalent and constitutes a significant burden to the United States health system but remains understudied.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate the association between UPF consumption and incident gallstone disease risk.

METHODS

In this analysis, 44,149 males in the Health Professionals' Follow-up Study (HPFS: 1986-2022), 71,145 females in the Nurses' Health Study (NHS: 1986-2021), and 90,932 females in the NHS II (1991-2021) were prospectively followed. Dietary intake was quadrennially assessed with semiquantitative food frequency questionnaires and used to identify UPFs. The primary outcome was defined as cholecystectomy. Cox proportional hazards model was used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Baseline median age was 54 y in HPFS, 53 y in NHS, and 36 y in NHS II. We identified 32,374 incident gallstone disease cases over 5,077,059 person-years. Participants in the highest UPF quintile had a higher incidence of gallstone disease than those in the lowest quintile (aHR: 1.29; 95% CI: 1.24, 1.36; P < 0.001). Incremental risk of incident gallstone disease was 2.8% per daily serving (95% CI: 2.4%, 3.2%; P < 0.001). This risk was driven by sugar-sweetened beverages and artificially sweetened beverages on UPF subgroup analyses. The proportion of risk mediated by obesity was 12.8% (95% CI: 7.7%, 20.5%; P < 0.001) in HPFS, 14.3% (95% CI: 10.4%, 19.4%; P < 0.001) in NHS, and 39.4% (95% CI: 31.2%, 48.1%; P < 0.001) in NHS II. The partial population attributable risk was estimated at 15.9% (95% CI: 13.4%, 18.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

UPF consumption is associated with a higher risk of gallstone disease, particularly consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and artificially sweetened beverages. A substantial proportion of this risk is potentially mediated by obesity in younger females.

In situ interaction of pea peptides and bile salts under in vitro digestion: Potential impact on lipolysis

The present work evaluated how a native pea protein isolate (PPI) affects the key roles carried out by bile salts (BS) in lipid digestion by means of the in vitro static INFOGEST protocol. Two gastric residence times were evaluated (10 and 60 min), and then the peptides obtained (GPPP) were mixed with BS at physiological concentration in simulated intestinal fluid to understand how they interact with BS both at the bulk and at the interface. Both GPPP give rise to a film with a predominant viscous character that does not constitute a barrier to the penetration of BS, but interact with BS in the bulk duodenal fluid. When the peptides flushing from the stomach after the different gastric residence times undergo duodenal digestion, it was found that for the longer gastric residence time the percentage of soluble fraction in the duodenal phase, that perform synergistically with BS micelles, was twice that of the lower residence time, leading to an increase in the solubilization of oleic acid. These results finally lead to a greater extent of lipolysis of olive oil emulsions. This work demonstrates the usefulness of in vitro models as a starting point to study the influence of gastric residence time of pea protein on its interaction with BS, affecting lipolysis. Pea proteins were shown to be effective emulsifiers that synergistically perform with BS improving the release and bioaccessibility of bioactive lipids as olive oil.

Effect of Multi-Mode Divergent Ultrasound Pretreatment on Hardness, Microstructure and Digestion of Acid-Induced Whey Protein Gels

Whey protein was pretreated with multi-frequency ultrasound in mono-, dual-, and tri-frequency modes. The effect of multi-frequency ultrasound pretreatment on the hardness, chemical forces, and microstructure of acid-induced whey protein gel was investigated. Whey protein gels pretreated with dual- and tri-frequency ultrasound showed higher hardness (p < 0.05) and a denser network than mono-frequency ultrasound and control. Moreover, they had higher hydrophobic interaction and lower disulfide bonds than the control (p < 0.05). The effect of gel properties on digestion was evaluated using an in vitro static model. Whey protein gels pretreated with dual- and tri-frequency ultrasound had a higher proportion of large fragments in the oral boluses than in the control. Large fragments (>3.35 mm) in those samples were resistant to gastric digestion. Moreover, the tri-frequency ultrasound pretreatment of whey protein gel released the least free amino group during gastric digestion. In contrast, whey protein gel with the mono-frequency ultrasound pretreatment released the highest amount of free amino acid group during intestinal digestion. Findings from this study suggests that gel hardness and network density could modulate the digestion behaviors of protein gels.

How Promising Are "Ultraprocessed" Front-of-Package Labels? A Formative Study with US Adults

High levels of food processing can have detrimental health effects independent of nutrient content. Experts and advocates have proposed adding information about food processing status to front-of-package labeling schemes, which currently exclusively focus on nutrient content. How consumers would perceive "ultraprocessed" labels has not yet been examined. To address this gap, we conducted a within-subjects online experiment with a convenience sample of 600 US adults. Participants viewed a product under three labeling conditions (control, "ultraprocessed" label, and "ultraprocessed" plus "high in sugar" label) in random order for a single product. The "ultraprocessed" label led participants to report thinking more about the risks of eating the product and discouraging them from wanting to buy the product more than the control, despite not grabbing more attention than the control. The "ultraprocessed" plus "high in sugar" labels grabbed more attention, led participants to think more about the risks of eating the product, and discouraged them from wanting to buy the product more than the "ultraprocessed" label alone. "Ultraprocessed" labels may constitute promising messages that could work in tandem with nutrient labels, and further research should examine how they would influence consumers' actual intentions and behaviors.

Effect of wheat aleurone on lard emulsions during in vitro digestion

Dietary wheat aleurone has been shown to affect lipid metabolism and reduce the incidence of obesity. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. This work aimed to investigate how whole wheat aleurone affects lipolysis during the whole digestion process in vitro. The physicochemical and microstructural changes and the lipolysis kinetics of different lard emulsion mixtures were determined. The results showed that the lipolysis rate and degree are inversely proportional to the amount of wheat aleurone. Wheat aleurone and flour promoted the aggregation and flocculation of lipid droplets by increasing the viscosity. More importantly, the dietary fibers released from aleurone digestion can reduced the binding of lipase to lipid droplets by adsorbing lipid droplets to increase the steric hindrance effect. These results provide a better understanding of how whole grains affect lipid digestibility and will further contribute to the development of functional foods and the improvement of individual health.

Hexagonal plate ultrasound pretreatment on the correlation between soy protein isolate structure and cholesterol-lowering activity of peptides, and protein's enzymolysis kinetics, thermodynamics

In this study, a hexagonal plate ultrasound (HPU) pretreatment technology was employed to modify soy protein isolate (SPI) and enhance the hypocholesterolemic activity of enzymatic digests from SPI. Results demonstrated that under the condition of ultrasound power density of 40 W/L, the hypocholesterolemic activity of enzymatic digests from HPU-pretreated SPI (HPU-SPI) increased by 88.40 % compared to control group after gastrointestinal digestion. The sulfhydryl content of HPU-SPI increased by a maximum of 45.32 % compared to control group. Fourier transform infrared and scanning electron microscopy revealed that HPU pretreatment partially unfolded the SPI conformation, reduced the intermolecular interactions, and exposed the internal hydrophobic regions. Pearson correlation analysis showed that sulfhydryl groups (r = 0.860), disulfide bonds (r = -0.875) and random coil (r = 0.917) were strongly correlated with the cholesterol-lowering activity of soy protein hydrolysate (SPH), following a simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Finally, the effects of HPU pretreatment on enzymolysis kinetics and thermodynamics of the SPI enzymatic process showed that HPU pretreatment significantly reduced the Mie's constant, activation energy, activation enthalpy, activation entropy and Gibbs free energy. Overall, the study outcome suggested that HPU pretreatment could positively influence the hypocholesterolemic peptide activity, and thus, may be beneficial to the pharmaceutical/food industry.

Protein digestion and absorption: the influence of food processing

The rates of dietary protein digestion and absorption can be significantly increased or decreased by food processing treatments such as heating, gelling and enzymatic hydrolysis, with subsequent metabolic impacts, e.g. on muscle synthesis and glucose homeostasis.This review examines in vivo evidence that industrial and domestic food processing modify the kinetics of amino acid release and absorption following a protein-rich meal. It focuses on studies that used compositionally-matched test meals processed in different ways.Food processing at extremely high temperature at alkaline pH and/or in the presence of reducing sugars can modify amino acid sidechains, leading to loss of bioavailability. Some protein-rich food ingredients are deliberately aggregated, gelled or hydrolysed during manufacture. Hydrolysis accelerates protein digestion/absorption and increases splanchnic utilisation. Aggregation and gelation may slow or accelerate proteolysis in the gut, depending on the aggregate/gel microstructure.Milk, beef and eggs are heat processed prior to consumption to eliminate pathogens and improve palatability. The temperature and time of heating affect protein digestion and absorption rates, and effects are sometimes non-linear. In light of a dietary transition away from animal proteins, more research is needed on how food processing affects digestion and absorption of non-animal proteins.Food processing modifies the microstructure of protein-rich foods, and thereby alters protein digestion and absorption kinetics in the stomach and small intestine. Exploiting this principle to optimise metabolic outcomes requires more human clinical trials in which amino acid absorption rates are measured and food microstructure is explicitly considered, measured and manipulated.

Structural modification of zein-based oil-in-glycerol emulsion gels for improved textural and digestion behaviors

Zein can dissolve in glycerol, and can be developed into oil-in-glycerol emulsion gels to widen its applications. The current study focused on modulating the structures of zein-based emulsion gels by the addition of a surface active ingredient (Span 20, SP) to improve textural and digestion behaviors. Microstructural observation indicated that the addition of SP replaced zein from the oil-glycerol interface, and allowed a higher level of oil droplet aggregation. After adding SP, the gel hardness decreased from 3.43 ± 0.14 N to 1.62 ± 0.01 N, and the storage modulus also decreased with the increase of SP content. Viscoelasticity of the gels was thermo-responsive, and the presence of SP contributed to a higher recovery of the storage modulus after the heating-cooling process. The addition of SP reduced the oil-binding capacity of zein gel from 97.61 ± 0.19% to 82.00 ± 0.92% and the solvent-binding capacity from 75.97 ± 3.05% to 62.25 ± 0.22%, indicating that the zein network was weakened. Then, gels were mixed with simulated digestive juices to track the changes of gel structures and the release of free fatty acids. The addition of SP accelerated the digestion process, especially intestinal digestion. SP contributed to a higher fluorescence intensity in the digesta, which was a sign of a higher level of digestion of zein. Subsequently, the addition of SP increased the release content of free fatty acids from 4.27 ± 0.71% to 5.07 ± 1.27%. The above findings would be useful in designing zein-based functional food products with favored textural and digestion properties.

Ultra-processed foods and human health: from epidemiological evidence to mechanistic insights

Epidemiological studies have suggested a role for ultra-processed foods in numerous chronic inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases and metabolic syndrome. Preclinical and clinical studies are accumulating to better decipher the effects of various aspects of food processing and formulation on the aetiology of chronic, debilitating inflammatory diseases. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current data that highlight an association between ultra-processed food consumption and various chronic diseases, with a focus on epidemiological evidence and mechanistic insights involving the intestinal microbiota.

Effects of Marine Bioactive Compounds on Gut Ecology Based on In Vitro Digestion and Colonic Fermentation Models

Digestion and the absorption of food compounds are necessary steps before nutrients can exert a role in human health. The absorption and utilization of nutrients in the diet is an extremely complex dynamic process. Accurately grasping the digestion and absorption mechanisms of different nutrients or bioactive compounds can provide a better understanding regarding the relationship between health and nutrition. Several in vitro models for simulating human gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation have been established to obtain more accurate data for further understanding of the metabolism of dietary components. Marine media is rich in a wide variety of nutrients that are essential for humans and is gaining increased attention as a research topic. This review summarizes some of the most explored in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation models. It also summarizes the research progress on the digestion and absorption of nutrients and bioactive compounds from marine substrates when subjected to these in vitro models. Additionally, an overview of the changes imparted by the digestion process on these bioactive compounds is provided, in order to support those marine resources that can be utilized for developing new healthy foods.

A comprehensive review of food gels: formation mechanisms, functions, applications, and challenges

Gels refer to the soft and flexible macromolecular polymeric materials retaining a large amount of water or biofluids in their three-dimensional network structure. Gels have attracted increasing interest in the food discipline, especially proteins and polysaccharides, due to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability, nutritional properties, and edibility. With the advancement of living standards, people's demand for nutritious, safe, reliable, and functionally diverse food and even personalized food has increased. As a result, gels exhibiting unique advantages in food application will be of great significance. However, a comprehensive review of functional hydrogels as food gels is still lacking. Here, we comprehensively review the gel-forming mechanisms of food gels and systematically classify them. Moreover, the potential of hydrogels as functional foods in different types of food areas is summarized, with a special focus on their applications in food packaging, satiating gels, nutrient delivery systems, food coloring adsorption, and food safety monitoring. Additionally, the key scientific issues for future food gel research, with specific reference to future novel food designs, mechanisms between food components and matrices, food gel-human interactions, and food gel safety, are discussed. Finally, the future directions of hydrogels for food science and technology are summarized.

Designing food for the elderly: the critical impact of food structure

Ageing is an unavoidable progressive process causing many changes of the individual life. However, if faced in an efficient way, living longer in a healthy status could be an opportunity for all. In this context, food consumption and dietary patterns are pivotal factors in promoting active and healthy ageing. The development of food products tailored for the specific needs of the elderly might favour the fulfilment of nutritionally balanced diets, while reducing the consequences of malnutrition. To this aim, the application of a food structure design approach could be particularly profitable, being food structure responsible to the final functionalities of food products. In this narrative review, the physiological changes associated to food consumption occurring during ageing were firstly discussed. Then, the focus shifted to the possible role of food structure in delivering target functionalities, considering food acceptability, digestion of the nutrients, bioactive molecules and probiotic bacteria.

Gelling Characteristics of Emulsions Prepared with Modified Whey Protein by Multiple-Frequency Divergent Ultrasound at Different Ultrasonic Power and Frequency Mode

The effect of ultrasonic frequency mode (mono, dual and tri-frequency) and ultrasonic power (0–300 W) on structural properties (intrinsic fluorescence and sulfhydryl content) of whey protein was studied. Emulsions prepared with modified whey protein were used to form the heat-set gels, and the properties of whey protein emulsion gels (WPEG) and their digestion were investigated. The textural and rheological properties of WPEG prepared using whey protein pretreated by mono and dual-frequency ultrasound at the power between 180–240 W were enhanced, while those of WPEG prepared with whey protein pretreated by triple-frequency above the power of 180 W were declined. WPEG prepared using whey protein pretreated by dual-frequency ultrasound (DFU) with the power of 240 W had the highest hardness and storage modulus which were 3.07 and 1.41 times higher than the control. The microstructure of WPEG prepared using DFU pretreated whey protein showed homogeneous and denser networks than those of the control according to the results of confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). The modification in the microstructure and properties of the WPEG prepared using DFU pretreated whey protein delayed the protein disintegration during the first 30 min of gastric digestion when compared with control. Whereas the release rate of free amino group of the WPEG prepared using whey protein modified by ultrasonic pretreatment increased during the intestinal phase when compared with that of control. The results indicated that using dual-frequency ultrasound to modify whey protein is more efficient in improving the properties of WPEG, and ultrasonic power should be considered during the application of ultrasound pretreatment in producing protein gels. The fine network of WPEG prepared with whey protein pretreated by ultrasound resulted in better hardness and storage modulus. Partially unfolding of the protein induced by ultrasound pretreatment might make the whey protein more susceptible to the digestive enzyme. Our results could provide new insights for using ultrasound as the potential processing tool on designing specific protein emulsion gels as the delivery system for nutrients.

Engineering Emulsion Gels as Functional Colloids Emphasizing Food Applications: A Review

Gels are functional materials with well-defined structures (three-dimensional networks) assembled from the dispersed colloids, and capable of containing a large amount of water, oil, or air (by replacing the liquid within the gel pores), known as a hydrogel, oleogel, and aerogel, respectively. An emulsion gel is a gelled matrix filled with emulsion dispersion in which at least one phase, either continuous phase or dispersed phase forms spatial networks leading to the formation of a semisolid texture. Recently, the interest in the application of gels as functional colloids has attracted great attention in the food industry due to their tunable morphology and microstructure, promising physicochemical, mechanical, and functional properties, and superior stability, as well as controlled release, features for the encapsulated bioactive compounds. This article covers recent research progress on functional colloids (emulsion gels), including their fabrication, classification (protein-, polysaccharide-, and mixed emulsion gels), and properties specifically those related to the gel-body interactions (texture perception, digestion, and absorption), and industrial applications. The emerging applications, including encapsulation and controlled release, texture design and modification, fat replacement, and probiotics delivery are summarized. A summary of future perspectives to promote emulsion gels' use as functional colloids and delivery systems for scouting potential new applications in the food industry is also proposed. Emulsion gels are promising colloids being used to tailor breakdown behavior and sensory perception of food, as well as for the processing, transportation, and targeted release of food additives, functional ingredients, and bioactive substances with flexibility in designing structural and functional parameters.

In Vitro Bioaccessibility Protocol for Chlorophylls

The daily ingestion of chlorophylls has been estimated at 50 g, but the knowledge about their bioaccessibility is limited. Different in vitro models have been utilized to estimate their potential bioavailability, but among other factors, the diversity of structures, chemical properties, and lability of chlorophylls hamper the investigations. By the first time, three extreme food matrices, one rich in fiber (vegetable puree), one rich in fat (virgin olive oil), and one liquid (fruit juice), have been assayed for chlorophyll bioaccessibility, controlling crucial variables. Chlorophyll polarity and food matrix were the determining factors, but surprisingly, chlorophyll bioaccessibility was affected during the application of the in vitro standardized protocol. Therefore, the present research has identified the reactions that can be biased during the estimation of chlorophyll bioaccessibility, defining a specific protocol in the function of chlorophyll structures.

Droplet Microfluidics for Food and Nutrition Applications

Droplet microfluidics revolutionizes the way experiments and analyses are conducted in many fields of science, based on decades of basic research. Applied sciences are also impacted, opening new perspectives on how we look at complex matter. In particular, food and nutritional sciences still have many research questions unsolved, and conventional laboratory methods are not always suitable to answer them. In this review, we present how microfluidics have been used in these fields to produce and investigate various droplet-based systems, namely simple and double emulsions, microgels, microparticles, and microcapsules with food-grade compositions. We show that droplet microfluidic devices enable unprecedented control over their production and properties, and can be integrated in lab-on-chip platforms for in situ and time-resolved analyses. This approach is illustrated for on-chip measurements of droplet interfacial properties, droplet-droplet coalescence, phase behavior of biopolymer mixtures, and reaction kinetics related to food digestion and nutrient absorption. As a perspective, we present promising developments in the adjacent fields of biochemistry and microbiology, as well as advanced microfluidics-analytical instrument coupling, all of which could be applied to solve research questions at the interface of food and nutritional sciences.

Advances in 3D peptide hydrogel models in cancer research

In vitro cell culture models on monolayer surfaces (2D) have been widely adapted for identification of chemopreventive food compounds and food safety evaluation. However, the low correlation between 2D models and in vivo animal models has always been a concern; this gap is mainly caused by the lack of a three-dimensional (3D) extracellular microenvironment. In 2D models, cell behaviors and functionalities are altered, resulting in varied responses to external conditions (i.e., antioxidants) and hence leading to low predictability. Peptide hydrogel 3D scaffolding technologies, such as PGmatrix for cell culture, have been recently reported to grow organoid-like spheroids physiologically mimicking the 3D microenvironment that can be used as an in vitro 3D model for investigating cell activities, which is anticipated to improve the prediction rate. Thus, this review focuses on advances in 3D peptide hydrogels aiming to introduce 3D cell culture tools as in vitro 3D models for cancer-related research regarding food safety and nutraceuticals.

A review on the food digestion in the digestive tract and the used in vitro models

It is crucial to replicate or mimic the human digestive system conditions closely in model systems to have the food digestion-related data as accurate as possible. Thus, the data obtained could contribute to studies like those on the relationship between health and nutrition. This review aims to express the human digestion system's role in food digestion and compare the capability of the models used in simulations, especially the dynamic in vitro models. Activities of the human digestive system governing food digestion and the food matrix's disintegration mechanism in the digestive system were discussed. Dynamic in vitro models and their relevance to the human digestive system were described. Advancements in the last 20 years, as well as limitations of those artificial systems, with prospects, were discussed. Extensive use and improvement on these models will extend our knowledge of the food matrix and digestive system's complex interaction. Thus, it will be possible to design next-generation foods with improved health benefits.

Physiologically Based Modeling of Food Digestion and Intestinal Microbiota: State of the Art and Future Challenges. An INFOGEST Review

This review focuses on modeling methodologies of the gastrointestinal tract during digestion that have adopted a systems-view approach and, more particularly, on physiologically based compartmental models of food digestion and host-diet-microbiota interactions. This type of modeling appears very promising for integrating the complex stream of mechanisms that must be considered and retrieving a full picture of the digestion process from mouth to colon. We may expect these approaches to become more and more accurate in the future and to serve as a useful means of understanding the physicochemical processes occurring in the gastrointestinaltract, interpreting postprandial in vivo data, making relevant predictions, and designing healthier foods. This review intends to provide a scientific and historical background of this field of research, before discussing the future challenges and potential benefits of the establishment of such a model to study and predict food digestion and absorption in humans.

Food buffering capacity: quantification methods and its importance in digestion and health

Understanding the influence of food properties on buffering capacity will have an impact on gastric secretions and breakdown during digestion.

Comprehensive overview of the quality of plant- And animal-sourced proteins based on the digestible indispensable amino acid score

Indispensable amino acid (IAA) composition and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of five animal- and 12 plant-based proteins were used to calculate their respective Digestible Indispensable Amino Score (DIAAS) according to the three age categories defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Mean IAA content and mean SID obtained from each protein dataset were subsequently used to simulate optimal nutritional quality of protein mixtures. Datasets revealed considerable variation in DIAAS within the same protein source and among different protein sources. Among the selected protein sources, and based on the 0.5- to 3-year-old reference pattern, pork meat, casein, egg, and potato proteins are classified as excellent quality proteins with an average DIAAS above 100. Whey and soy proteins are classified as high-quality protein with an average DIAAS ≥75. Gelatin, rapeseed, lupin, canola, corn, hemp, fava bean, oat, pea, and rice proteins are classified in the no quality claim category (DIAAS <75). Potato, soy, and pea proteins can complement a broad range of plant proteins, leading to higher DIAAS when supplied in the form of protein mixtures and at specific ratios. Such complementarity highlights the potential to achieve an optimal nutritional efficiency with plant proteins alone.

Design principles of food gels

Naturally sourced gels from food biopolymers have advanced in recent decades to compare favourably in performance and breadth of application to their synthetic counterparts. Here, we comprehensively review the constitutive nature, gelling mechanisms, design approaches, and structural and mechanical properties of food gels. We then consider how these food gel design principles alter rheological and tribological properties for food quality improvement, nutrient-modification of foods while preserving sensory perception, and targeted delivery of drugs and bioactives within the gastrointestinal tract. We propose that food gels may offer advantages over their synthetic counterparts owing to their source renewability, low cost, biocompatibility and biodegradability. We also identify emerging approaches and trends that may improve and expand the current scope, properties and functionalities of food gels and inspire new applications.

Plant-based Milks: A Review of the Science Underpinning Their Design, Fabrication, and Performance

Many consumers are interested in decreasing their consumption of animal products, such as bovine milk, because of health, environmental, and ethical reasons. The food industry is therefore developing a range of plant-based milk alternatives. These milk substitutes should be affordable, convenient, desirable, nutritional, and sustainable. This article reviews our current understanding of the development of plant-based milks. Initially, an overview of the composition, structure, properties, and nutritional profile of conventional bovine milk is given, because the development of successful alternatives depends on understanding the characteristics of real milk. The two main production routes for fabricating plant-based milks are then highlighted: (i) disruption of plant materials (such as nuts, seeds, or legumes) to form aqueous suspensions of oil bodies; (ii) formation of oil-in-water emulsions by homogenization of oil, water, and emulsifiers. The roles of the different functional ingredients in plant-based milks are highlighted, including oils, emulsifiers, thickeners, antioxidants, minerals, and other additives. The physicochemical basis of the appearance, texture, and stability of plant-based milks is covered. The importance of the sensory attributes and gastrointestinal fate of bovine milk and plant-based alternatives is also highlighted. Finally, potential areas for future work are discussed.

Food Proteins: Technological, Nutritional, and Sustainability Attributes of Traditional and Emerging Proteins

Protein is an essential macronutrient and a key structural component of many foods. The nutritional and technological properties of food protein ingredients depend on their source, extraction and purification, modification during food manufacture, and interactions with other food components. In addition to covering these elements, this review seeks to highlight underappreciated aspects of protein environmental sustainability and explores the potential of cultured meat and insect-derived proteins.

Bioaccessibility of Lipophilic Compounds Vehiculated in Emulsions: Choice of Lipids and Emulsifiers

Great efforts have been made to design emulsions considering the need to perform an effective encapsulation, protection, vehiculation, and bioaccessibility of lipophilic compounds. This task can be achieved by manipulating the structure of the emulsion based on the choice of the processes and ingredients of the aqueous phase, interface, and lipid matrix. Thus, the main focus of this perspective is to provide insights into the use of ingredient engineering in manipulating/building emulsion structures that enhance lipophilic compound release and bioaccessibility.

Gastric Emptying and Dynamic In Vitro Digestion of Drinkable Yogurts: Effect of Viscosity and Composition

Gastric emptying of food is mainly driven by the caloric concentration, the rheological properties of the chyme, and the physical state (liquid/solid) of food once in the stomach. The present work investigated: (1) The effect of the composition and the viscosity of drinkable yogurts on gastric emptying in pigs, and (2) the behavior of yogurts during dynamic in vitro digestion. Three isocaloric liquid yogurts were manufactured: Two enriched in protein and fiber showing either a low (LV) or high (HV) viscosity, one control enriched in sugar and starch (CT). They were labelled with 99mTc-sulfur colloid and given to pigs (n = 11) to determine gastric emptying pattern by gamma scintigraphy. Then dynamic in vitro digestion of the yogurts was done using the parameters of gastric emptying determined in vivo. Gastric emptying half-times were significantly longer for LV than CT, whereas HV exhibited an intermediate behavior. In vitro gastric digestion showed a quick hydrolysis of caseins, whereas whey proteins were more resistant in the stomach particularly for LV and HV. During the intestinal phase, both whey proteins and caseins were almost fully hydrolyzed. Viscosity was shown to affect the behavior of yogurt in the small intestine.