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Allen ME, Kamilova E, Monck C, Ceroni F, Hu Y, Yetisen AK, Elani Y. Engineered Bacteria as Living Biosensors in Dermal Tattoos. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2309509. [PMID: 38884139 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202309509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Dermal tattoo biosensors are promising platforms for real-time monitoring of biomarkers, with skin used as a diagnostic interface. Traditional tattoo sensors have utilized small molecules as biosensing elements. However, the rise of synthetic biology has enabled the potential employment of engineered bacteria as living analytical tools. Exploiting engineered bacterial sensors will allow for potentially more sensitive detection across a broad biomarker range, with advanced processing and sense/response functionalities using genetic circuits. Here, the interfacing of bacterial biosensors as living analytics in tattoos is shown. Engineered bacteria are encapsulated into micron-scale hydrogel beads prepared through scalable microfluidics. These biosensors can sense both biochemical cues (model biomarkers) and biophysical cues (temperature changes, using RNA thermometers), with fluorescent readouts. By tattooing beads into skin models and confirming sensor activity post-tattooing, our study establishes a foundation for integrating bacteria as living biosensing entities in tattoos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E Allen
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, W12 0BZ, UK
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, W12 0BZ, UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
- fabriCELL, Imperial College London and King's College London, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Elina Kamilova
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Carolina Monck
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Francesca Ceroni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Yubing Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ali K Yetisen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Yuval Elani
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, W12 0BZ, UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
- fabriCELL, Imperial College London and King's College London, London, W12 0BZ, UK
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Chaitanyakumar A, Somu P, Srinivasan R. Expression and Immobilization of Tannase for Tannery Effluent Treatment from Lactobacillus plantarum and Staphylococcus lugdunensis: A Comparative Study. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2024:10.1007/s12010-024-04861-2. [PMID: 38421571 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-024-04861-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Agro-industrial discharges have higher concentrations of tannins and have been a significant cause of pollution to water bodies and soil surrounding the agro-industries. So in this study, toxic tannic acid is into commercially valuable gallic acid from the tannery effluent using immobilized microbial tannase. Tannase genes were isolated from Lactobacillus plantarum JCM 1149 (tanLpl) and Staphylococcus lugdunensis MTCC 3614 (tanA). Further, these isolated tannese genes were cloned and expressed in BL 21 host using pET 28a as an expression vector, and immobilized in sodium alginate beads. Vegetable tannery effluent was treated by tannase-immobilized beads at 25 °C and 37 °C, where liberated gallic acid was analyzed using TLC and NMR to confirm the tannin reduction. Further, both immobilized tannases exhibited excellent reusability up to 15 cycles of regeneration without significant reduction in their activity. Moreover, we also showed that immobilized tannases tanLpl and tanA activity remained unaffected compared to the free enzyme in the presence of metal ions. Further, tanA activity remained unaffected over a wide range of pH, and tanLpl showed high thermal stability. Thus, immobilized tannase tanLpl and tanA provide a possible solution for tannery effluent treatment depending upon industry requirements and reaction composition/effluent composition, one can choose a better-immobilized tannase among the two as per the need-based requirement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amballa Chaitanyakumar
- Department of Biotechnology, University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guru Nanak University, Ibrahimpatnam, 501510, Telangana, India.
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio-Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, 632 014, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, India.
| | - Prathap Somu
- Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, School of Civil and Chemical Engineering, Manipal University Jaipur, Dehmi Kalan, Jaipur, 303007, India.
| | - Ramachandran Srinivasan
- Centre for Ocean Research, Sathyabama Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600119, Tamil Nadu, India
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio-Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, 632 014, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, India
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Wang HY, Chen ZF, Zheng ZH, Lei HW, Cong HH, Zhou HX. A Novel Cold-Adapted and High-Alkaline Alginate Lyase with Potential for Alginate Oligosaccharides Preparation. Molecules 2023; 28:6190. [PMID: 37687019 PMCID: PMC10488352 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28176190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Alginate oligosaccharides (AOs) prepared through enzymatic reaction by diverse alginate lyases under relatively controllable and moderate conditions possess versatile biological activities. But widely used commercial alginate lyases are still rather rare due to their poor properties (e.g., lower activity, worse thermostability, ion tolerance, etc.). In this work, the alginate lyase Alyw208, derived from Vibrio sp. W2, was expressed in Yarrowia lipolytica of food grade and characterized in order to obtain an enzyme with excellent properties adapted to industrial requirements. Alyw208 classified into the polysaccharide lyase (PL) 7 family showed maximum activity at 35 °C and pH 10.0, indicating its cold-adapted and high-alkaline properties. Furthermore, Alyw208 preserved over 70% of the relative activity within the range of 10-55 °C, with a broader temperature range for the activity compared to other alginate-degrading enzymes with cold adaptation. Recombinant Alyw208 was significantly activated with 1.5 M NaCl to around 2.1 times relative activity. In addition, the endolytic Alyw208 was polyG-preferred, but identified as a bifunctional alginate lyase that could degrade both polyM and polyG effectively, releasing AOs with degrees of polymerization (DPs) of 2-6 and alginate monomers as the final products (that is, DPs 1-6). Alyw208 has been suggested with favorable properties to be a potent candidate for biotechnological and industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Ying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Polar Fishery, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.-Y.W.); (Z.-F.C.); (Z.-H.Z.); (H.-W.L.)
| | - Zhi-Fang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Polar Fishery, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.-Y.W.); (Z.-F.C.); (Z.-H.Z.); (H.-W.L.)
- Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao 266100, China
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Zhi-Hong Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Polar Fishery, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.-Y.W.); (Z.-F.C.); (Z.-H.Z.); (H.-W.L.)
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Hui-Wen Lei
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Polar Fishery, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (H.-Y.W.); (Z.-F.C.); (Z.-H.Z.); (H.-W.L.)
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Hai-Hua Cong
- College of Food Science and Technology, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215008, China
| | - Hai-Xiang Zhou
- Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao 266100, China
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Zhao Y, Li X, Guo S, Xu J, Cui Y, Zheng M, Liu J. Thermodynamics and Physicochemical Properties of Immobilized Maleic Anhydride-Modified Xylanase and Its Application in the Extraction of Oligosaccharides from Wheat Bran. Foods 2023; 12:2424. [PMID: 37372634 DOI: 10.3390/foods12122424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Xylanases are the preferred enzymes for the extracting of oligosaccharides from wheat bran. However, free xylanases have poor stability and are difficult to reuse, which limit their industrial application. In the present study, we covalently immobilized free maleic anhydride-modified xylanase (FMA-XY) to improve its reusability and stability. The immobilized maleic anhydride-modified xylanase (IMA-XY) exhibited better stability compared with the free enzyme. After six repeated uses, 52.24% of the activity of the immobilized enzyme remained. The wheat bran oligosaccharides extracted using IMA-XY were mainly xylopentoses, xylohexoses, and xyloheptoses, which were the β-configurational units and α-configurational units of xylose. The oligosaccharides also exhibited good antioxidant properties. The results indicated that FMA-XY can easily be recycled and can remain stable after immobilization; therefore, it has good prospects for future industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Xinrui Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Shuo Guo
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Jingwen Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yan Cui
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Mingzhu Zheng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Jingsheng Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing, Changchun 130118, China
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5
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Xv J, Zhang Z, Pang S, Jia J, Geng Z, Wang R, Li P, Bilal M, Cui J, Jia S. Accelerated CO2 capture using immobilized carbonic anhydrase on polyethyleneimine/dopamine co-deposited MOFsShort title: Accelerated CO2 capture using immobilized carbonic anhydrase. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Chen N, Chang B, Shi N, Yan W, Lu F, Liu F. Cross-linked enzyme aggregates immobilization: preparation, characterization, and applications. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2022; 43:369-383. [PMID: 35430938 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2022.2038073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes are commonly used as biocatalysts for various biological and chemical processes. However, some major drawbacks of free enzymes (e.g. poor reusability and instability) significantly restrict their industrial practices. How to overcome these weaknesses remain considerable challenges. Enzyme immobilization is one of the most effective ways to improve the reusability and stability of enzymes. Cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) has been known as a novel and versatile carrier-free immobilization method. CLEAs is attractive due to its simplicity and robustness, without purification. It generally shows: high catalytic specificity and selectivity, good operational and storage stabilities, and good reusability. Moreover, co-immobilization of different kinds of enzymes can be acquired. These CLEAs advantages provide opportunities for further industrial applications. Herein, the preparation parameters of CLEAs were first summarized. Next, characterization of structural and catalytic properties, stability and reusability are also proposed. Finally, some important applications of this technique in: environmental protection, industrial chemistry, food industry, and pharmaceutical synthesis and delivery are introduced. Potential challenges and future research directions, such as improving cross-linking efficiency and internal mass transfer efficiency, are also presented. This implies that CLEAs provide an efficient and feasible technique to improve the properties of enzymes for use in the industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Baogen Chang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Nian Shi
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Wenxing Yan
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Fuping Lu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Fufeng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, P. R. China
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7
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Chauhan V, Kaushal D, Dhiman VK, Kanwar SS, Singh D, Dhiman VK, Pandey H. An Insight in Developing Carrier-Free Immobilized Enzymes. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:794411. [PMID: 35309979 PMCID: PMC8924610 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.794411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes play vital roles in all organisms. The enzymatic process is progressively at its peak, mainly for producing biochemical products with a higher value. The immobilization of enzymes can sometimes tremendously improve the outcome of biocatalytic processes, making the product(s) relatively pure and economical. Carrier-free immobilized enzymes can increase the yield of the product and the stability of the enzyme in biocatalysis. Immobilized enzymes are easier to purify. Due to these varied advantages, researchers are tempted to explore carrier-free methods used for the immobilization of enzymes. In this review article, we have discussed various aspects of enzyme immobilization, approaches followed to design a process used for immobilization of an enzyme and the advantages and disadvantages of various common processes used for enzyme immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Chauhan
- Department of Biotechnology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India
| | - Diksha Kaushal
- Department of Biotechnology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India
| | | | - Shamsher Singh Kanwar
- Department of Biotechnology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India
- *Correspondence: Shamsher Singh Kanwar,
| | - Devendra Singh
- B.N. College of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, India
| | - Vinay Kumar Dhiman
- Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, India
| | - Himanshu Pandey
- Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, India
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8
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Tang L, Guo E, Zhang L, Wang Y, Gao S, Bao M, Han F, Yu W. The Function of CBM32 in Alginate Lyase VxAly7B on the Activity on Both Soluble Sodium Alginate and Alginate Gel. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:798819. [PMID: 35069502 PMCID: PMC8776709 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.798819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs), as an important auxiliary module, play a key role in degrading soluble alginate by alginate lyase, but the function on alginate gel has not been elucidated. Recently, we reported alginate lyase VxAly7B containing a CBM32 and a polysaccharide lyase family 7 (PL7). To investigate the specific function of CBM32, we characterized the full-length alginate lyase VxAly7B (VxAly7B-FL) and truncated mutants VxAly7B-CM (PL7) and VxAly7B-CBM (CBM32). Both VxAly7B-FL and native VxAly7B can spontaneously cleavage between CBM32 and PL7. The substrate-binding capacity and activity of VxAly7B-CM to soluble alginate were 0.86- and 1.97-fold those of VxAly7B-FL, respectively. Moreover, CBM32 could accelerate the expansion and cleavage of alginate gel beads, and the degradation rate of VxAly7B-FL to alginate gel beads was threefold that of VxAly7B-CM. Results showed that CBM32 is not conducive to the degradation of soluble alginate by VxAly7B but is helpful for binding and degradation of insoluble alginate gel. This study provides new insights into the function of CBM32 on alginate gel, which may inspire the application strategy of CBMs in insoluble substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Tang
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Enwen Guo
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Ying Wang
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Shan Gao
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Mengmeng Bao
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Feng Han
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Wengong Yu
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
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Jiang Z, Zhang X, Wu L, Li H, Chen Y, Li L, Ni H, Li Q, Zhu Y. Exolytic products of alginate by the immobilized alginate lyase confer antioxidant and antiapoptotic bioactivities in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 251:116976. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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10
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Chen Z, Yu P, Miao Z, Zhang H, Xiao H, Xie J, Ding C, Li J. Sulfated alginate based complex for sustained calcitonin delivery and enhanced osteogenesis. Biomed Mater 2020; 16. [PMID: 33291091 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/abd1b9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Direct medications of salmon calcitonin (sCT) through subcutaneous or intramuscular injection are limited for its low effeciency. Drug delivery systems with sustained delivery property and high bioactivity are imminently needed. In consideration of the clinic application, a cost-effective and effective carrier is demanded, which is still a challenge until now. In this study, a simple alginate/ alginate sulfate-sCT (Alg/AlgS-sCT) complex was succesfully constructed for sustained release of sCT. The negtively charged sulphate groups facilitate the bonding with sCT, which avoids the burst release of sCT and extends the release time up to 15 days (only 2 days for pure sCT). More importantly, the bioactivity of the released sCT is not affected during such long release time, suggesting a conformation similar to native sCT. In vitro analysis implies the biocompatibility of the complex. Moreover, the combination of AlgS and sCT synergistically impoved the osteogenic ability of MC3T3 cells, showing higher ALP level, intracellular and extracellular calcium ions concentrations. Note that the concentration of intracellular calcium ions displays 5.26 fold increments of control group after 10 days of incubation. We envision this simple yet effective system has potential applications in clinical trails and give inspiration for the design of other protein delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoxin Chen
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, CHINA
| | - Peng Yu
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, 610065, CHINA
| | - Zhangshu Miao
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, CHINA
| | - Haochen Zhang
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, CHINA
| | - Hong Xiao
- Sichuan University, Department of Pain Management, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37, GuoXue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, CHINA
| | - Jing Xie
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, CHINA
| | - Chunmei Ding
- College of Polymer Science & Engineering, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, China, Chengdu, 610065, CHINA
| | - Jianshu Li
- Sichuan University, College of Polymer Science & Engineering No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, 610065, CHINA
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11
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Wu Y, Zhang X, Zhao Q, Tan B, Chen X, Liao J. Role of Hydrogels in Bone Tissue Engineering: How Properties Shape Regeneration. J Biomed Nanotechnol 2020; 16:1667-1686. [PMID: 33485397 DOI: 10.1166/jbn.2020.2997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bone defect that resulted from trauma, tumors, and other reasons is believed as a common clinical problem, which exists mainly in post-traumatic healing. Additionally, autologous/allogeneic transplantation, bone tissue engineering attracts increasing attention due to the existing problem of the limited donor. The applications of biomaterials can be considered as a rising and promising strategy for bone regeneration. Especially, hydrogel is featured with hydrophilic characteristic, good biocompatibility, and porous structure, which shows unique properties for bone regeneration. The main properties of hydrogel such as surface property, adhesive property, mechanical property, porosity, and degradation property, generally present influences on the migration, proliferation, and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells exclusively or in combination, which consequently affect the regeneration of bones. This review mainly focuses on the theme: "how properties of hydrogel shape bone regeneration." Moreover, the latest progress achieved in the above mentioned direction is further discussed. Despite the fascinating advances researchers have made, certain potential challenges continue to exist in the research field, which need to be addressed for accelerating the clinical translation of hydrogel in bone regeneration.
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12
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Zhang S, Kang L, Hu S, Hu J, Fu Y, Hu Y, Yang X. Carboxymethyl chitosan microspheres loaded hyaluronic acid/gelatin hydrogels for controlled drug delivery and the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 167:1598-1612. [PMID: 33220374 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A major drawback of oral treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is the non-specific distribution of drugs during long-term treatment. Despite its effectiveness as an anti-inflammatory drug, curcumin (CUR) is limited by its low bioavailability in IBD treatment. Herein, a pH-sensitive composite hyaluronic acid/gelatin (HA/GE) hydrogel drug delivery system containing carboxymethyl chitosan (CC) microspheres loaded with CUR was fabricated for IBD treatment. The composition and structure of the composite system were optimized and the physicochemical properties were characterized using infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, swelling, and release behavior studies. In vitro, the formulation exhibited good sustained release property and the drug release rate was 65% for 50 h. In vivo pharmacokinetic experiments indicated that high level of CUR was maintained in the colon tissue for more than 24 h; it also played an anti-inflammatory role by evaluating the histopathological changes through hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and immunofluorescent staining. Additionally, the formulation substantially inhibited the level of the main pro-inflammatory cytokines of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) secreted by macrophages, compared to the control group. The pharmacodynamic experiment showed that the formulation group of CUR@gels had the best therapeutic effect on colitis in mice. The composite gel delivery system has potential for the effective delivery of CUR in the treatment of colitis. This study also provides a reference for the design and preparation of a new oral drug delivery system with controlled release behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangwen Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Li Kang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Sheng Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jie Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Yan Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China.
| | - Xinzhou Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Ethnopharmacology Education, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan 430074, China.
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13
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Hu F, Cao S, Li Q, Zhu B, Yao Z. Construction and biochemical characterization of a novel hybrid alginate lyase with high activity by module recombination to prepare alginate oligosaccharides. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 166:1272-1279. [PMID: 33159942 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Alginate lyases are essential tools to prepare alginate oligosaccharides with various biological activities. However, alginate lyases with excellent properties such as high activity and good thermal stability are still in shortage. Therefore, it is crucial to exploit new alginate lyases with high activity and polysaccharide-degrading efficiency for alginate oligosaccharide preparation. Herein, we proposed to construct a novel hybrid alginate lyase with improved property by module recombination. The hybrid alginate lyase, designated as Aly7C, was successfully constructed by recombining the carbohydrate binding module (CBM) of Aly7A with the catalytic module of Aly7B. Interestingly, the hybrid enzyme Aly7C exhibited higher activity than the catalytic domain. Moreover, it could degrade sodium alginate, polyM and polyG into oligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization (Dps) 2-5, which exhibit perfect product specificity. This work provides a new insight into well-defined generation of alginate oligosaccharides with associated CBMs and enhances the understanding of functions of the modules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu Hu
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Shengsheng Cao
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Qian Li
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Benwei Zhu
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Zhong Yao
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
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14
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Zhou HX, Xu SS, Yin XJ, Wang FL, Li Y. Characterization of a New Bifunctional and Cold-Adapted Polysaccharide Lyase (PL) Family 7 Alginate Lyase from Flavobacterium sp. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E388. [PMID: 32722647 PMCID: PMC7460543 DOI: 10.3390/md18080388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alginate oligosaccharides produced by enzymatic degradation show versatile physiological functions and biological activities. In this study, a new alginate lyase encoding gene alyS02 from Flavobacterium sp. S02 was recombinantly expressed at a high level in Yarrowia lipolytica, with the highest extracellular activity in the supernatant reaching 36.8 ± 2.1 U/mL. AlyS02 was classified in the polysaccharide lyase (PL) family 7. The optimal reaction temperature and pH of this enzyme were 30 °C and 7.6, respectively, indicating that AlyS02 is a cold-adapted enzyme. Interestingly, AlyS02 contained more than 90% enzyme activity at 25 °C, higher than other cold-adapted enzymes. Moreover, AlyS02 is a bifunctional alginate lyase that degrades both polyG and polyM, producing di- and trisaccharides from alginate. These findings suggest that AlyS02 would be a potent tool for the industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Xiang Zhou
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China;
| | - Shan-Shan Xu
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
| | - Xue-Jing Yin
- Qingdao Mental Health Center, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266034, China;
| | - Feng-Long Wang
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China;
| | - Yang Li
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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15
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He W, Reaume M, Hennenfent M, Lee BP, Rajachar R. Biomimetic hydrogels with spatial- and temporal-controlled chemical cues for tissue engineering. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:3248-3269. [PMID: 32490441 PMCID: PMC7323904 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm00263a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Biomimetic hydrogels have emerged as the most useful tissue engineering scaffold materials. Their versatile chemistry can recapitulate multiple physical and chemical features to integrate cells, scaffolds, and signaling molecules for tissue regeneration. Due to their highly hydrophilic nature hydrogels can recreate nutrient-rich aqueous environments for cells. Soluble regulatory molecules can be incorporated to guide cell proliferation and differentiation. Importantly, the controlled dynamic parameters and spatial distribution of chemical cues in hydrogel scaffolds are critical for cell-cell communication, cell-scaffold interaction, and morphogenesis. Herein, we review biomimetic hydrogels that provide cells with spatiotemporally controlled chemical cues as tissue engineering scaffolds. Specifically, hydrogels with temporally controlled growth factor-release abilities, spatially controlled conjugated bioactive molecules/motifs, and targeting delivery and reload properties for tissue engineering applications are discussed in detail. Examples of hydrogels that possess clinically favorable properties, such as injectability, self-healing ability, stimulus-responsiveness, and pro-remodeling features, are also covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weilue He
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
- FM Wound Care, LLC, Hancock, MI 49930, USA
| | - Max Reaume
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Maureen Hennenfent
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Bruce P. Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
| | - Rupak Rajachar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
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16
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Dharani SR, Srinivasan R, Sarath R, Ramya M. Recent progress on engineering microbial alginate lyases towards their versatile role in biotechnological applications. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2020; 65:937-954. [DOI: 10.1007/s12223-020-00802-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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Karagoz P, Mandair R, Manayil JC, Lad J, Chong K, Kyriakou G, Lee AF, Wilson K, Bill RM. Purification and immobilization of engineered glucose dehydrogenase: a new approach to producing gluconic acid from breadwaste. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2020; 13:100. [PMID: 32514312 PMCID: PMC7268246 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-020-01735-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Platform chemicals are essential to industrial processes. Used as starting materials for the manufacture of diverse products, their cheap availability and efficient sourcing are an industrial requirement. Increasing concerns about the depletion of natural resources and growing environmental consciousness have led to a focus on the economics and ecological viability of bio-based platform chemical production. Contemporary approaches include the use of immobilized enzymes that can be harnessed to produce high-value chemicals from waste. RESULTS In this study, an engineered glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) was optimized for gluconic acid (GA) production. Sulfolobus solfataricus GDH was expressed in Escherichia coli. The K m and V max values for recombinant GDH were calculated as 0.87 mM and 5.91 U/mg, respectively. Recombinant GDH was immobilized on a hierarchically porous silica support (MM-SBA-15) and its activity was compared with GDH immobilized on three commercially available supports. MM-SBA-15 showed significantly higher immobilization efficiency (> 98%) than the commercial supports. After 5 cycles, GDH activity was at least 14% greater than the remaining activity on commercial supports. Glucose in bread waste hydrolysate was converted to GA by free-state and immobilized GDH. After the 10th reuse cycle on MM-SBA-15, a 22% conversion yield was observed, generating 25 gGA/gGDH. The highest GA production efficiency was 47 gGA/gGDH using free-state GDH. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the feasibility of enzymatically converting BWH to GA: immobilizing GDH on MM-SBA-15 renders the enzyme more stable and permits its multiple reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Karagoz
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET UK
| | - Ravneet Mandair
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET UK
| | | | - Jai Lad
- European Bioenergy Research Institute (EBRI), Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET UK
| | - Katie Chong
- European Bioenergy Research Institute (EBRI), Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET UK
| | - Georgios Kyriakou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 265 04 Patras, Greece
| | - Adam F. Lee
- Applied Chemistry & Environmental Science, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000 Australia
| | - Karen Wilson
- Applied Chemistry & Environmental Science, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000 Australia
| | - Roslyn M. Bill
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET UK
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18
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Nawawi NN, Hashim Z, Rahman RA, Murad AMA, Bakar FDA, Illias RM. Entrapment of porous cross-linked enzyme aggregates of maltogenic amylase from Bacillus lehensis G1 into calcium alginate for maltooligosaccharides synthesis. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 150:80-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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19
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Gupta MN, Perwez M, Sardar M. Protein crosslinking: Uses in chemistry, biology and biotechnology. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2020.1733990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammad Perwez
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Meryam Sardar
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
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20
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Kannan S, Marudhamuthu M. Development of chitin cross-linked enzyme aggregates of L-methioninase for upgraded activity, permanence and application as efficient therapeutic formulations. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 141:218-231. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Zhang C, Pan X, Wu X, Dong F, Liu X, Xu J, Wu X, Li M, Zheng Y. Removal of dimethachlon from soils using immobilized cells and enzymes of a novel potential degrader Providencia stuartii JD. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 378:120606. [PMID: 31326122 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.04.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The first potential degrader capable of detoxifying dimethachlon (NDPS) was isolated and identified as Providencia stuartii JD, whose free cells and freely crude enzymes degraded more than 80% and 90% of 50 mg L-1 NDPS in liquid culture within 7 d and 2 h, respectively. Strain JD metabolized NDPS through the typical pathway, in which NDPS was firstly transformed into succinic acid and 3, 5-dichloroanilin, and the latter was then converted to phenol, which was subsequently degraded to muconic acid further subjected to the mineralization. The immobilization obviously improved the stability and adaptability of cells and enzymes. In laboratory non-sterile soils treated by free or immobilized cells and enzymes, 50 mg kg-1 NDPS decreased to 15.66 and 13.32 mg kg-1, or 8.32 and 2.18 mg kg-1 within 7 d, respectively. In field, immobilized cells and enzymes exhibited significantly higher efficiencies in removing 20.250 kg a.i. ha-1 NDPS wettable powder from soils after 9 d (96.02% and 98.56%) than free cells and enzymes (79.35% and 66.45%). This study highlights that strain JD promises the great potential to remove hazardous NDPS residues and its immobilized cells and enzymes possess the more promising advantages in the bioremediation of NDPS-contaminated soils in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Zhang
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou, 550025, PR China
| | - Xinglu Pan
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Xiaomao Wu
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou, 550025, PR China.
| | - Fengshou Dong
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Xingang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Jun Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Xiaohu Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou, 550025, PR China
| | - Yongquan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
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Torabizadeh H, Mikani M. Kinetic and thermodynamic features of nanomagnetic cross-linked enzyme aggregates of naringinase nanobiocatalyst in naringin hydrolysis. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 119:717-725. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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23
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Abstract
Enzymes are efficient biocatalysts providing an important tool in many industrial biocatalytic processes. Currently, the immobilized enzymes prepared by the cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) have drawn much attention due to their simple preparation and high catalytic efficiency. Combined cross-linked enzyme aggregates (combi-CLEAs) including multiple enzymes have significant advantages for practical applications. In this review, the conditions or factors for the preparation of combi-CLEAs such as the proportion of enzymes, the type of cross-linker, and coupling temperature were discussed based on the reaction mechanism. The recent applications of combi-CLEAs were also reviewed.
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